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Secchi disk

The Secchi disk is a simple, low-cost optical tool designed to quantify water transparency in aquatic environments such as oceans, lakes, and rivers by measuring the depth at which a submerged disk becomes invisible to an observer.^[1] Typically consisting of a 30 cm diameter circular plate that is either uniformly white or patterned with alternating black and white quadrants, the disk is lowered vertically into the water on a calibrated line until it disappears from view, with the recorded depth—known as the Secchi depth—serving as a proxy for turbidity caused by suspended particles, dissolved substances, and biological matter like phytoplankton.^[2] This measurement, often averaged between the disappearance and reappearance depths for accuracy, reflects light attenuation in the water column and remains a standard in limnology and oceanography despite the advent of advanced sensors.^[3] Invented in 1865 by Italian Jesuit astronomer Angelo Secchi (full name Pietro Angelo Secchi) during a scientific expedition aboard the papal steam yacht Immacolata Concezione in the Mediterranean Sea near Civitavecchia, Italy, the device was developed at the behest of Alessandro Cialdi, commander of the Papal Navy, to standardize assessments of seawater clarity for navigational and scientific purposes.^[4] Secchi's initial design featured a 43 cm majolica disk on an iron base, later refined to the more portable 30 cm version, and he first demonstrated it to Pope Pius IX on April 20, 1865, building on informal 17th- and 18th-century practices where sailors used white dinner plates to gauge water depth visually.^[5] Detailed in Secchi's 1865 publication in the journal Il Nuovo Cimento, the method addressed variables like solar angle, cloud cover, and disk reflectance to improve reliability, marking an early milestone in marine optics.^[1] Since its inception, the Secchi disk has been applied globally to monitor water quality, evaluate eutrophication levels, and study ecological productivity, as clearer waters (deeper Secchi depths) indicate better conditions for photosynthesis in aquatic plants and algae.^[2] In modern contexts, it supports citizen science programs, regulatory assessments by agencies like the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and research on climate change impacts on turbidity, with measurements typically conducted from the shaded side of a vessel under calm conditions to minimize observer bias.^[3] Its enduring simplicity and correlation with beam attenuation coefficients—described by equations like (a + K)z = \ln(\delta C_o / C_T), where a is absorption, K is diffuse attenuation, and other terms account for contrast—have ensured its role as a foundational tool in environmental science, with ongoing refinements for horizontal deployments in shallow or turbulent waters.^[1]

Design and Construction

Components and Materials

The standard Secchi disk used in marine environments consists of a circular, matte white disk with a 30 cm diameter, constructed from non-reflective materials such as PVC, aluminum, or wood to reduce glare and ensure accurate visibility measurements.^[6]^[7] These materials provide durability in saltwater conditions while maintaining a uniform, non-shiny surface that scatters light minimally during submersion.^[8] In contrast, the freshwater variant features a smaller 20 cm diameter disk divided into alternating black and white quadrants, which enhances contrast visibility in shallower, more turbid inland waters.^[6]^[9] This design uses similar non-reflective substrates, often acrylic or heavy plastic, to withstand repeated use without corrosion or degradation.^[10] The disk is typically attached via a central eyelet or hook to a non-corrosive rope or chain measuring 20 to 50 meters in length, allowing deployment to various depths depending on the water body.^[11] A weight, such as a lead nut or zinc cone ranging from 0.7 to 3 kg, is affixed below the disk to promote straight, vertical descent and prevent drifting.^[7]^[12] The original 1865 design by Angelo Secchi employed a 43 cm diameter disk made of majolica—an enameled earthenware plate—for initial trials in the Mediterranean Sea.^[4] Modern iterations favor plastics like ABS or PVC for their superior resistance to environmental wear, lower weight, and affordability compared to metal or ceramic predecessors.^[8] These updates enhance portability and longevity without compromising the disk's optical performance.^[10] Due to its simple construction, a functional Secchi disk can be DIY-assembled for under $10 using readily available items such as plywood for the base, non-glossy paint for the quadrants, and basic hardware for attachment and weighting.^[8] This accessibility promotes widespread adoption in citizen science and educational monitoring programs.^[13]

Variations

One notable adaptation of the original all-white Secchi disk is the black-and-white quadrant pattern, introduced by George C. Whipple in 1899 specifically for freshwater applications to enhance visibility in low-contrast conditions where suspended particles reduce clarity.^[14]^[15] Size variations address environmental challenges in deployment; for instance, smaller disks around 20 cm in diameter (with some mini versions as small as 10-20 cm) are suited for shallow ponds and lakes to allow precise measurements in confined spaces, while larger 40-50 cm disks are preferred in deep ocean settings to mitigate interference from surface waves and currents that could otherwise obscure observations.^[16]^[17] Colored variants, such as blue-and-white patterns, have been developed for specialized studies like algal bloom monitoring, where they better mimic or highlight specific water colorations influenced by phytoplankton pigments.^[18] Post-2010 innovations integrate sensors into submersible Secchi disks for automated data collection; examples include low-cost devices like the DISCO system, which combines traditional disk design with embedded sensors for light spectra, temperature, pressure, and GPS positioning to enable wireless logging and real-time analysis in remote or citizen-science applications.^[19]^[20] For global consistency in oceanography, the UNESCO-recommended standard is a 30 cm all-white disk, facilitating comparable transparency measurements across international marine studies without the need for patterned adaptations.^[21]^[22]

Measurement Procedure

Deployment and Observation

To ensure reliable Secchi disk measurements, preparations should emphasize optimal environmental conditions and observer positioning. Measurements are ideally conducted between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. under sunny or partly overcast skies with calm water surfaces to minimize glare and wave interference, avoiding overcast days that could reduce light consistency.^[23]^[24] The observer should position themselves on the shaded side of the boat or vessel, with the sun at their back, and kneel or sit close to the water surface for a clear line of sight.^[23]^[24] In areas with currents or on lakes, the boat should be anchored securely using a rope longer than the water depth to maintain stability during the procedure.^[24] Equipment setup involves a standard Secchi disk—typically 20 cm in diameter with alternating black and white quadrants for freshwater—and a non-stretch rope or cord marked in 0.5 m or 1 ft increments for depth measurement.^[23]^[3] The disk is attached to the rope via an eyebolt, often weighted for submersion, and the line can be calibrated annually for accuracy; a clothespin or similar marker may be used to note depths during observation.^[24]^[3] The disk and rope should be kept clean and free of scratches to prevent measurement artifacts.^[23] The core deployment procedure begins with slowly lowering the disk vertically into the water at a steady pace, typically black-and-white side up, until it disappears from view (the extinction depth).^[24]^[3] The disk is then raised slowly until it reappears (the reappearance depth), with depths recorded to the nearest 0.5 m or 0.25 ft increment.^[23]^[24] The Secchi depth, denoted as Z_{sd}, is calculated by averaging these two depths for a single reading.^[3] To enhance reliability, at least three replicate readings should be taken and averaged, ideally by multiple observers if available.^[24]^[3] Observation is performed directly by the viewer at water level, without sunglasses or hats to avoid distortion, though polarized lenses may be used cautiously if glare persists; a viewing tube can assist in some setups but is not always required.^[23]^[24] Safety protocols include wearing personal flotation devices (PFDs) on boats, traveling with at least two people, and carrying essentials like first aid kits, water, and communication devices to address weather or water hazards.^[24] All equipment should be disinfected post-use to prevent invasive species spread, following established guidelines.^[24]

Factors Affecting Accuracy

Several environmental and procedural factors can influence the accuracy of Secchi disk measurements, leading to variations in recorded depths that may not fully reflect true water transparency. Glare from surface reflections and solar lighting conditions are primary contributors, where low sun angles increase sky brightness and cause overestimation of Secchi depth by approximately 20% compared to measurements at zenith.^[25] This effect arises because higher solar elevation enhances the contrast between the disk and the water column, while oblique angles amplify diffuse light scattering at the surface. To mitigate these issues, observations should be conducted on the shaded side of the vessel during midday hours (typically 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.), and tube viewers or view-scopes can be employed to block extraneous light and reduce glare-induced errors by up to 10-15%.^[26]^[27] Observer-related variability introduces another source of inaccuracy, with inter-observer differences due to differences in visual acuity, experience, or even the use of corrective lenses or sunglasses.^[28] Less experienced observers may overestimate depths in clearer waters relative to trained professionals, as subtle contrast thresholds are harder to discern without practice. Training programs emphasizing consistent viewing techniques and averaging multiple readings from the same or different observers can minimize this variability, ensuring more reliable data across monitoring efforts.^[28]^[26] Water conditions such as waves and currents further compromise measurement precision by causing the disk to sway or tilt, resulting in errors of 10-20% through blurred visibility or inconsistent depth registration. Waves exceeding 0.5 meters in height can obscure the disk prematurely by distorting surface reflections, while strong currents displace the disk horizontally, making it appear shallower than it is.^[27]^[26] Mitigation involves selecting calm sampling sites, attaching weights (at least 1.7 kg) to the disk to stabilize it during descent, and averaging readings over short intervals to account for minor oscillations, similar to controlled lowering speeds outlined in standard deployment protocols.^[27] Biological factors, particularly the diel vertical migration of plankton, can alter light attenuation in the water column, as organisms concentrate near the surface during the day, increasing turbidity.^[29] This migration-driven clustering of phytoplankton and zooplankton reduces transparency, with clearer readings often observed at night when plankton descend. Consistent timing of measurements, such as during daylight hours under similar conditions, helps standardize results despite these natural fluctuations. Temporal inconsistencies due to seasonal changes in turbidity, driven by algal blooms, runoff, or stratification shifts, mean single readings may not capture broader trends, with variations exceeding 20-30% between seasons in many aquatic systems.^[30] For instance, summer blooms can halve Secchi depths compared to winter baselines. To address this, monthly sampling is recommended to track these dynamics and provide a more representative assessment of long-term water quality.^[30]^[27]

Secchi Depth

Definition and Calculation

The Secchi depth, denoted as Z_{sd}, is defined as the depth at which a standard Secchi disk lowered into the water becomes no longer visible or indistinguishable from the surrounding water column to an observer at the surface, serving as a straightforward proxy for water transparency and the extent of light penetration in aquatic environments.^[31]^[32] This metric is closely tied to the Beer-Lambert law, which models the exponential decay of light intensity with depth according to the equation

I(z) = I_0 e^{-k z},

where I(z) is the light intensity at depth z, I_0 is the incident intensity at the surface, and k (in m^{-1}) is the diffuse attenuation coefficient representing the combined effects of absorption and scattering by water constituents.^[33]^[34] The Secchi depth relates to k through well-established empirical and theoretical frameworks; empirically, k \approx 1.7 / Z_{sd} for standard white disks, a relation derived from extensive observations in natural waters.^[34] For black-and-white disks, which enhance contrast, the empirical constant typically ranges from 1.3 to 2.0, varying with water optical properties and observation conditions.^[34] Theoretically, the disappearance occurs when the contrast between the disk and background falls to a human visual threshold of approximately 0.5-2% (or a contrast sensitivity of about 0.013 sr^{-1}), yielding Z_{sd} \approx 1.5 / k in mechanistic models that account for downwelling irradiance attenuation in the water's most transparent spectral window.^[34] Secchi depth is conventionally measured and reported in meters. It can be related to turbidity in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) through site-specific empirical correlations, often inverse or power-law forms such as NTU increasing as Z_{sd} decreases, which are calibrated for particular lake systems to estimate suspended particle loads.^[35]^[30] In data processing, Z_{sd} values from multiple replicate observations (typically 3-5 per site) are averaged to minimize observer and environmental variability; for time-series analysis, log-transformed Z_{sd} (i.e., \ln(Z_{sd})) is commonly applied to achieve normality and stabilize variance in statistical models.^[32]^[25]

Interpretation

Secchi depth (Z_sd) serves as a key indicator of water transparency, with values translating directly to assessments of water quality and ecosystem health. In lakes, Z_sd values greater than 4 meters typically classify waters as oligotrophic, indicating low nutrient levels and high clarity supportive of diverse aquatic life; mesotrophic conditions prevail between 2 and 4 meters, reflecting moderate productivity; and values below 2 meters signal eutrophic states characterized by nutrient enrichment and reduced light penetration.^[17] In oceanic environments, clear waters often exceed 20 meters, while thresholds below 2 meters in coastal or estuarine areas denote eutrophic conditions prone to algal overgrowth.^[4] As an indicator of eutrophication, declining Z_sd values highlight nutrient overload from sources like agricultural runoff or wastewater, often preceding or coinciding with algal blooms that deplete oxygen and harm fisheries.^[36] Z_sd correlates strongly and inversely with chlorophyll-a concentrations, a proxy for phytoplankton biomass, with correlation coefficients typically ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 across lake studies, underscoring its utility in tracking algal proliferation.^[37] Temporal trends in Z_sd, such as annual averages, effectively monitor pollution impacts; for instance, a 25% reduction in Z_sd over time often indicates significant degradation due to a 50% increase in phosphorus inputs, prompting remediation efforts.^[38] Comparative benchmarks provide context for Z_sd interpretations globally: open ocean waters often exceed 20 meters, with averages around 20-30 meters reflecting balanced optical properties, while rivers commonly range from 1 to 3 meters due to higher sediment loads.^[39] Regional standards, such as those from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), integrate Z_sd into ecoregion-specific nutrient criteria for lakes, using the 25th percentile of reference site data (often >2-4 meters depending on region) to protect against enrichment and maintain recreational uses.^[38] Visual representations, such as charts plotting Z_sd against visibility, illustrate practical implications; for example, in turbid harbor waters with Z_sd of 5 meters, the disk becomes invisible at that depth, limiting underwater visibility to roughly twice the photic zone and affecting navigation or diving safety.^[40]

History

Invention

The Secchi disk was invented in 1865 by Father Pietro Angelo Secchi, an Italian Jesuit priest and astronomer known for his work in astrophysics and spectroscopy.^[4] Motivated by a request from Alessandro Cialdi, commander of the Papal Navy, Secchi developed the device to quantify seawater transparency and its relation to light attenuation, aiming to aid navigation by identifying currents and assessing water clarity during naval expeditions.^[41] This effort aligned with the 19th-century expansion of oceanography, driven by scientific curiosity about marine optics amid growing European naval and exploratory activities in the Mediterranean.^[4] Secchi first demonstrated the device to Pope Pius IX on April 20, 1865, aboard the papal steam corvette Immacolata Concezione. His original design consisted of a white-painted metal disk, approximately 42 cm in diameter and 5 mm thick, attached to a calibrated rope for lowering into the water from a ship's deck.^[41] He tested variations, including a larger 237 cm disk covered in white sail fabric, to evaluate visibility under different conditions.^[4] The disk was first deployed in April 1865 aboard the papal steam corvette Immacolata Concezione in the Tyrrhenian Sea off Civitavecchia, Italy, where Secchi conducted systematic observations to measure the depth at which the disk vanished from view.^[42] Early tests revealed Secchi depths reaching up to 41.4 meters in clear waters under optimal solar elevation, demonstrating the method's sensitivity to factors like sunlight angle, sea state, and observer position relative to the ship's shadow.^[4] Secchi recognized inherent limitations in turbid conditions, where visibility dropped significantly, and noted the influence of environmental variables on accuracy, emphasizing the need for standardized procedures.^[41] His findings were detailed in a 1865 report published in Il Nuovo Cimento, later incorporated into Cialdi's 1866 book on sea waves, establishing the foundational principles of disk-based transparency measurement.^[4]

Developments

In 1899, American sanitary engineer George C. Whipple modified the original all-white Secchi disk by introducing alternating black and white quadrants on a 20 cm diameter disk, enhancing visibility and contrast in freshwater environments such as rivers and lakes for U.S. surveys.^[2] During the 20th century, the Secchi disk underwent standardization efforts to ensure consistency across applications. In the 1920s, the International Hydrographic Bureau adopted the 30 cm all-white disk as the standard for marine observations, facilitating uniform hydrographic measurements. By the 1960s, UNESCO issued guidelines promoting global consistency in Secchi disk usage, including standardized procedures for deployment and observation in oceanographic studies.^[43] Technological advancements integrated the Secchi disk with modern instrumentation to improve accuracy and data collection. In the 1970s, researchers began pairing Secchi observations with photometers to calibrate transparency measurements against light attenuation profiles, particularly in coastal and turbid waters. By the 1990s, digital systems enabled automated logging of Secchi data through buoys equipped with optical sensors, allowing continuous monitoring in remote marine settings. Key publications advanced protocols and theoretical understanding of the Secchi disk. In the 1930s, limnologist G. Evelyn Hutchinson's texts on lake ecology, such as his studies of African and North American waters, established standardized measurement protocols emphasizing consistent environmental conditions. During the 1980s, refinements correlated Secchi depths with remote sensing data from satellite imagery, enabling broader spatial analysis of water clarity.^[44] The Secchi disk experienced a period of decline in the mid-20th century as electronic sensors and spectrophotometers offered more precise optical measurements, reducing reliance on visual methods in professional research. However, its resurgence in the 2000s stemmed from its inherent simplicity and low cost, making it ideal for citizen science initiatives that expanded long-term monitoring datasets.^[43]

Applications

Environmental Monitoring

The Citizens Lake Monitoring Program (CLMP) in Minnesota, initiated in 1973 by Dr. Joe Shapiro at the University of Minnesota, relies on volunteers to collect Secchi depth (Z_sd) measurements using a standard disk to assess water clarity on approximately 900 lakes statewide, serving as a key indicator for tracking eutrophication trends over decades.^[45]^[46] This volunteer-driven effort, now coordinated by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, has enabled long-term surveillance of nutrient enrichment and water quality degradation since the program's early years, contributing to state-level pollution management strategies.^[47] Regional initiatives in the U.S. Midwest further integrate Secchi data into routine environmental oversight. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) incorporates volunteer Secchi readings from its Citizen Lake Monitoring Network into the Surface Water Integrated Monitoring System (SWIMS) database, with annual data submissions supporting assessments of water quality under pollution control regulations like the Clean Water Act.^[48]^[49] Similarly, Indiana's Clean Lakes Program trains volunteers to measure Secchi depth and submits the data to state databases, where it informs annual water quality reports and efforts to mitigate pollution from agricultural and urban runoff.^[50]^[51] Internationally, the European Union's Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), which mandates integrated river basin management plans, incorporates Secchi depth as a physicochemical quality element for evaluating ecological status in lakes and coastal waters, guiding restoration actions across member states.^[52]^[53] In Africa, Secchi disk monitoring supports surveillance of invasive species impacts in major lakes, such as those in the Great Lakes region, where clarity data help detect shifts in water quality linked to ecological disruptions from non-native introductions.^[54] Citizen science programs amplify these efforts through global participation. The Secchi Dip-In, launched in 1994 by limnologist Robert Carlson and managed by the North American Lake Management Society (NALMS) since 2015, engages volunteers at over 500 sites worldwide to submit seasonal Secchi depth readings, fostering standardized data collection for water clarity trends.^[55]^[56] Secchi depth data from these programs are routinely integrated into geographic information system (GIS) models to evaluate watershed health, enabling spatial analysis of clarity patterns influenced by land use and climate factors. For instance, 20-year analyses of Midwestern U.S. lakes using Landsat-derived Secchi estimates have revealed localized declines in clarity, with some regions experiencing up to 15% loss attributed to increased nutrient loading, informing targeted conservation policies.^[57]^[58]

Scientific Research

The Secchi disk has been instrumental in advancing research on marine phytoplankton dynamics through large-scale citizen science initiatives. The SecchiDisk.org project, launched in 2013, engages seafarers worldwide to collect Secchi depth measurements using a dedicated mobile app, amassing a global dataset that links water transparency to phytoplankton biomass and distribution. A seminal analysis of the project's initial data, published in 2017, examined 3,472 observations from 2013 to 2016 and revealed pronounced latitudinal gradients in ocean clarity, with clearer waters in subtropical regions and higher turbidity in polar and temperate zones attributable to varying phytoplankton concentrations influenced by nutrient availability and light penetration.^[59] These findings underscore the disk's role in mapping phytoplankton hotspots and tracking seasonal blooms on a planetary scale.^[28] In climate research, Secchi depth measurements provide critical proxies for assessing ocean responses to warming, particularly through correlations with turbidity changes driven by altered hydrodynamics. For instance, analyses of North Sea data spanning the late 20th century to the 2010s indicate a progressive decline in Secchi depth—reflecting increased turbidity—linked to shifts in wave climate and storminess associated with anthropogenic climate change, with suspended particulate matter rising due to enhanced resuspension.^[60] In Arctic waters, where glacial melt and sea ice reduction exacerbate optical variability, Secchi-based studies from the 2000s onward have documented analogous trends, including heightened turbidity from freshwater inputs and sediment mobilization, contributing to broader understandings of how warming disrupts light availability for primary production.^[61] Ecological modeling efforts have leveraged Secchi depth to elucidate food web interactions, especially in enclosed seas where transparency influences predator-prey dynamics. In the Baltic Sea, 2000s research integrated Secchi observations into models of eutrophication effects, demonstrating that reduced water clarity from algal blooms diminishes visual foraging efficiency for planktivorous fish, thereby altering population structures and competitive balances within the pelagic food web.^[62] These models, often employing Bayesian or Ecopath frameworks, highlight how Secchi-derived light attenuation metrics predict shifts in fish biomass and community composition, informing projections of ecosystem resilience under nutrient loading scenarios.^[63] Secchi depth data serve as a vital ground-truthing tool for validating remote sensing algorithms, enabling synoptic mapping of water clarity over vast oceanic expanses. During the 2010s, studies calibrated MODIS satellite reflectance against in situ Secchi measurements, developing semi-analytical models that achieved correlation coefficients (R²) of up to 0.75 with root mean square errors around 0.8 meters, particularly effective in coastal and open ocean validation sites.^[64] This integration has refined predictions of Secchi depth from space, supporting global assessments of optical properties and their ties to biogeochemical cycles.^[65] Recent advancements in the 2020s incorporate artificial intelligence to enhance Secchi depth estimation via smartphone-based systems, facilitating data collection in remote or under-monitored regions. AI object detection algorithms, applied to images captured during disk deployments, automate visibility assessments with high precision, mimicking human observation while reducing subjectivity and enabling real-time analysis in field studies.^[66] In 2024, a novel algorithm employing deep neural networks and image processing further improved automated water transparency calculations from Secchi disk images.^[67] These tools, often embedded in citizen science apps, extend the Secchi method's reach to non-experts, yielding scalable datasets for interdisciplinary research on dynamic aquatic environments.^[68]

Limitations and Alternatives

Sources of Error

The Secchi disk method measures broadband visibility using photopic vision, which integrates light across the visible spectrum without sensitivity to specific wavelengths, thereby missing critical spectral details such as the deeper penetration of blue light compared to red in natural waters. This insensitivity arises from the white disk's non-selective reflectance and the human eye's daylight-adapted response, limiting its ability to distinguish between absorption by dissolved organic matter, scattering by particles, or chlorophyll fluorescence at particular wavelengths. As a result, interpretations of water clarity can overlook wavelength-dependent optical properties, potentially leading to incomplete assessments of underwater light dynamics.^[1] A primary methodological shortcoming is the inherent subjectivity of the measurement, reliant on the observer's judgment of the disk's disappearance threshold, which varies due to differences in visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and experience. Studies indicate that the threshold contrast (C_T) can fluctuate significantly between observers, with reported values ranging from 0.0014 to 0.0070 ± 0.0003, introducing variability of approximately 10-20% in Secchi depth estimates under field conditions. This error is exacerbated in colored waters influenced by humic acids, where dissolved organic matter absorbs shorter wavelengths preferentially, causing the disk to disappear prematurely and overestimating turbidity by conflating color with particulate scattering.^[1]^[69] The technique averages light attenuation over the entire water column to the disappearance depth, inherently ignoring vertical gradients in optical properties, such as surface layers with scum or high particulate loads contrasting with clearer deeper strata. In stratified waters, this depth integration assumes homogeneity, leading to biased representations of overall clarity that fail to capture layer-specific variations in absorption or scattering. For instance, in waters with pronounced vertical heterogeneity due to plankton blooms or sediment resuspension, the Secchi depth may not reflect the true euphotic zone structure, complicating ecological interpretations.^[1] Environmental conditions introduce further biases, rendering the method inaccurate in extremes of water clarity; in very clear oceanic waters, Secchi depths can exceed 30 m, but the method becomes challenging due to visibility limits, while in highly turbid coastal or estuarine waters below 0.5 m, the disk indicates poor clarity but does not distinguish causes. Wave action can compound this by perturbing the water surface and reducing contrast, increasing measurement variability, particularly under moderate wind speeds.^[70] Calibration of Secchi depth to attenuation coefficients (K) relies on empirical constants in relations like K = c / Z_SD, where c varies by water type, introducing systematic errors if mismatched. For example, the standard constant of 1.7 applies to clear open ocean conditions as derived from English Channel data, but in turbid coastal waters, a lower value of 1.44 better accounts for higher scattering, leading to systematic errors in K if the oceanic constant is applied inappropriately. These variations stem from differences in beam versus diffuse light contributions and particulate composition, underscoring the need for site-specific adjustments to avoid mischaracterizing light penetration.^[71]^[72]

Complementary Methods

Turbidimeters provide a direct measurement of water turbidity in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), offering greater precision than visual Secchi disk observations by quantifying light scattering from suspended particles. These instruments use nephelometry to detect scattered light at 90 degrees to the incident beam, enabling real-time assessments in various water bodies. For instance, the portable Hach 2100Q turbidimeter, compliant with EPA standards, measures turbidity across a 0-1000 NTU range and has been shown to correlate strongly with Secchi depth (Z_sd) in empirical studies of lakes and reservoirs.^[73]^[74] Such correlations allow turbidimeters to estimate Z_sd indirectly, though units like the Hach 2100Q typically cost over $2,000, limiting accessibility compared to low-cost Secchi disks.^[75] Underwater photometers, such as the Laser In Situ Scattering and Transmissometry (LISST) series, profile light attenuation by wavelength to analyze particle size distributions, addressing the Secchi disk's inability to resolve spectral details or particle characteristics. These submersible instruments employ laser diffraction to measure particles from 1 to 500 μm across 32 size classes, providing data on concentration and optical properties relevant to water clarity. In oceanographic surveys during the 2010s, LISST devices were deployed to map particle dynamics in coastal and open waters, revealing how fine sediments and plankton influence light penetration beyond broadband Secchi limits.^[76]^[77] Remote sensing techniques complement Secchi disk measurements by enabling large-scale clarity assessments via satellite imagery, particularly in expansive or inaccessible areas. The ACOLITE atmospheric correction algorithm processes data from sensors like Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 to derive water-leaving reflectance, from which Secchi depth is estimated using semi-analytical models. Validation studies in turbid coastal waters demonstrate strong agreement between ACOLITE-derived Z_sd and in situ Secchi observations, with root-mean-square errors under 1 m across variable turbidity levels (e.g., 0.16-0.22 m in a U.S. coastal lagoon). This approach has facilitated synoptic monitoring of clarity trends since the 2010s, integrating with ground-based data for improved spatial coverage.^[78]^[79] Acoustic methods, including sonar and acoustic Doppler current profilers, profile suspended sediments in highly turbid rivers where Secchi visibility is negligible, extending clarity assessments through backscatter intensity. These systems emit sound waves and measure echo returns from particles, correlating backscatter with suspended sediment concentration (SSC) to infer optical turbidity. In subtropical estuaries and rivers, acoustic surrogates have shown good correlations with turbidity, complementing Secchi data by penetrating waters with NTU >50 where visual methods fail.^[80]^[81] Integrated systems like buoy-mounted YSI EXO sondes combine turbidity sensing with parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, and chlorophyll for holistic water quality monitoring, enhancing Secchi-based clarity evaluations since their introduction in the 2000s. The EXO platform features smart sensors, including a 0-4000 NTU turbidity probe, deployable on buoys for continuous profiling in lakes and coastal zones. Deployments in estuarine environments have linked EXO turbidity data to Z_sd variations, supporting long-term trends in ecosystem health with minimal manual intervention.^[82]^[83]

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Aug 9, 2025 · Here we present DISCO, a low‐cost, easy‐to‐build instrument that retains the traditional appearance of a Secchi disk, and is equipped with ...Missing: automated | Show results with:automated
[21]
Guide for designing and implementing a plan to monitor toxin ...
Transparency: The Secchi disk The Secchi disk is a simple instrument, which can be home- made, used to estimate light penetration, i.e. the transpar- ency ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
The Secchi Disk - Ocean Optics Web Book
May 19, 2021 · A Secchi disk is a white disk, typically 30 cm in diameter (in oceanographic applications), weighted and attached to a cord marked with the distance from the ...Missing: original material
[23]
[PDF] Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 3.1.5.1
Mar 8, 2010 · There are four empty viewing squares and eight standards in each comparator. To make a color reading, look at the Secchi Disk through the empty ...
[24]
[PDF] Secchi Disk Monitoring Procedure
Jun 1, 2021 · A Secchi disk measures a lake's water clarity through determining the depth at which the disk is no longer visible. A Secchi disk is 8 ¼ inches ...Missing: applications | Show results with:applications
[25]
Secchi disk depth: A new theory and mechanistic model for ...
Secchi disk, a white or black-and-white disk with a diameter generally about 30 cm, is the oldest “optical instrument” used to measure transparency of ocean and ...Missing: mini | Show results with:mini
[26]
None
### Summary of Factors Affecting Secchi Disk Measurements
[27]
None
### Summary of Guidelines for Measuring Secchi Depth
[28]
Citizens and scientists collect comparable oceanographic data
Jul 29, 2021 · We show that citizen scientists (seafarers) using a simple white Secchi Disk can collect ocean transparency data to complement formal scientific efforts using ...Results · Methods · Data Analyses<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
Predicting diel vertical migration of zooplankton - Dodson - ASLO
Amplitude of diel vertical migration is predicted by water clarity measured by Secchi depth. The model assumes that vertical migration serves to minimize ...
[30]
Secchi Disk Depth or Turbidity, Which Is Better for Assessing ... - MDPI
Dec 20, 2023 · The purpose of this study was to determine which of two water transparency-measuring tools, a Secchi disk or a water turbidity meter, is better to assess ...Missing: mini | Show results with:mini<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
[PDF] Secchi disk depth - the NOAA Institutional Repository
Aug 21, 2015 · Secchi disk, a white or black-and-white disk with a diameter gener- ally about 30 cm, is the oldest “optical instrument” used to measure.
[32]
Secchi Depth - Water Quality Guide - DataStream
Secchi depth refers to the depth at which a disk lowered into the water can no longer be seen from the surface. Secchi depth is related to water clarity and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Secchi Disk Measurements in Turbid Water - AGU Journals - Wiley
Apr 23, 2020 · We have modified the theory of the Secchi disk in turbid water to allow for a mixture of beamed and diffuse light contributing to disk ...1 Introduction · 2 Theory · 3 ObservationsMissing: sectors | Show results with:sectors
[34]
Resolving the long‐standing puzzles about the observed Secchi ...
Jul 13, 2018 · Various empirical relationships have been developed in the past nine decades to link the Secchi-disk depth (ZSD) with the diffuse attenuation ...
[35]
Power relationship between turbidity (NTU) and Secchi depth (m).
The relationship derived from the analysis of Secchi depth and turbidity aligns with the established scientific understanding, as the Secchi depth typically ...Missing: 190 / Z_sd
[36]
Patterns and trends in Secchi disk depth over three decades in the ...
Water clarity is an important ecosystem indicator of eutrophication in Chesapeake Bay and other coastal and estuarine systems across the globe.
[37]
Secchi Depth as a Water Quality Parameter
This paper discusses the relationships between Secchi depth and other water quality parameters, such as planktonic algal chlorophyll, hypolimnetic oxygen ...<|separator|>
[38]
[PDF] Nutrient Criteria Technical Guidance Manual: Lakes and Reservoirs
Summer-mean measures of TP, chlorophyll a, and Secchi depth then are used to estimate lake trophic status. It should be noted that Secchi depth measurements.
[39]
[PDF] Secchi Depth as a Water Quality Parameter
Secchi depth is the depth at which a white disc is indistinguishable from the water, measuring light penetration and water clarity.Missing: ocean >20m
[40]
Re-evaluation of Padre Secchi's visual method for modern ...
Jun 18, 2024 · The original motivator behind the development of the Secchi disk was Alessandro Cialdi, Commander of the Papal Navy. Cialdi was interested in ...
[41]
On the history of the Secchi disc
Apr 27, 2010 · The first records on regular, tabulated, measurements of transparency of natural waters are those performed by the German naturalist.<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
On the history of the Secchi disc - ResearchGate
This method (lowering a white painted disc into the water until it disappeared out of sight) was described by Pietro Angelo Secchi in Il Nuovo Cimento and was ...
[43]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236931175_On_the_history_of_the_Secchi_disc
[44]
[PDF] Citizen Lake-Monitoring Program
The CLMP was started in 1973 at the University of Minnesota by Dr. Joe Shapiro. During its first year, volunteers monitored 74 lakes. Administration of the CLMP ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[45]
[PDF] Using Citizen Volunteer Lake Water Quality data to Calibrate and ...
Oct 27, 2017 · DNR monitors about 100 lakes and the citizens monitor about 900 lakes Citizen monitoring is mostly Secchi Disk while about. 400 to 500 collect ...
[46]
Volunteer water monitoring | Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
At least twice a month during the summer, volunteers measure water clarity using a Secchi disk or tube at designated locations on lakes or streams.
[47]
Satellite Monitoring (Secchi) - Wisconsin DNR
A file containing the Secchi estimates is sent annually to the SWIMS database management team and the data is submitted to the SWIMS database. Reporting.Missing: pollution control
[48]
Citizen Lake Monitoring Network - Wisconsin DNR
Volunteers measure water clarity, using the Secchi Disk method, as an indicator of water quality. Volunteers may also collect chemistry, temperature and ...
[49]
Secchi Depth: Volunteer Data Entry and Information
How to measure secchi depth transparency · Use the map of your lake and its marked sampling site and proceed to the site. · Anchor the boat at the sampling site.Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
[50]
[PDF] IIndiana Surface Water External Data Program QAPP - IN.gov
Nov 20, 2023 · Increase public awareness of the importance of Indiana's lakes. IU SPEA has produced QAPPs for the Clean Lakes Program (Indiana CLP,. 2019a) and ...
[51]
Surface water methodology: Standard types and threshold values for ...
Nov 28, 2024 · ... Water Framework Directive (WFD) - River Basin Management Plan (RBMP). Several filters allow the user to refine the search and explore the ...
[52]
Ecological classification of a set of Mediterranean reservoirs ...
Nov 18, 2009 · Abstract. The Water Framework Directive EU2000/60/EC (WFD) was implemented for reservoirs at a regional scale (northeastern Spain).
[53]
Need for harmonized long-term multi-lake monitoring of African ...
This paper presents an assessment of the state of monitoring the AGL and possible approaches to realize a long-term, multi-lake harmonized monitoring strategy.
[54]
Volunteer monitoring reveals contrasting effects of invasive species ...
Oct 21, 2025 · Thus, Secchi depth can be used as a measure of lake productivity. Primary productivity is affected by drivers such as nutrient concentration, ...
[55]
The Robert Carlson Secchi Dip-In
The Robert Carlson Secchi Dip-In is a demonstration of the potential of volunteer monitors to gather environmentally important information on our lakes, ...
[56]
The Robert Carlson Secchi Dip-In — About the Dip-In
The Robert Carlson Secchi Dip-In is a demonstration of the potential of volunteer monitors to gather environmentally important information on our lakes, ...
[57]
[PDF] Detection of Spatial and Temporal Trends in Wisconsin Lake Water ...
Jan 29, 2009 · Regression models using Landsat imagery and Secchi disk measurements were developed to predict water clarity or lake trophic state at the time ...Missing: loss | Show results with:loss<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Detection of Spatial and Temporal Trends in Wisconsin Lake Water ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Previous studies examining water clarity trends in Midwestern lakes have employed linear models to represent change over time, focusing on ...Missing: loss | Show results with:loss
[59]
Seafarer citizen scientist ocean transparency data as a resource for ...
Here, we compare the first four years of data from a citizen science ocean transparency study, conducted by seafarers using home-made Secchi Disks and a free ...Missing: clarity gradients
[60]
Increasing turbidity in the North Sea during the 20th century due to ...
Dec 6, 2019 · Here we analyse the hypothesis that changes in the North Sea's wave climate were largely responsible by causing an increase in the concentrations of suspended ...Missing: Arctic 2020s
[61]
Contemporary limnology of the rapidly changing glacierized ... - Nature
Mar 14, 2019 · Glacial runoff is predicted to increase in many parts of the Arctic with climate change, yet little is known about the biogeochemical impacts
[62]
Marine Ecology Progress Series 471:73
We apply data from the Baltic Sea to illustrate KtW predictions on how eutrophication and water clarity affects the competitive relationship between fish and ...<|separator|>
[63]
Evaluating eutrophication management scenarios in the Baltic Sea ...
Apr 16, 2013 · The three modelling methods exposed differences in the quantitative predictions for species with a weaker coupling to Secchi depth.
[64]
Validation of algorithms estimating Secchi depth using MERIS ...
▻ 3 algorithms validated for MERIS, MODIS, SeaWiFS, with R2 between 0.5 and 0.73. ▻ Satellite climatology compared with historical climatology for Skagerrak and ...
[65]
MODIS-Based Mapping of Secchi Disk Depth Using a Qualitative ...
May 17, 2016 · They validated their model with measurements from different types of water and verified the high accuracy of the new model. Compared with ...
[66]
Automated Secchi disk depth measurement based on artificial ...
Nov 23, 2022 · An artificial intelligence based object detection algorithm was employed for the automatic detection of SD from images, mimicking SDD measurement by human eyes.Missing: smartphone app 2020s
[67]
Automated Secchi disk depth measurement based on artificial ...
Aug 6, 2025 · It can be visually measured by lowering a Secchi disk (SD) into water and recording its disappearance depth - the Secchi disk depth (SDD). High ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[68]
[PDF] Color, chlorophyll a, and suspended solids effects on Secchi depth ...
Abstract. Secchi depth (SD), a primary metric to assess trophic state, is controlled in many lakes by algal densities, measured as chlorophyll-a (chl-a) ...
[69]
Secchi disk visibility: Correct measurement, interpretation
Feb 1, 2004 · The standard Secchi disk is a 20-cm-diameter disk with alternate black and white quadrants. It is attached to a calibrated line and fitted with ...Missing: components materials construction
[70]
[PDF] An Atlas of Secchi Disc Transparency Measurements and ... - DTIC
(19) suggested that the constant 1.7 in the Poole and Atkins equation be replaced by a value 1.44 for determining the extinction coefficient in turbid water.
[71]
THE SECCHI DISK IN TURBID COASTAL WATERS1 - ASLO - Wiley
The effects of the size of Secchi disk and viewing techniques are discussed. An estimate of contrast threshold of the human eye under field conditions has been ...
[72]
https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.4319/lo.1970.15.5.0688
[73]
Spatially Intensive Patterns of Water Clarity in Reservoirs ...
Oct 16, 2023 · We used a sensor-equipped boat in a clay-rich subtropical drinking water reservoir to examine continuous spatial patterns of water clarity.
[74]
Hach 2100Q Portable Turbidity Meter - Fondriest Environmental
In stock 30-day returnsFeatures ; Starting At $2,066.00 ; Products 0 Item Selected ; Accessories 0 Item Selected.
[75]
LISST-200X - Sequoia Scientific
It also measures the water temperature, depth, and optical transmission. How does the LISST-200X differ from the LISST-100X? The LISST-200X is very similar ...Missing: photometer Secchi
[76]
Laboratory and field evaluations of the LISST-100 instrument for ...
This paper describes a laboratory evaluation of the ability of LISST-100 to determine particle sizes using suspensions of single size, artificial particles.Missing: Secchi disk
[77]
Evaluation of ACOLITE atmospheric correction methods for Landsat ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Although the validation data set contained widely variable chla, Secchi disk depth, and turbidity, chla predicted by the 3-band and 2-band ...
[78]
Modeling Coastal Water Clarity Using Landsat‐8 and Sentinel‐2
Jul 6, 2023 · We created a remote sensing water clarity product by compiling Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 reflectance data with long-term Secchi depth measurements at 12 sites ...
[79]
Using turbidity and acoustic backscatter intensity as surrogate ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Chanson et al., (2008) and Ward et al., (2013) used acoustic methods to measure the turbidity in rivers. ... Visual water clarity (measured as ...<|separator|>
[80]
Real-Time and Long-Term Monitoring of Coastal Water Turbidity ...
Acoustic methods for measuring the SSC or turbidity in water employ sound waves that penetrate water. The intensity of the acoustic backscatter from suspended ...Missing: Secchi complement
[81]
YSI EXO Water Quality Sondes and Buoys - NexSens
Mar 12, 2019 · YSI EXO sondes are multiparameter instruments that can be used to gather data on water quality. Each type, however, is a little different, ...Missing: clarity | Show results with:clarity
[82]
https://www.nexsens.com/blog/ysi-exo-water-quality-sondes-and-buoys.htm