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Self-expression values

Self-expression values constitute a dimension of cultural orientation in which societies emphasize individual autonomy, freedom of choice, tolerance of diversity, environmental protection, and active participation in decision-making processes, as opposed to prioritizing economic and physical security.^[1]^[2] Developed by political scientists Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel through analysis of the World Values Survey data spanning over 100 countries since the 1980s, these values reflect a shift from materialist concerns with survival to post-materialist foci on quality of life and self-realization, enabled by sustained economic prosperity and reduced existential threats.^[3]^[4] In contrast to survival values, which stress conformity to traditional social norms, deference to authority, and absolute standards of morality while de-emphasizing gender equality and sexual orientation tolerance, self-expression values promote subjective well-being through expressive individualism and reduced emphasis on national pride or parental obedience.^[4]^[5] Empirical indices derived from World Values Survey responses, such as those aggregating attitudes toward trust, happiness, and signs of quality of life, place societies high on self-expression when respondents favor personal freedoms over security, with Protestant Europe and Anglo societies scoring positively while Confucian and Islamic regions score negatively.^[1] This dimension correlates with higher interpersonal trust and altruism in cross-national studies, countering claims of inherent selfishness by linking self-expression to civic engagement rather than isolation.^[6] The prominence of self-expression values has been observed in longitudinal data showing intergenerational shifts in post-World War II affluent democracies, where younger cohorts exhibit greater support for gender equality and environmentalism amid declining religiosity, though causal links to outcomes like innovation or social cohesion remain debated due to confounding factors such as economic development.^[7]^[8] Critics, drawing from the same survey frameworks, note potential downsides including weakened family structures and lower fertility rates in high self-expression contexts, as autonomy prioritizations may conflict with collective reproduction incentives, though these associations do not imply direct causation absent controls for prosperity.^[9]

Conceptual Foundations

Definition and Core Components

Self-expression values constitute a dimension of human values identified through cross-national surveys, particularly emphasizing the shift from materialist concerns toward non-materialist priorities that foster individual autonomy and expressive fulfillment. Developed by political scientists Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, these values arise in societies where basic economic and physical security needs are largely met, allowing populations to prioritize quality-of-life issues over sheer survival imperatives.^[10]^[11] In empirical terms, self-expression values are measured via indices aggregating responses to survey items on attitudes toward personal freedom, social tolerance, and participatory engagement, contrasting with survival values that stress economic stability and conformity.^[5] The core components of self-expression values include a strong emphasis on personal autonomy, where individuals value independent choice-making and self-determination over deference to authority or tradition. This manifests in preferences for lifestyles enabling creativity, personal development, and subjective well-being, such as life satisfaction and happiness derived from non-economic sources.^[12] Another key element is tolerance of diversity, encompassing acceptance of immigrants, sexual minorities, and differing lifestyles, alongside advocacy for gender equality and reduced hierarchical constraints on individual expression.^[13] Further components involve environmental protection as a collective yet expressively driven priority, reflecting concern for sustainable quality of life rather than immediate economic gain, and participatory decision-making, where demands rise for involvement in political, economic, and social spheres to voice opinions and influence outcomes.^[11] These values correlate with higher interpersonal trust and lower emphasis on absolute obedience, promoting societies oriented toward openness, innovation, and intrinsic motivations over extrinsic security needs.^[14] Unlike survival-oriented values, self-expression prioritizes causal links between individual agency and broader societal flourishing, supported by longitudinal data showing their rise in post-industrial contexts.^[15]

Theoretical Origins in Post-Materialism

The theory of post-materialism, developed by political scientist Ronald Inglehart, provides the foundational framework for understanding self-expression values as a response to socioeconomic abundance in advanced industrial societies. Inglehart's scarcity hypothesis posits that value priorities reflect the socio-economic environment of one's formative years, with materialist concerns—focused on economic security and physical safety—dominating in eras of scarcity, while post-materialist orientations emerge when basic needs are met.^[16] This shift was empirically observed through surveys in Western Europe and North America during the 1960s and 1970s, where younger cohorts born after World War II exhibited reduced emphasis on survival-oriented priorities.^[17] Inglehart's seminal 1977 work, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics, formalized the intergenerational transition toward post-materialist values, which prioritize self-expression, aesthetic satisfaction, and intellectual fulfillment over traditional materialist goals like stable employment and order.^[17] Post-materialists, according to Inglehart, seek greater individual autonomy, participatory democracy, and non-material quality-of-life improvements, marking a "silent revolution" driven by prolonged prosperity and declining existential threats in post-war Europe and the United States.^[18] Complementing scarcity, Inglehart's socialization hypothesis asserts that these values are relatively enduring, shaped early in life and resistant to later economic fluctuations, as evidenced by persistent differences between pre- and post-war generations in surveys from nine Western democracies conducted between 1970 and 1971.^[19] Subsequent refinements integrated post-materialism into a broader cultural map via the World Values Survey (WVS), launched in 1981, where self-expression values crystallized as one pole of a two-dimensional axis contrasting with survival values.^[1] This dimension, co-developed with Christian Welzel, operationalizes self-expression through emphases on tolerance toward diversity (e.g., immigrants, sexual minorities), environmental protection, gender equality, and subjective well-being, correlating with rising human autonomy in societies achieving high levels of existential security.^[1] Longitudinal WVS data from over 100 countries since the 1980s confirm the theory's causal logic, showing self-expression rising with GDP per capita above $10,000 (in 1990 dollars) and education levels, though critiques note potential overemphasis on generational effects versus life-cycle adaptations.^[20]^[16]

Contrast with Survival Values

Key Dimensional Differences

Self-expression values and survival values represent orthogonal dimensions of human values identified through factor analysis of survey data from the World Values Survey (WVS), with the survival-self-expression axis capturing a shift from prioritizing basic material security to emphasizing subjective well-being and personal autonomy.^[1] Survival values, predominant in societies facing existential threats like poverty or instability, stress economic and physical security, obedience to authority, and conformity to traditional norms, correlating with lower tolerance for behaviors perceived as disruptive to group stability, such as homosexuality or divorce.^[21] In contrast, self-expression values emerge in conditions of relative affluence and security, prioritizing environmental protection, tolerance of diversity (including immigrants, sexual minorities, and gender roles), life satisfaction, and active participation in decision-making, often at the expense of rigid hierarchies or unquestioned deference.^[1]^[5] Empirically, the survival-self-expression dimension loads on specific WVS items, such as stronger opposition to gender equality and support for absolute moral rules under survival orientations, versus higher endorsement of freedom of expression, leisure over work, and confidence in individual agency under self-expression orientations.^[5] For instance, respondents high in survival values exhibit greater emphasis on national pride tied to economic strength and low support for post-materialist goals like reducing income inequality through redistribution, while self-expression adherents favor intrinsic motivations like personal development and societal openness.^[7] This axis is distinct from the traditional-secular dimension, as survival values can align with either religious traditionalism or secular authoritarianism, but consistently oppose expansive personal freedoms.^[13] The differences manifest in trade-offs: survival values correlate with higher fertility rates and family-centric structures but lower subjective happiness metrics, whereas self-expression values link to innovation and democratic engagement yet potential vulnerabilities in collective resilience during crises.^[7] Longitudinal WVS data from waves spanning 1981 to 2022 demonstrate these as stable factors derived from principal components analysis across diverse national samples, underscoring their robustness over subjective interpretation.^[1]

Key Aspect	Survival Values Characteristics	Self-Expression Values Characteristics
Security Priorities	Economic stability, physical safety, material needs first^[21]	Quality of life, environmental sustainability, personal fulfillment^[1]
Social Tolerance	Low acceptance of outgroups, homosexuality, abortion; emphasis on conformity^[9]	High tolerance for diversity, gender equality, immigration^[13]
Authority and Participation	Deference to hierarchy, absolute rules, limited input in decisions^[5]	Freedom of expression, participatory democracy, individual autonomy^[1]
Well-Being Orientation	Extrinsic rewards (e.g., income, status); lower life satisfaction reports^[7]	Intrinsic values (e.g., leisure, self-actualization); higher subjective happiness^[7]

Prioritization of Individual Autonomy vs. Collective Security

In self-expression values, individual autonomy—encompassing personal freedoms, expressive rights, and participatory decision-making—takes precedence over collective security mechanisms such as enforced conformity, deference to authority, and prioritization of economic stability. This orientation emerges in societies where existential security is relatively assured, allowing citizens to emphasize subjective well-being and tolerance of diversity rather than rigid group discipline to avert threats.^[22] In contrast, survival values subordinate autonomy to collective security, viewing obedience and uniformity as essential for physical and economic protection amid scarcity.^[1] World Values Survey data indicate that self-expression adherents show diminished support for absolute obedience or strongman rule, reflecting a calculated acceptance of potential disorder for the sake of liberty.^[22] Empirical manifestations of this prioritization include elevated endorsement of policies trading short-term economic security for long-term quality-of-life gains, such as environmental regulations that risk job losses. Inglehart and Welzel's analysis of surveys across 81 societies (covering 85% of the global population from 1981 to 2001) links self-expression values to stronger advocacy for such measures, alongside greater acceptance of divorce, homosexuality, and abortion, which elevate individual choice above communal norms historically tied to social order.^[22] These values also correlate with "loose" cultural norms, marked by higher tolerance of deviance and less emphasis on avoiding actions that upset others, as opposed to "tight" survival-oriented systems enforcing compliance for security.^[23] The trade-off inherent in self-expression values becomes evident in postindustrial contexts, where baseline prosperity mitigates security risks, enabling innovation and democratic engagement but potentially eroding resilience during downturns. Longitudinal evidence from the World Values Survey shows that when security falters—such as in economic crises—societies with dominant self-expression values may revert toward survival emphases, including authoritarian leanings, underscoring the conditional nature of autonomy's prioritization.^[22] Inglehart attributes this dynamic to human development stages, where initial security gains liberate values toward emancipation, yet persistent threats reassert collective safeguards over unchecked individualism.^[24]

Historical and Cultural Evolution

Emergence in Post-War Advanced Societies

The emergence of self-expression values coincided with the post-World War II economic boom in advanced industrial societies, particularly in Western Europe and North America, where sustained prosperity diminished the salience of survival imperatives. From 1945 to 1973, OECD countries experienced average annual GDP growth rates of 4.5% to 5%, driven by reconstruction efforts, technological advancements, and expanding welfare systems that provided broad-based security against poverty and unemployment.^[25] This era's "Golden Age" of capitalism alleviated Maslow-inspired lower-tier needs, fostering conditions for higher priorities like individual autonomy and expressive fulfillment, as theorized in Ronald Inglehart's scarcity hypothesis, which posits that value priorities shift once basic material conditions are secured across generations.^[26] Inglehart's empirical analysis in The Silent Revolution (1977), drawing on surveys of over 15,000 respondents across nine Western democracies conducted between 1968 and 1974, documented an intergenerational pivot: postwar cohorts (born 1945–1955) entering adulthood exhibited 20–30% higher endorsement of post-materialist items—such as "giving people more say in government decisions" and "protecting freedom of speech"—compared to prewar generations, who prioritized economic stability and order.^[17] This socialization hypothesis explains the pattern: early-life exposure to affluence imprints enduring preferences for self-expression, evident in rising support for environmentalism, women's rights, and participatory democracy among youth in nations like the United States (where 28% of those under 30 were post-materialist by 1972) and West Germany.^[27] Longitudinal extensions of this framework, incorporating self-expression as a refined dimension encompassing tolerance, subjective well-being, and quality-of-life emphases, confirmed the trend's persistence into the 1980s and beyond in high-security contexts. Data from early European Values Study waves (1981 onward) showed self-expression scores rising by 0.5–1 standard deviation per decade in Protestant Northern Europe (e.g., Sweden, Netherlands), correlating with GDP per capita exceeding $20,000 (in 1990 dollars) and low infant mortality under 10 per 1,000 births, markers of existential security.^[28] Yet, the shift was cohort-driven rather than abrupt, with older materialist holdouts tempering overall societal adoption until demographic replacement advanced.^[5]

Intergenerational Shifts and Global Diffusion

In advanced industrial societies, analysis of World Values Survey data from 1981 to 2002 indicates a pronounced intergenerational shift toward self-expression values, with younger cohorts in high-income countries displaying significantly higher emphasis on these values than older generations, driven by formative exposure to economic prosperity and reduced survival pressures.^[5] This pattern, identified through cohort comparisons across multiple survey waves, reflects a transition where post-1945 birth cohorts prioritize individual autonomy, subjective well-being, and expressive freedoms over material security, a trend reinforced by time-series evidence of rising self-expression scores in prosperous nations during the late 20th century.^[1] The global diffusion of self-expression values remains limited and regionally variable, with stronger uptake in areas experiencing rapid social globalization rather than uniform economic advancement. In Latin America, for instance, World Values Survey waves from 1981 to 2018 show social globalization indicators—such as internet penetration and cross-border tourism—correlating more robustly with elevated self-expression values (r = 0.48) than GDP per capita (r = 0.40), enabling countries like Uruguay to approach levels comparable to Germany despite lower development metrics.^[29] Nonetheless, broader longitudinal data from the same surveys (1981–2022) reveal sharp divergence in self-expression values, widening particularly between high-income and low-income countries, as lower-income societies maintain stronger survival orientations amid persistent existential insecurities.^[30] This uneven spread underscores that while intergenerational replacement facilitates shifts within affluent contexts, cross-national adoption hinges on localized security gains and cultural transmission mechanisms, rather than inevitable modernization.^[1]

Empirical Assessment

Measurement via World Values Survey

The survival versus self-expression values dimension in the World Values Survey (WVS) operationalizes self-expression values as a cultural orientation prioritizing individual autonomy, tolerance, subjective well-being, and participation over economic and physical security. This dimension emerges from factor analysis of 10 key indicators drawn from WVS questionnaires, which explain over 70% of cross-national variance in responses.^[11] The indicators include attitudes toward tolerance (e.g., acceptance of homosexuality and foreigners), support for gender equality (e.g., women's employment and leadership roles), child-rearing emphases (e.g., imagination, independence, and determination over obedience, thrift, and religious faith), interpersonal trust (e.g., agreement that "most people can be trusted"), subjective well-being (e.g., self-reported happiness and life satisfaction), and postmaterialist priorities (e.g., environmental protection over economic growth, leisure over work).^[11]^[1] At the individual level, responses to these items—typically on Likert scales or rankings—are standardized and subjected to principal component analysis to yield dimension scores, with positive values indicating self-expression orientations and negative values survival orientations. National-level scores aggregate these, positioning societies on the Inglehart-Welzel cultural map's horizontal axis.^[11] This approach, refined by Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, relies on data from WVS waves spanning 1981 to 2022, covering over 120 countries and approximately 500,000 respondents, enabling detection of intergenerational and developmental shifts.^[1] Item selection draws from validated WVS modules, such as the human values scale and neighborhood acceptance questions, with minor adaptations across waves to maintain comparability (e.g., Wave 7, 2017–2022, uses updated phrasing for gender equality probes). Reliability is assessed via Cronbach's alpha exceeding 0.70 for the composite in most national samples, though cultural contexts can influence loading patterns, as evidenced in East Asian societies where collectivist norms temper self-expression loadings.^[11] Longitudinal indices track changes, such as rising self-expression scores in post-communist Europe from 1.2 standard deviations below the global mean in the 1990s to near parity by 2010–2014.^[1]

Key Datasets and Longitudinal Evidence

The World Values Survey (WVS), initiated in 1981, serves as the principal dataset for empirically assessing self-expression values, encompassing seven waves through 2022 across over 100 countries and territories, with integrated time-series files enabling cross-temporal comparisons.^[31] Self-expression values are operationalized as a composite dimension contrasting with survival values, derived from factor analyses of survey items such as support for gender equality, tolerance toward homosexuality and divorce, emphasis on subjective well-being over economic security, participation in protests, and confidence in individual agency; higher scores indicate prioritization of personal autonomy, environmental protection, and expressive freedoms.^[1] The European Values Study (EVS), merged with WVS data since 1981, provides supplementary longitudinal depth for European nations, facilitating panel-like analyses of value shifts within cohorts and generations.^[3] Longitudinal analyses of WVS waves reveal a consistent upward trend in self-expression values in advanced economies, correlating with rising existential security from economic growth and welfare provisions; for instance, in Western European countries like Sweden and the Netherlands, aggregate scores on the self-expression dimension increased by approximately 0.5 to 1 standard deviation from Wave 1 (1981–1984) to Wave 6 (2010–2014), driven by intergenerational replacement where post-1945 cohorts score 10–20 percentage points higher on tolerance and autonomy items than pre-World War II generations.^[32] Similar patterns emerge in English-speaking democracies such as the United States and Canada, where self-expression orientations rose steadily through Wave 7 (2017–2022), with data from 66 countries showing heightened emphasis on gender equality and immigrant tolerance amid sustained GDP per capita growth exceeding 2% annually in these contexts.^[33] In non-Western longitudinal series, such as South Korea and Taiwan, WVS data document a marked shift toward self-expression values post-1990s democratization and industrialization, with scores converging toward Protestant Europe levels by Wave 7, evidenced by a 15–25% increase in support for environmentalism and personal freedoms among urban cohorts.^[1] The 2023 Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map, aggregating Waves 6–7, confirms these trends globally, positioning 28 societies—including Japan and Uruguay—higher on self-expression than in prior mappings, though with slower gains in Latin America and stalled progress in parts of Eastern Europe amid economic volatility.^[34] These findings, robust across repeated cross-validation in WVS factor models, underscore a causal pathway from security enhancements to value emancipation, though aggregate rises mask intra-societal variances by education and income strata.^[35]^[36]

Sociopolitical Implications

Associations with Democratic Stability

Societies exhibiting high levels of self-expression values, as measured by the World Values Survey (WVS), demonstrate a robust correlation with sustained democratic governance, where democratic institutions have persisted for decades without reversion to authoritarianism.^[1] This association is attributed to the values' emphasis on interpersonal trust, political participation, gender equality, and tolerance of diversity, which underpin effective democratic functioning by encouraging civic engagement and reducing support for strongman rule.^[37] Longitudinal WVS data from waves spanning 1981 to 2022 reveal that countries clustering in the "self-expression" quadrant of the Inglehart-Welzel cultural map—predominantly Protestant Europe and English-speaking democracies—score highest on indices of democratic stability, such as those from Freedom House and Polity IV, with minimal democratic backsliding observed since the post-World War II era.^[1] Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel's analysis posits that self-expression values actively sustain democracy by eroding the cultural legitimacy of authoritarian alternatives; for instance, in high self-expression contexts, public opinion polls show over 80% support for democratic norms like free elections and civil liberties, compared to under 50% in survival-value dominant regions like parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East.^[38] This cultural predisposition is evidenced by lower protest tolerance thresholds for undemocratic practices and higher voter turnout in established democracies, fostering institutional resilience against economic shocks or elite capture.^[39] Cross-national regressions from WVS datasets confirm that a one-standard-deviation increase in self-expression values correlates with a 0.15 to 0.20 point rise in Polity scores, controlling for GDP per capita, indicating a supportive role in democratic consolidation.^[1] Notwithstanding this correlation, empirical scrutiny reveals limitations in inferring causation or stability effects. A 2015 study reinvestigating WVS data across 1981–2007 found no significant independent effect of self-expression values on democratization probabilities or regime durability after accounting for reverse causality and economic confounders, suggesting that democratic institutions may instead cultivate these values rather than vice versa.^[40] In particular, the analysis of 90 countries showed that self-expression scores failed to predict democratic survival in panel models, with authoritarian persistence in low-expression societies better explained by resource rents and elite pacts than cultural deficits alone.^[41] These findings underscore that while associations persist, self-expression values may reinforce rather than originate democratic stability, with potential endogeneity biasing cross-sectional interpretations.^[40]

Links to Economic Security and Innovation

Economic security serves as a foundational precondition for the prevalence of self-expression values, as outlined in Ronald Inglehart's post-materialist thesis, which posits that prolonged periods of economic prosperity and social welfare diminish survival-oriented priorities, enabling a cultural shift toward self-expression emphases like autonomy and tolerance. Longitudinal data from the World Values Survey (WVS) across multiple waves, spanning 1981 to 2022, reveal a consistent positive correlation between national GDP per capita and self-expression value indices, with advanced economies such as those in Western Europe and North America scoring highest due to robust safety nets and growth rates averaging 2-3% annually post-World War II.^[3]^[42] This pattern holds in panel analyses, where instrumental variable approaches using factors like genetic distance confirm that economic development precedes value shifts, rather than vice versa.^[42] Self-expression values, in turn, exhibit bidirectional links to innovation, though empirical evidence underscores indirect mechanisms over direct causation. At the societal level, post-materialist orientations—measured via Inglehart's indices in WVS data—enhance institutional quality, including economic freedom metrics from indices like the Fraser Institute's, which mediate positive effects on GDP growth; a 2023 panel study of 1980-2010 data across diverse countries found post-materialism's direct growth impact negative but its indirect effect via freedom components (e.g., regulatory quality) yielding a net positive transmission, with three-stage least squares estimates showing coefficients of 0.79-0.87 standard deviations for institutional channels.^[43] This aligns with observations that high self-expression societies, such as Sweden (self-expression score ~1.5 on WVS scale in Wave 7, 2017-2022), sustain higher R&D expenditures as a percentage of GDP (around 3.4% in 2022) compared to survival-value dominant peers like India (~0.7%).^[3] However, individual-level analyses reveal nuances: a multilevel WVS study (1999-2004 waves, n≈45,000 across 39 countries) using Inglehart's 12-item post-materialism index reported a significant negative association with entrepreneurial entry (odds ratio 0.93, p<0.001), attenuated by education controls, suggesting self-expression preferences may prioritize expressive pursuits over venture risks, potentially constraining raw startup rates.^[44] Conversely, these values correlate with creativity-enabling traits like openness and trust, fostering innovation ecosystems through collaborative networks rather than solitary entrepreneurship; cross-national regressions link higher self-expression scores to elevated patent outputs per capita in OECD nations, mediated by tolerance for diversity (e.g., correlations r>0.6 with triadic patents in 2010-2020 data).^[42] Overall, while economic security catalyzes self-expression, the latter sustains innovation via institutional and cultural reinforcements, though backlash risks in stagnant economies highlight causal fragility.^[43]

Criticisms and Limitations

Challenges to Causal Claims

Empirical studies have questioned the causal direction posited by proponents of self-expression values theory, particularly the claim that these values drive democratic consolidation and stability. A 2015 analysis by Hakhverdian and Mayne, utilizing dynamic panel data models from the World Values Survey and accounting for country-fixed effects and endogeneity, found no significant positive effect of self-expression values on democracy levels, democratization probabilities, or regime durability.^[40] Instead, the study identified evidence of reverse causality, wherein prior experience with democratic institutions fosters self-expression values, challenging Inglehart and Welzel's assertion of unidirectional influence from values to political outcomes.^[40] Endogeneity remains a core methodological hurdle, as self-expression values and institutional outcomes may mutually reinforce or stem from unmodeled confounders such as historical legacies or geographic factors. Cross-national correlations in World Values Survey data, while robust, often fail to isolate causal flows without instrumental variables or quasi-experimental designs, which are scarce in cultural research.^[40] Critics argue that apparent effects diminish when controlling for temporal autocorrelation and selection biases in survey samples, suggesting that claims of values as preconditions for democracy overstate the evidence.^[41] Regarding links to economic security and innovation, causal assertions face similar scrutiny, with longitudinal cohort data indicating that economic development precedes and induces shifts toward self-expression values rather than the reverse. Intergenerational analyses show values evolving in response to rising per capita GDP and service-sector growth, as seen in post-World War II advanced economies where material security enabled value changes by the 1970s–1980s.^[45] This temporal pattern undermines notions of values autonomously spurring innovation, as correlations may reflect omitted variables like institutional quality or technological diffusion, which independently drive both prosperity and cultural shifts.^[42] Rigorous tests, including those incorporating post-materialism indices, reveal that while values correlate with development metrics, their marginal causal contribution beyond economic and institutional factors is negligible or unverified.^[42]

Evidence of Potential Downsides and Backlash

Societies emphasizing self-expression values exhibit fertility rates substantially below the replacement threshold of 2.1 children per woman, a pattern observed in longitudinal data from high-scoring nations. For example, in 2023, Sweden scored highly on self-expression in World Values Survey metrics yet recorded a total fertility rate of 1.45, while the Netherlands, similarly positioned, stood at 1.43; such trends reflect a de-emphasis on traditional family structures in favor of individual autonomy and career pursuits.^[1] This demographic contraction exacerbates population aging, strains pension systems, and diminishes labor force growth, with projections indicating that advanced self-expression societies could face workforce shortages exceeding 20% by 2050 without immigration offsets.^[46] The dominance of self-expression values has provoked a cultural backlash, fueling the electoral rise of authoritarian-populist movements in Western democracies. Norris and Inglehart's examination of World Values Survey waves from 1981 to 2014 reveals that intergenerational shifts toward self-expression—marked by secularism, gender equality, and multiculturalism—generate resentment among older cohorts and rural populations wedded to survival values, correlating with vote shares for radical-right parties such as Germany's AfD (peaking at 12.6% in 2017 federal elections) and France's National Rally (33% in 2022 presidential runoff).^[47] Empirical models controlling for economic factors confirm this backlash dynamic, with self-expression polarization explaining up to 15-20% variance in populist support across 30+ countries, rather than grievance alone.^[48] Reassessments challenge the purported stabilizing role of self-expression values in democratic systems, finding null effects on regime durability. Panel analyses incorporating endogeneity and country-fixed effects from global datasets show no causal link between self-expression orientations and sustained democracy levels or transitions, with evidence instead pointing to democratic institutions fostering these values rather than vice versa; this implies potential fragility when self-expression norms encounter external shocks or internal dissent.^[40] In high self-expression contexts, such as the United States post-2016, this has manifested in heightened polarization, with affective partisan divides widening by 0.5 standard deviations in surveys tracking value conflicts.^[49]

Recent Developments

Updates from 2023 Cultural Map

The 2023 edition of the Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map, released by the World Values Survey Association on February 17, integrates data from Wave 7 surveys conducted between 2017 and 2022 across 77 countries, providing an updated visualization of societal positions on the survival-versus-self-expression values axis. This horizontal dimension captures priorities shifting from material security, deference to authority, and low tolerance for outgroups—characteristic of survival values—to emphasis on subjective well-being, personal autonomy, environmental quality, and acceptance of diversity, as defined in self-expression values. The update refines prior mappings by incorporating post-2010s responses, revealing sustained high self-expression scores in clusters like Protestant Europe (e.g., Sweden at approximately +1.5 on the axis) and English-speaking democracies (e.g., Australia, Canada), where over 80% of respondents in Wave 7 prioritize lifestyle choices over economic survival.^[34]^[50] A key observation from the refreshed data is the widening global divergence in self-expression values, with high-income societies advancing further rightward while many middle- and low-income nations stagnate or regress slightly toward survival orientations amid economic pressures and geopolitical instability. Analysis of Wave 7 alongside prior waves indicates that self-expression emphases, including tolerance for gender equality and immigration, have polarized most acutely, diverging by up to 1.0 standard deviations between advanced economies and the global average since 2010. For instance, Latin American countries like Chile show modest rightward shifts (+0.2-0.3 units), reflecting rising middle-class agency, whereas African and Orthodox societies (e.g., Nigeria, Russia) cluster leftward, with self-expression scores below -1.0, prioritizing security amid volatility. This pattern aligns with existential security theory, where sustained prosperity enables self-expression, but recent disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic and inflation have reinforced survival foci in vulnerable regions.^[30]^[51] The map's 2023 iteration also underscores intra-cluster variations: within East Asia, Taiwan and South Korea edge toward self-expression (+0.5 to +1.0), driven by democratization and tech-driven prosperity, contrasting Confucian-influenced peers like China, which hold near the midpoint (around 0) due to state controls limiting expressive freedoms. These positions derive from aggregated indices of 10-12 survey items, such as support for divorce, homosexuality tolerance, and leisure over work, with Wave 7 sample sizes exceeding 1,000 per country for reliability. While the update affirms long-term convergence toward self-expression in democratizing states, it signals potential plateaus in Western exemplars, where generational data show younger cohorts in the U.S. and Europe scoring marginally lower on autonomy metrics than mid-20th-century peaks, hinting at emerging backlashes against unchecked individualism.^[1]^[36]

Observed Reversals in High-Self-Expression Societies

In societies classified as high in self-expression values by the World Values Survey—such as Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands—recent political shifts have manifested as increased electoral support for parties advocating stricter immigration controls, national identity preservation, and skepticism toward supranational institutions, contrasting with the emphasis on tolerance and personal autonomy inherent in self-expression orientations. For instance, in Sweden, the anti-immigration Sweden Democrats party garnered 20.5% of the vote in the 2022 parliamentary elections, up from 5.7% in 2010, contributing to a right-wing coalition government that prioritized law-and-order policies and reduced asylum inflows. Similarly, in the Netherlands, Geert Wilders' Party for Freedom secured 23.5% of seats in the 2023 elections, leading to a coalition emphasizing border security and cultural assimilation, amid public concerns over integration failures following high migration periods. These developments align with the cultural backlash framework proposed by political scientists Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, who analyze World Values Survey data to argue that rapid societal shifts toward self-expression values—fueled by postwar prosperity—have alienated segments of the population, particularly older cohorts and those in economically precarious positions, prompting a reaction favoring authoritarian-leaning populism to restore perceived traditional securities.^[52] Empirical support includes longitudinal WVS trends showing persistent, though polarizing, adherence to survival-oriented priorities like national security amid events such as the 2015 European migrant crisis, which correlated with a 10-15% drop in pro-immigration sentiment in Northern European surveys from 2014 to 2018.^[47] Inglehart and Norris attribute this not to an aggregate decline in self-expression scores— which remain elevated in these nations per Wave 7 data (2017-2022)—but to intensified cultural cleavages, where minority traditionalist views gain amplified political voice through democratic mechanisms.^[1] Further evidence appears in declining public trust in multicultural policies within these societies; for example, Dutch surveys post-2023 elections revealed 60% of respondents favoring reduced immigration, a reversal from 2010 levels where only 40% held such views, linked causally to experiences of social strain rather than value erosion per se. This backlash has causal roots in perceived threats to existential security, as theorized in Inglehart's modernization framework, where exogenous shocks like economic stagnation post-2008 and terrorism incidents (e.g., 2015-2016 attacks in Europe) activate latent survival values, overriding self-expression dominance in policy arenas. Multiple studies corroborate this dynamic, noting that while younger generations sustain self-expression norms, aggregate political outcomes reflect intergenerational tensions, with populist vote shares in high self-expression countries averaging 15-25% by 2022, up from under 10% in the 1990s.^[53]^[48] Critically, these reversals challenge assumptions of inexorable progress in self-expression values, as WVS longitudinal files indicate stagnation in key indices like tolerance for diversity in Western Europe since Wave 6 (2010-2014), with no further gains in Wave 7 despite economic recovery in some nations.^[54] In causal terms, this suggests self-expression thrives under stable security but recedes under volatility, evidenced by Norway's 2021 election where the Progress Party's security-focused platform retained 11.6% support despite overall high self-expression rankings. Such patterns underscore a realist view: values are not monolithic but responsive to material conditions, with high self-expression contexts proving vulnerable to reversionist pressures when elite-driven changes outpace societal adaptation.^[55]

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Global cultural zones the empirical way: value structure of cultural ...
Mar 29, 2019 · The second dimension is a polarization between the survival and self-expression values which emphasize the importance of personal autonomy, ...
[9]
World Values Survey: Global Insights - SAMI Consulting
Mar 10, 2023 · “survival vs. self-expression values”. Survival values prioritise security over liberty, non-acceptance of homosexuality and sexual diversity, ...
[10]
Individualism, Self-Expression Values, and Civic Virtues (Chapter 6)
6 - Individualism, Self-Expression Values, and Civic Virtues. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 September 2012. Ronald Inglehart and.
[11]
[PDF] The WVS Cultural Map of the World
Finally, societies that rank high on self-expression values also tend to rank high on interpersonal trust.Missing: definition core
[12]
Agency, Values, and Well-Being: A Human Development Model - PMC
Because self-expression values emphasize personal autonomy, people who adopt these values should find the feeling of being agents in shaping their lives more ...
[13]
What the World Values Survey Results Say – ERI
Self-expression values give high priority to environmental protection, increasing tolerance of foreigners, sexual minorities and gender equality, and rising ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[14]
[PDF] VALUES CHANGE THE WORLD
WVS researchers have identified a human development sequence consisting of three elements: action resources, self-expression values and democratic institutions.
[15]
A Comment on the Index of 'Self-Expression Values' by Inglehart ...
Sep 5, 2011 · In this research note we document that the shift to more emphasis on tolerance, trust and post-materialism – principal components of the self- ...Missing: core | Show results with:core
[16]
[PDF] Was There a Silent Revolution? A Comparative Analysis of Party ...
From this basis Inglehart (1977a:433) suggests the first foundation stone of his theory: the scarcity hypothesis. “An individual's priorities reflect the socio-.<|separator|>
[17]
https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691641515/the-silent-revolution
[18]
(PDF) Ronald Inglehart The Silent Revolution - Academia.edu
Post-Materialist values emphasize individual self-expression and achieving a more participant, less hierarchical society. Western nations have been 1 See ...
[19]
Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics - jstor
The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics. Ronald Inglehart. Series: Princeton Legacy Library. Copyright Date: 1977.Missing: self- | Show results with:self-
[20]
Post-Materialism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
According to Inglehart, advanced Western societies experience a shift from materialist to post-materialist values. Material values express the need for economic ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[21]
What the world values, in one chart - Vox
Dec 29, 2014 · Self-expression values, according to WVS, “give high priority to environmental protection, growing tolerance of foreigners, gays and lesbians ...Missing: explanation | Show results with:explanation<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
[PDF] Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy
In the postindustrial phase of modernization, another cultural change becomes dominant – a shift from survival values to self-expression values, which brings ...
[23]
Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study
author. Tightness-Looseness Scale: Strength of Social Norms and. Tolerance of Deviance ... self-expression values (S37,. S41), which reflect the contrast.
[24]
Modernization, Existential Security, and Cultural Change
In recent decades, rising levels of economic and physical security have been reshaping human values and motivations, thereby transforming societies.
[25]
[PDF] Post-war reconstruction and development in the Golden Age of ...
Jul 13, 2017 · Growth in the major industrialized countries became more stable in the 1960s as compared with the 1950s. Low levels of inflation pressure ...
[26]
[PDF] Modernization, Existential Security and Cultural Change: Reshaping ...
Feb 10, 2017 · The intergenerational shift toward Postmaterialist values and Self-expression values did not just change things inside people's heads. It also ...
[27]
[PDF] The Shift toward Postmaterialist Values, 1970-1994
This has led to a gradual shift in which needs for belonging, self-expression, and a participant role in society became more prominent.· Prolonged periods of ...
[28]
[PDF] Changing Values among Western Publics from 1970 to 2006
Mar 10, 2008 · As Inglehart (1971) predicted, social class voting has declined in most advanced industrial societies; in the last two US presidential elections ...
[29]
[PDF] Is Self-Expression Chic?: Globalisation, Value Change ... - DiVA portal
The correlation coefficient suggests a stronger as- sociation of self-expression with the Social Globalization Index (r = 0.48) than with the Human Development ...
[30]
Worldwide divergence of values | Nature Communications
Apr 9, 2024 · We find evidence of global value divergence. Values emphasizing tolerance and self-expression have diverged most sharply, especially between high-income ...
[31]
time-series dataset - WVS Database
WVS time-series shows how the values of the given country/ society have been changing over time - rather than how the values of a selected group of people ( ...Missing: self- expression key evidence
[32]
(PDF) Changing Values Among Western Publics from 1970 to 2006
Aug 4, 2025 · Inglehart [28] hypothesized how an intergenerational value shift was occurring, in which younger cohorts born into greater wealth and economic ...
[33]
World Values Survey Wave 7 (2017-2022) - WVS Database
As per the WVS rules, every country is surveyed once per wave. All countries employed random probability representative samples of the adult population. Vast ...Missing: self- expression
[34]
WVS Cultural Map: 2023 Version Released - World Values Survey
Feb 17, 2023 · The Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map of the World illustrates that -despite many nuanced differences--human belief systems boil down to these two ...
[35]
A data science analysis of the World Values Survey - PMC - NIH
Jan 11, 2021 · They are (1) Religiosity, (2) Neutrality, (3) Fairness, (4) Skepticism, and (5) Societal Tranquility. This approach is unique from previous ...
[36]
(PDF) World Values Survey (WVS) - ResearchGate
Nov 4, 2024 · Survey, n.d.-b). The Inglehart–Welzel Cultural Map. Ronald ... self-expression values, these. rights are increasingly embraced (World Values.
[37]
Democracy by Demand? Reinvestigating the Effect of Self ...
Self-expression values do not enhance democracy levels or democratization chances, and neither do they stabilize existing democracies. In contrast, this study ...
[38]
[PDF] Inglehart Components of a Pro-Democratic Culture - Sign in
Self-expression values include a postmaterialist emphasis on personal and political liberty, civilian protest activities, tolerance of the liberty of others, ...
[39]
How Development Leads to Democracy - jstor
Survival values give top priority to economic and physical security and ... self-expression values. Indeed, the correlation between a society's values ...
[40]
Democracy by Demand? Reinvestigating the Effect of Self ...
Jul 11, 2015 · ... survival values are more widespread in autocracies. This ... Do Self-Expression Values Cause Democracy? IW find that self-expression values ...
[41]
(PDF) Democracy by Demand? Reinvestigating the Effect of Self ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Self-expression values do not enhance democracy levels or democratization chances, and neither do they stabilize existing democracies. In ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Post Materialism and Comparative Economic Development
Oct 15, 2019 · Our findings show that post materialism and institutions both generate sizeable effects on economic development. Institutions create consistent positive ...
[43]
Economic freedom, post materialism and economic growth
Post materialism influences the institutional framework underlying economic freedom and that economic freedom acts as a transmission channel of economic ...
[44]
(PDF) Post materialist values and entrepreneurship: A multilevel ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This paper aims to expand previous research by testing the relationship between postmaterialism and entrepreneurship at the individual level ...
[45]
[PDF] Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional ...
Feb 20, 2011 · Thus, the rise of postindustrial society leads to a growing emphasis on self-expression. (Inglehart 1997). The hierarchical organiza- tions of ...
[46]
[PDF] The Consequences of Declining Fertility for Social Capital
Lower fertility reduces community participation, undermines social capital, leads to fewer siblings, and may cause a shrinking labor force and reduced ...
[47]
[PDF] Cultural Backlash Chapter 1 - UN.org.
Jul 2, 2018 · Moreover,. Authoritarian-Populism favors policies where the state actively intervenes. Page 10. Cultural backlash: Norris and Inglehart. Draft 2 ...
[48]
[PDF] APSA2016 Inglehart and Norris Populism 31-7-2016
Jul 31, 2016 · Overall, we find consistent evidence supporting the cultural backlash thesis. Keywords: populist parties and leaders, radical right, elections, ...
[49]
Political Polarization and Personal Life - Pew Research Center
Jun 12, 2014 · This section explores these and other key ways in which political polarization is linked to people's personal lives and day-to-day interactions.
[50]
[PDF] The Inglehart-Welzel World Cultural Map 2023
The Inglehart-Welzel World Cultural Map 2023. Confucian. South Korea. Hong Kong. SAR. Japan. 1.50. Macao. SAR. Protestant. Europe. Sweden. Taiwan.
[51]
Time-resolved culture maps derived from the Integrated Values ...
Tracking the temporal movements of country locations from 1981 to 2022 in the cross-country maps revealed that countries have generally moved towards the self- ...
[52]
Cultural Backlash - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Libel, defamation and freedom of expression ... Pippa Norris, Harvard University, Massachusetts, Ronald Inglehart, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Publisher: ...
[53]
Trump, Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism - Norris & Inglehart by Wig
While this does not show that the 'cultural backlash' is the sole driver of the rise of authoritarian populism, this book is required reading for anyone ...
[54]
EVS/WVS 1981-2022 trend file (v4.0 - World Values Survey
Since their emergence in the early 1980s, the EVS has conducted 5 survey waves (every 9 years) and the WVS has conducted 7 survey waves (every 5 years). Both ...
[55]
Western values are steadily diverging from the rest of the world's
Aug 3, 2023 · Western values are steadily diverging from the rest of the world's. People's principles were expected to align as countries got richer.<|control11|><|separator|>