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Shoulder joint

The shoulder joint, also known as the glenohumeral joint, is a ball-and-socket synovial articulation between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula, enabling extensive mobility of the upper limb while connecting it to the axial skeleton.^[1] This joint is deepened by the fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum, which enhances stability, and is surrounded by a loose joint capsule reinforced by the superior, middle, and inferior glenohumeral ligaments.^[1] The shoulder complex encompasses four interrelated articulations—the glenohumeral, acromioclavicular, sternoclavicular, and scapulothoracic joints—formed by the humerus, scapula, and clavicle, with the scapulothoracic junction functioning as a physiological rather than true synovial joint.^[2] Supported by dynamic stabilizers including the rotator cuff muscles (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis) and the deltoid, as well as static elements like the coracohumeral and coracoacromial ligaments, the shoulder allows for a broad spectrum of movements essential for daily activities and overhead actions.^[2] Key movements at the glenohumeral joint include flexion (up to 180°), extension (45°–60°), abduction (up to 150°), adduction, internal rotation (70°–90°), and external rotation (up to 90°), with the supraspinatus initiating abduction and the deltoid sustaining it beyond 15°.^[1] Blood supply derives primarily from branches of the axillary artery, such as the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries, while innervation is provided by the axillary and suprascapular nerves, ensuring coordinated muscle action for joint integrity.^[2] Despite its remarkable range of motion—greater than any other diarthrodial joint in the body—the shoulder's shallow glenoid fossa and large humeral head contribute to inherent instability, rendering it susceptible to dislocations (incidence of approximately 24 per 100,000 annually in the United States^[3]), rotator cuff tears, and degenerative conditions like osteoarthritis.^[1] Bursae, including the subacromial and subdeltoid, facilitate smooth gliding of tendons during motion, mitigating friction in this highly active region.^[2] Overall, the shoulder's design prioritizes versatility for tasks like reaching and throwing, but this comes at the expense of structural robustness, often necessitating clinical interventions for injuries affecting its ligaments, tendons, or cartilage.^[4]

Anatomy

Bones and articulations

The shoulder girdle, which forms the skeletal foundation of the shoulder complex, comprises three primary bones: the clavicle, scapula, and proximal humerus.^[2] The clavicle, or collarbone, is a long, S-shaped bone that serves as the sole osseous connection between the upper limb and the axial skeleton, extending from the sternum to the scapula.^[2] The scapula, a flat, triangular bone also known as the shoulder blade, features key projections including the acromion (a lateral extension that forms the highest point of the shoulder), the coracoid process (an anterior hook-like projection), and the glenoid cavity (a shallow pear-shaped fossa on the lateral aspect).^[2] The proximal humerus, the upper portion of the arm bone, includes the rounded humeral head (which articulates with the scapula), the greater tubercle (a lateral prominence), the lesser tubercle (an anterior prominence), and the surgical neck (a constricted region just distal to the tubercles).^[2] The shoulder involves four articulations that enable its mobility: the glenohumeral, acromioclavicular, sternoclavicular, and scapulothoracic joints.^[2] The glenohumeral joint is a multiaxial ball-and-socket synovial joint formed by the articulation of the humeral head with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.^[2] The acromioclavicular joint is a plane synovial joint between the acromion of the scapula and the lateral end of the clavicle.^[2] The sternoclavicular joint is a saddle synovial joint connecting the medial end of the clavicle to the manubrium of the sternum.^[2] The scapulothoracic articulation is a functional, non-synovial interface where the scapula glides over the posterior thoracic wall, lacking a true joint capsule.^[2] The articular surfaces of the shoulder emphasize its inherent instability for enhanced mobility. The glenoid cavity is a shallow fossa that accommodates less than one-third of the humeral head, providing minimal bony constraint.^[2] The glenoid labrum, a fibrocartilaginous rim attached to the edge of the glenoid fossa, deepens this socket by up to 50% and expands its surface area to better receive the humeral head.^[5] Embryologically, the shoulder bones arise from mesodermal tissues through distinct ossification processes. The clavicle develops via intramembranous ossification, with its primary ossification center appearing in the diaphysis during the 5th to 6th week of gestation, making it the first bone to ossify in the human body; secondary centers for the sternal end emerge around 18-20 years, with full fusion by 20-25 years.^[6]^[7] The scapula forms from endochondral ossification of a cartilaginous precursor derived from the somatopleure and neural crest, with the primary ossification center in the body and glenoid base appearing at the 8th week; additional centers for the coracoid process arise in the 1st year, and epiphyses for the acromion, inferior angle, and borders fuse between 15-20 years.^[6]^[7] The proximal humerus undergoes endochondral ossification from lateral plate mesoderm, with the primary center in the diaphysis at 7-8 weeks and the secondary center for the humeral head at fetal week 10, followed by epiphyseal fusion around 18-20 years.^[6]^[7]

Joint capsule and ligaments

The glenohumeral joint capsule is a fibrous sheath that encloses the articulation between the humeral head and the glenoid cavity of the scapula, extending from the anatomical neck of the humerus to the glenoid rim.^[1] This structure is relatively loose and redundant, with a surface area approximately twice that of the humeral head, allowing for extensive mobility while providing passive stability.^[1] The capsule is divided into superior, middle, and inferior portions, with the inferior capsule being particularly lax to accommodate the wide range of motion, whereas the superior portion is more reinforced.^[2] The primary reinforcements of the capsule are the glenohumeral ligaments, which are thickenings of the anterior and inferior capsular tissue. The superior glenohumeral ligament (SGHL) arises from the supraglenoid tubercle and the superior glenoid labrum, passing anteroinferiorly to insert on the superior aspect of the anatomical neck of the humerus, often blending with the coracohumeral ligament.^[1] It primarily resists inferior translation of the humeral head, particularly when the arm is in adduction.^[2] The middle glenohumeral ligament (MGHL) originates from the anterior glenoid near the base of the coracoid process and attaches to the anterior humerus at the lesser tuberosity, reinforcing the anterior capsule and limiting external rotation at 90 degrees of abduction.^[1] The inferior glenohumeral ligament (IGHL) complex, the strongest of the three, fans out from the inferior glenoid labrum to the anterior and posterior aspects of the humeral neck, forming an anterior band, posterior band, and axillary pouch; it is the primary restraint against anterior and posterior instability in abduction and external rotation.^[2] The rotator interval, located anterosuperiorly between the supraspinatus and subscapularis tendons, is a triangular region bounded by the coracohumeral ligament (CHL) superiorly, the SGHL inferiorly, and the intertubercular sulcus medially.^[1] This area contains the long head of the biceps tendon and contributes to superior stability by acting as a compressive sling for the humeral head.^[1] The CHL, a broad fibrous band approximately 2 cm wide, originates from the lateral base of the coracoid process and bifurcates to insert on the greater and lesser tuberosities of the humerus, reinforcing the superior capsule and limiting excessive external rotation and inferior translation.^[2] Additional ligaments support the overall shoulder complex. The coracoacromial ligament extends from the coracoid process to the acromion, forming the coracoacromial arch that overlies the joint and helps distribute loads across the superior aspect.^[2] The transverse humeral ligament bridges the bicipital groove of the humerus, securing the long head of the biceps tendon within it.^[2] At the acromioclavicular (AC) joint, the AC ligament connects the acromion to the clavicle with superior and inferior fascicles, providing horizontal stability, while the coracoclavicular (CC) ligaments—trapezoid (lateral) and conoid (medial)—link the coracoid process to the clavicle undersurface, offering vertical support and resisting superior clavicular displacement.^[2] The inner surface of the joint capsule is lined by a synovial membrane, which secretes synovial fluid for lubrication and nourishment of the articular cartilage, extending into folds or plicae that may form recesses such as the axillary pouch.^[1] These synovial structures facilitate smooth gliding of the humeral head during movement while maintaining joint integrity.^[1]

Muscles and tendons

The shoulder joint is supported by a complex array of muscles that contribute to its stability and mobility through their tendinous attachments. The rotator cuff, a key group of four muscles, forms a musculotendinous cuff that encircles the glenohumeral joint, dynamically stabilizing the humeral head within the glenoid fossa. These muscles originate from the scapula and insert via tendons onto the proximal humerus. The supraspinatus originates from the supraspinous fossa of the scapula and inserts on the superior facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus, initiating abduction of the arm. The infraspinatus, arising from the infraspinous fossa, inserts on the middle facet of the greater tubercle and facilitates external rotation. The teres minor, originating from the lateral border of the scapula, inserts on the inferior facet of the greater tubercle and also contributes to external rotation while aiding in adduction. The subscapularis, the only anterior rotator cuff muscle, originates from the subscapular fossa and inserts on the lesser tubercle, enabling internal rotation.^[8] Beyond the rotator cuff, several scapulohumeral muscles act across the glenohumeral joint to provide broader movement capabilities while reinforcing joint integrity. The deltoid muscle, with origins from the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula, inserts on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus; its middle fibers primarily abduct the arm, while anterior fibers flex and medially rotate, and posterior fibers extend and laterally rotate. The teres major originates from the inferior angle of the scapula and inserts on the medial lip of the intertubercular groove of the humerus, assisting in adduction and internal rotation. The pectoralis major, arising from the clavicle, sternum, and costal cartilages, inserts on the lateral lip of the intertubercular groove and promotes flexion, adduction, and internal rotation. The latissimus dorsi, originating from the spinous processes of the lower thoracic vertebrae, thoracolumbar fascia, and iliac crest, inserts on the floor of the intertubercular groove and drives extension, adduction, and internal rotation.^[8] Scapular stabilizers are essential for maintaining the position of the scapula relative to the thorax, indirectly supporting shoulder joint integrity by optimizing the glenohumeral articulation. The trapezius originates from the occipital bone, nuchal ligament, and spinous processes of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, inserting on the clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula to elevate, retract, and depress the scapula. The rhomboid muscles (major and minor) originate from the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae (T2-T5 for major, C7-T1 for minor) and insert on the medial border of the scapula, retracting and elevating it. The levator scapulae arises from the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae (C1-C4) and inserts on the superior angle and medial border of the scapula, elevating the scapula. The serratus anterior originates from the upper eight or nine ribs and inserts along the medial border of the scapula, protracting and stabilizing it against the thoracic wall. The pectoralis minor originates from the third to fifth ribs and inserts on the coracoid process of the scapula, depressing and protracting the scapula.^[8] Tendons in the shoulder complex play critical roles in transmitting forces from muscles to bone and reinforcing the joint capsule. The long head of the biceps brachii tendon originates from the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula and passes through the rotator interval, held in place by the transverse humeral ligament over the intertubercular groove of the humerus, contributing to anterior stability. The supraspinatus tendon, extending from the supraspinous fossa to the superior facet of the greater tubercle, forms a key component of the rotator cuff, blending with the joint capsule to enhance superior glenohumeral integrity.^[8]

Bursae and synovial spaces

The shoulder joint features several bursae, which are synovial-lined, fluid-filled sacs that minimize friction between tendons, muscles, and bony structures during movement. These structures, along with synovial recesses within the joint capsule, enhance the joint's mobility by providing lubrication and cushioning.^[1] The subacromial-subdeltoid bursa is the largest bursa in the shoulder, positioned between the acromion process, coracoacromial ligament, and deltoid muscle superiorly, and the rotator cuff—particularly the supraspinatus tendon—inferiorly. It reduces friction during arm abduction and elevation, allowing smooth gliding of the rotator cuff beneath the acromion.^[1]^[9] The subscapularis bursa, also referred to as the subcoracoid bursa, lies between the anterior surface of the subscapularis tendon and the coracoid process of the scapula. This bursa facilitates frictionless movement of the subscapularis during internal rotation and often communicates with the glenohumeral joint cavity in approximately 94% of cases.^[1]^[9] Synovial recesses extend from the glenohumeral joint cavity, lined by the same synovial membrane as the capsule, to accommodate joint distension and motion. The axillary pouch forms the primary inferior recess, creating a capacious pocket below the humeral head that allows for adduction and external rotation. The subscapular recess, a smaller anterior extension, projects between the subscapularis tendon and the anterior scapular neck, supporting internal rotation while maintaining communication with the main joint space.^[10]^[11] Bursae in the shoulder develop as congenital structures or through repetitive motion, featuring a synovial lining composed of simple squamous epithelium that secretes viscous synovial fluid for lubrication. This lining, often with underlying areolar or fibrous connective tissue, contains microvascular and neural elements to support fluid dynamics and sensory feedback.^[12]^[9]

Neurovascular supply

The neurovascular supply of the shoulder joint is derived primarily from the brachial plexus and branches of the subclavian and axillary arteries, ensuring motor innervation, sensory feedback, and adequate perfusion to the glenohumeral structures and surrounding muscles.^[13]^[14] The innervation originates from the brachial plexus, formed by the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5 through T1, which provides motor and sensory supply to the shoulder region.^[13] Key branches include the suprascapular nerve, arising from the upper trunk of the brachial plexus, which supplies motor innervation to the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles.^[15] The axillary nerve, originating from the posterior cord (C5-C6 roots), innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles.^[16] The upper and lower subscapular nerves, both from the posterior cord, provide motor supply to the subscapularis muscle, with the upper nerve targeting the superior portion and the lower nerve the inferior portion.^[17] Additionally, the long thoracic nerve, derived directly from C5-C7 roots, innervates the serratus anterior muscle.^[18] Sensory innervation to the glenohumeral joint capsule arises from articular branches of the suprascapular, axillary, and subscapular nerves, contributing to proprioception and pain signaling from the joint structures.^[1]^[19] The arterial blood supply stems from the subclavian artery, which continues as the axillary artery at the lateral border of the first rib, with relevant branches perfusing the shoulder.^[14] The suprascapular artery, typically a branch of the thyrocervical trunk from the subclavian artery, supplies the scapula, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus muscles.^[15] The anterior and posterior humeral circumflex arteries, arising from the third part of the axillary artery, provide the primary vascularization to the humeral head and surrounding capsule.^[1] The subscapular artery, the largest branch of the axillary artery's third part, supplies the subscapularis and other scapular muscles via its circumflex scapular branch.^[17] Venous drainage follows the arterial pathways, converging into tributaries of the axillary vein, which empties into the subclavian vein.^[20] Lymphatic drainage from the shoulder joint and muscles flows through deep vessels accompanying the neurovascular structures, ultimately reaching the axillary lymph nodes.^[21]

Biomechanics and Function

Kinematics and range of motion

The shoulder joint, primarily the glenohumeral articulation, enables a wide array of movements through its ball-and-socket configuration, allowing the humerus to rotate freely relative to the glenoid fossa. The primary motions include flexion, which extends from 0° to 180° in the sagittal plane, and extension from 0° to approximately 60° backward from the anatomical position.^[1] Abduction occurs from 0° to 150° away from the body's midline in the coronal plane, while adduction brings the arm from 0° to about 30° toward the midline.^[1] Rotational movements encompass internal rotation from 0° to 70°–90° and external rotation from 0° to 90°, both assessed with the arm at the side.^[1] These motions are not isolated to the glenohumeral joint but involve coupled contributions from the scapulothoracic articulation, known as the scapulohumeral rhythm. During arm elevation, such as in abduction, the rhythm typically follows a 2:1 ratio, where for every 2° of humeral elevation at the glenohumeral joint, the scapula contributes 1° of upward rotation, enabling full overhead reach.^[22] This coordination includes scapular upward rotation and posterior tilt, with the glenohumeral joint accounting for the majority of motion (approximately 120° during abduction) and the scapulothoracic interface providing the remainder (about 60°).^[22] The instantaneous center of rotation shifts dynamically during these movements, migrating inferiorly and posteriorly on the glenoid as the humerus elevates, optimizing joint congruence.^[23] The range of motion (ROM) is influenced by intrinsic anatomical factors, including the degree of capsular laxity, which permits multidirectional glide and rotation without constraint in neutral positions but tenses at end ranges to define limits.^[1] Similarly, the integrity of the glenoid labrum enhances joint depth and stability, indirectly supporting full ROM by maintaining humeral head centering during elevation and rotation.^[23]

Muscle roles and stabilization

The rotator cuff muscles—supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis—play a primary role in dynamic stabilization of the glenohumeral joint by generating compressive forces that center the humeral head within the shallow glenoid fossa, a mechanism known as concavity-compression.^[24] This compression enhances joint congruence and resists translational forces during arm movements, particularly in the mid-range and end-range of motion where passive restraints are less effective.^[25] Through balanced force couples, the inferior rotator cuff components (subscapularis and infraspinatus) depress the humeral head to counteract the superior pull of the deltoid during elevation, maintaining central positioning and preventing superior migration.^[26] In shoulder abduction, the supraspinatus initiates the motion by providing an initial upward force on the humeral head, while the deltoid takes over as the primary elevator beyond the initial 15-30 degrees, ensuring smooth progression without excessive joint shear.^[27] Scapular muscles coordinate this process via force couples: the serratus anterior protracts and upwardly rotates the scapula to facilitate humeral elevation, while the rhomboids and middle trapezius retract and stabilize the scapula against excessive movement, promoting efficient glenohumeral-scapulothoracic rhythm.^[28] Additional stabilizers include the biceps brachii, whose long head contributes to anterior stability by resisting humeral head subluxation during flexion and internal rotation through its tensile force across the joint.^[29] The triceps brachii, particularly its long head, provides posterior stability and assists in humeral head depression during extension, complementing the rotator cuff's actions.^[30] Muscle spindles within these shoulder muscles serve proprioceptive functions, relaying sensory feedback on joint position and velocity to the central nervous system, which refines motor control and enhances dynamic stability during functional tasks.^[31] While static stability relies on ligaments and the joint capsule for restraint at rest or extremes of motion, dynamic stability from the rotator cuff and associated muscles actively maintains humeral head centering through ongoing force production, distinguishing it as the primary mechanism for the shoulder's wide range of mobility without compromise.^[24]

Clinical Significance

Injuries and trauma

The shoulder joint is highly susceptible to acute traumatic injuries due to its wide range of motion and structural complexity, often resulting from high-impact falls, sports collisions, or motor vehicle accidents. These injuries can lead to immediate pain, instability, and functional impairment, with potential complications including nerve damage or vascular compromise if not addressed promptly. Common traumatic conditions encompass fractures, dislocations, rotator cuff tears, and labral injuries, each characterized by specific mechanisms and anatomical disruptions. Proximal humerus fractures typically occur from direct trauma or falls onto an outstretched arm, involving the humeral head, shaft, and tuberosities, and are classified using the Neer system into one- to four-part fractures based on the number of displaced segments (defined as >1 cm displacement or >45° angulation).^[32]^[33] Clavicle fractures, the most prevalent in the shoulder girdle, predominantly affect the midshaft (accounting for 80% of cases) following a fall on the lateral shoulder or direct blow, leading to immediate deformity, swelling, and potential brachial plexus irritation.^[34]^[35] Scapula fractures are rare, comprising less than 1% of all fractures, and arise from high-energy mechanisms such as vehicular collisions, often associated with multisystem trauma including pulmonary contusions or head injuries due to the force required to disrupt this robust bone.^[36]^[37] Glenohumeral dislocations represent another frequent traumatic event, with anterior dislocations comprising over 95% of cases, typically resulting from a fall or blow forcing the arm into abduction and external rotation, which levers the humeral head anteriorly out of the glenoid, often causing immediate axillary nerve injury or Hill-Sachs lesion on the humerus.^[38] Posterior dislocations, occurring in about 2-4% of instances, are less common and frequently linked to seizures, electric shocks, or forceful internal rotation, trapping the humeral head posteriorly and potentially compressing the axillary nerve or rotator cuff.^[39]^[40] Inferior dislocations, known as luxatio erecta, are exceedingly rare (0.5% of shoulder dislocations) and stem from hyperabduction of the arm overhead, locking the humeral head below the glenoid, which can immediately produce severe pain, arm elevation in a fixed position, and risks to the brachial plexus or axillary artery.^[41]^[42] Acute rotator cuff tears often arise from sudden, high-force trauma such as a fall or violent overhead motion, distinguishing full-thickness tears—where the tendon completely detaches from the humerus, leading to profound weakness and pain— from partial-thickness tears, which involve only superficial or deep fiber disruption and may stem from impingement-related acute overload.^[43]^[44] These injuries immediately compromise shoulder abduction and rotation, with full-thickness variants more common in younger patients after macro-trauma, potentially exacerbating instability if combined with other lesions.^[45] Labral injuries frequently accompany dislocations or direct trauma, with the Bankart lesion involving detachment of the anteroinferior glenoid labrum, a key stabilizer, which predisposes to anterior instability following an abduction-external rotation force and can result in recurrent subluxation or immediate apprehension during arm movement.^[46]^[47] SLAP tears (superior labrum anterior to posterior) disrupt the superior labrum and biceps tendon anchor, often from acute traction or compression in overhead athletes or falls, leading to immediate deep shoulder pain, clicking, and reduced throwing velocity due to biceps instability.^[48]^[49] These lesions underscore the shoulder's vulnerability to soft-tissue trauma, with immediate consequences including mechanical symptoms and guarded motion.^[50]

Degenerative and inflammatory conditions

Degenerative conditions of the shoulder joint primarily involve progressive wear of articular structures, leading to pain, stiffness, and functional impairment. Glenohumeral osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by the gradual loss of articular cartilage in the glenohumeral joint, resulting in subchondral bone exposure, sclerosis, and cyst formation, often accompanied by osteophyte development at the joint margins.^[51] This condition has an estimated prevalence of 4% to 26% in the general population, with post-traumatic OA being a common etiology following prior fractures, dislocations, or soft-tissue injuries that alter joint biomechanics.^[52] Symptoms typically include deep, aching pain exacerbated by overhead activities and at night, alongside reduced range of motion due to mechanical obstruction from osteophytes and capsular tightening.^[51] Acromioclavicular OA, affecting the joint between the acromion and clavicle, arises from age-related cartilage degeneration or secondary to trauma, manifesting as anterior or superior shoulder pain worsened by cross-body adduction or overhead motions.^[53] Radiographic features include joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis, and osteophyte formation, with ultrasonography revealing capsular hypertrophy and effusion in symptomatic cases.^[54] Rotator cuff degenerative tears represent a prevalent attritional process, particularly in individuals over 40 years, where intrinsic tendon degeneration from collagen disorganization and reduced vascularity predisposes to partial or full-thickness tears, often initiating at the supraspinatus tendon.^[26] These tears progress with age, affecting approximately 15-20% of individuals in their 60s, with prevalence increasing to 25-30% in the 70s and higher thereafter, driven by repetitive microtrauma and oxidative stress leading to apoptosis in tenocytes.^[26]^[55] A key sequela is fatty infiltration and atrophy of the rotator cuff muscles, where intramuscular fat accumulation correlates with tear chronicity—moderate infiltration emerging after approximately three years and severe changes after five years—impairing muscle strength and complicating tendon healing.^[26] This degeneration doubles in extent with every 5-mm increase in tear size, contributing to shoulder weakness and instability without acute injury.^[26] Inflammatory conditions encompass immune-mediated disorders that target synovial and periarticular tissues. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) frequently involves the shoulder through chronic synovitis, where pannus formation erodes cartilage and subchondral bone, particularly at the glenohumeral and acromioclavicular joints, leading to joint space loss, marginal erosions, and eventual ankylosis.^[56] Early RA shoulder manifestations include soft-tissue swelling, subchondral osteoporosis, and inflammatory effusion, progressing to destructive changes that cause pain, stiffness, and limited elevation.^[56] Adhesive capsulitis, or frozen shoulder, is an idiopathic inflammatory fibrosis of the glenohumeral capsule, resulting in capsular thickening and contracture that restricts motion, with a self-limiting course divided into three stages: the freezing stage (2-9 months) marked by escalating pain and progressive stiffness; the frozen stage (4-12 months) dominated by severe limitation despite reduced pain; and the thawing stage, where mobility gradually recovers over months to years.^[57] Pathophysiologically, it involves cytokine-driven fibroblast proliferation and excessive collagen deposition, often affecting individuals aged 40-60, particularly women and those with comorbidities like diabetes.^[57] Calcific tendinitis arises from hydroxyapatite crystal deposition within the rotator cuff tendons, most commonly the supraspinatus, progressing through distinct phases that dictate clinical presentation. The formative phase involves cell-mediated calcium hydroxyapatite accumulation without significant inflammation, often asymptomatic; this transitions to a resting phase of stable, inert deposits.^[58] The resorptive phase triggers an acute inflammatory response as the body breaks down the deposits, causing severe, localized pain, swelling, and restricted motion, mimicking infection or tear.^[58] This condition peaks in middle-aged women, with deposits resolving spontaneously in many cases, though persistent calcification can lead to chronic tendinopathy.^[59]

Diagnostic and therapeutic approaches

Diagnosis of shoulder pathology begins with a thorough physical examination to assess range of motion, strength, and specific provocative tests. The empty can test, performed by abducting the arm to 90 degrees in the scapular plane with thumbs down and applying downward pressure, evaluates supraspinatus integrity and impingement, with positive results indicating pain or weakness suggestive of rotator cuff pathology.^[60] The apprehension test, involving abduction to 90 degrees and full external rotation to elicit a sense of instability, assesses anterior glenohumeral instability, particularly in cases of labral tears.^[60] These maneuvers provide initial clinical correlation but require imaging for confirmation. Imaging modalities complement physical findings for precise evaluation. Plain X-rays, including anteroposterior, axillary, and scapular Y views, detect fractures, arthritis, and bone loss with high specificity for osseous abnormalities.^[61] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), often with arthrography, excels in visualizing soft tissues such as rotator cuff tears, labral injuries, and capsular structures, offering sensitivity up to 90% for full-thickness tears.^[61] Ultrasound provides dynamic assessment of tendons and bursae, with 88-100% sensitivity for biceps tendon pathology and utility in guiding interventions for impingement or tendinitis.^[62] Diagnostic arthroscopy serves as the gold standard for intra-articular inspection, using a posterior portal for viewing the glenohumeral joint to evaluate the biceps tendon, rotator cuff, labrum, and loose bodies, particularly when non-invasive methods are inconclusive.^[63] Therapeutic approaches prioritize conservative management for most shoulder conditions to restore function and alleviate pain. Physical therapy focuses on improving range of motion through stretching and strengthening exercises targeting rotator cuff and scapular stabilizers, often yielding significant gains in patients with tendinopathy or mild instability.^[64] Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduce inflammation and pain in acute phases, serving as first-line pharmacotherapy alongside activity modification.^[65] Intra-articular and periarticular injections offer targeted relief when conservative measures are insufficient. Corticosteroid injections into the subacromial space effectively decrease inflammation in bursitis or impingement, providing short-term pain reduction and improved mobility, though repeated use risks tendon weakening.^[66] Hyaluronic acid injections for osteoarthritis lubricate the joint and mitigate symptoms, with meta-analyses showing enhanced range of motion and function lasting up to 12 months compared to placebo.^[67] Surgical interventions are indicated for refractory cases or structural damage. Arthroscopic rotator cuff repair, preferred over open techniques for smaller tears due to lower morbidity and faster recovery, employs double-row suture anchors to restore footprint anatomy and tensile strength, achieving over 80% success in pain relief and function.^[68] Shoulder arthroplasty addresses end-stage arthritis; total anatomic replacement preserves the rotator cuff for intact cases, while reverse arthroplasty reallocates forces for cuff-deficient shoulders, improving stability and active elevation.^[69] For instability, arthroscopic Bankart repair reattaches the anteroinferior labrum using anchors, restoring glenohumeral congruence with recurrence rates under 10% in primary cases.^[70] Recent advancements incorporate biologics and technology for enhanced outcomes. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections for tendinopathy promote healing via growth factors, with 2020s trials demonstrating superior mid-term pain reduction and functional improvement over corticosteroids, particularly in rotator cuff pathology.^[71] Stem cell therapies, including mesenchymal stem cells, show promise in osteoarthritis by modulating inflammation and supporting cartilage repair, with systematic reviews from 2020 onward indicating symptom alleviation and potential disease modification in early-stage disease. Robotic-assisted surgery in arthroplasty and repairs enhances precision in implant positioning and soft tissue balancing, improving short-term functional scores in studies up to 2025.^[72]

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The long thoracic nerve is the motor nerve to the serratus anterior muscle, which functions to pull the scapula forward around the thorax.Structure and Function · Muscles · Surgical Considerations · Clinical Significance
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The superficial veins in the upper limb drain the blood from the skin and superficial fascia. The deep venous system will drain the blood from the deeper fascia ...Missing: joint | Show results with:joint
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They receive lymph from the scapular region, as well as the posterior thoracic wall. They drain into the central and apical nodes. Lateral (humeral) lymph nodes ...
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Jan 30, 2024 · Biomechanically, the long head of the biceps has a controversial role in the shoulder joint's dynamic stability. However, studies demonstrate ...
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12 Based on prior research, it was postulated that using rotator cuff strengthening exercises would improve the effectiveness of the dynamic stabilizers of the ...
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Proprioception is essential to motor control and joint stability during daily and sport activities. Recent studies demonstrated that athletes have better joint ...
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The four-segment classification system defines proximal humerus fractures by the number of displaced segments or parts, with additional categories for ...
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Therefore, fractures of the scapula are usually caused by high-energy trauma, such as a high-speed motor vehicle collision, or a fall from a great height.
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Over 95% of glenohumeral dislocations are anterior. Violent external rotation in abduction levers the head of the humerus out of the glenoid socket, avulsing ...
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Unilateral dislocations occur mostly due to trauma. Bilateral posterior shoulder dislocations are even more rare and result mainly from epileptic seizures.
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When a tendon is completely detached from the bone, it is referred to as a full-thickness complete tear. With a full-thickness complete tear, there is ...
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The Bankart lesion was first described in 1938 as an anterior labral injury causing anterior instability of the glenohumeral joint.Pathophysiology · History and Physical · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
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Jul 15, 2020 · Joint space narrowing, superficial osteophytes, and capsular hypertrophy are typical US signs of acromioclavicular osteoarthritis. Bilateral ...
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The postcalcific stage and the resorptive phase of the calcific stage seem to occur simultaneously, with the replacement of calcium deposits by granulation ...
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Before undergoing surgery, all patients underwent a standardized physical examination and had either an MRI and/or MR arthrogram performed. Sensitivity analysis ...
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Although commonly prescribed, the evidence to support exercises therapy (ET) and conservative management for the treatment of full-thickness rotator cuff tears ...
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Apr 30, 2021 · Prescribes non-operative treatment. Prescribe physical therapy; stretching, rotator cuff and scapular stabilizer strengthening exercises ...
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The main theoretical benefits of robot-assisted shoulder arthroplasty include accuracy and precision, data acquisition, and with certain robots, the promise to ...