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Siege of Skardu

The Siege of Skardu was a prolonged military blockade during the 1947–1948 Indo-Pakistani War, in which a small garrison of Jammu and Kashmir State Forces defended the town of Skardu in Baltistan against Pakistani-supported irregular forces, including Gilgit Scouts and Chitral Scouts, from 12 February to 14 August 1948.^[1]^[2] Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa with approximately 250 troops, the defenders withstood harsh winter conditions, high-altitude terrain, and intermittent assaults while isolated from relief due to logistical challenges and enemy control of surrounding passes following the earlier fall of Gilgit.^[1]^[3] The siege highlighted the strategic importance of Skardu as a gateway to Ladakh and Leh, with the garrison's resistance delaying Pakistani consolidation in the region despite limited supplies and failed Indian relief attempts over treacherous routes like the Zoji La Pass.^[1] Besieging forces, coordinated under Pakistani officers such as Major Abdul Ehsan of the Gilgit Scouts, employed encirclement tactics, cutting off reinforcements and subjecting the fort to artillery fire and raids, yet faced determined counteractions that repelled multiple attacks.^[1] The defenders' endurance, marked by rationing ammunition and food amid sub-zero temperatures, exemplified resilience but ended in surrender on 14 August 1948 after ammunition depletion, with Thapa and survivors taken prisoner until a subsequent exchange.^[3]^[4] This engagement underscored logistical disparities in mountain warfare, contributing to the broader war's stalemate and the eventual UN-mediated ceasefire, while Thapa's leadership earned posthumous recognition for sustaining the defense against superior numbers.^[3] The fall of Skardu facilitated Pakistani advances toward Leh, prompting Indian countermeasures including airlifts to isolated posts, though it remained one of the war's most grueling attritional battles with few parallels in sustained isolation.^[1]

Background

Geopolitical Context of the Kashmir Conflict

The partition of British India on August 15, 1947, into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan was governed by the Indian Independence Act, which allowed over 560 princely states—covering about 40% of the subcontinent's territory—to accede to either dominion or, in theory, remain independent based on the decision of their ruling princes.^[5] Jammu and Kashmir, a princely state spanning 222,236 square kilometers with a Muslim-majority population of approximately 77% but ruled by the Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh, presented a unique challenge due to its contiguous borders with both new dominions, as well as Afghanistan and Tibet.^[6] The state's strategic location controlled the headwaters of major rivers including the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab, which were critical for irrigation and hydropower in the Punjab region, making control over Kashmir economically vital for Pakistan's agrarian economy while also offering India defensive depth against potential threats from the northwest.^[7]^[8] Maharaja Hari Singh initially pursued independence, signing standstill agreements on August 12, 1947, with both India and Pakistan to maintain existing administrative and trade arrangements without committing to accession.^[9] These agreements preserved the status quo amid internal unrest, including demands for democratic reforms from the Muslim Conference and National Conference parties, but Hari Singh's indecision was influenced by communal violence during partition—estimated at over 200,000 deaths across the subcontinent—and fears of losing sovereignty.^[6] Pakistan, viewing Kashmir's Muslim demographics as aligning with its two-nation theory justification for partition, pressed for accession, while India emphasized the ruler's prerogative under the partition framework; however, Hari Singh's delay heightened tensions as Pakistani authorities allegedly encouraged cross-border agitation.^[10] The geopolitical flashpoint erupted on October 22, 1947, when irregular Pashtun tribal militias, armed and logistically supported by Pakistani military officers, invaded Kashmir from the northwest, capturing Muzaffarabad and advancing toward Srinagar amid reports of looting and atrocities that exacerbated communal divides.^[6] Facing collapse of state forces, Hari Singh appealed to India for aid, signing the Instrument of Accession on October 26, 1947, which transferred defense, external affairs, and communications to India while retaining internal autonomy.^[11]^[10] India airlifted troops to Srinagar on October 27, formalizing intervention under the accession terms, but Pakistan rejected the document's validity, claiming it was coerced and initiating direct military involvement, thus escalating the conflict into the first Indo-Pakistani war over territorial control, water security, and irredentist claims.^[5] This war, fought primarily in Kashmir, reflected deeper causal drivers: Pakistan's strategic imperative to secure riverine lifelines against India's upstream dominance and ideological commitment to Muslim-majority unification, contrasted with India's legalistic defense of princely accession rights and concerns over fragmented borders vulnerable to infiltration.^[7]^[8]

Composition of Defending and Attacking Forces

The defending forces at Skardu consisted primarily of personnel from the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry Battalion of the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa.^[1]^[12] The initial garrison included about 71 troops, comprising 40 Sikhs and 31 Muslims, with reinforcements arriving in February 1948 that increased the military strength to approximately 285 all ranks, predominantly non-Muslims following desertions by some Muslim soldiers and operators.^[1]^[12] Additionally, around 200 local Balti civilians were armed and organized into a supporting militia, bringing the total effective defending personnel to roughly 485, including refugees under protection.^[13] The attacking forces were a coalition of irregular units coordinated under Pakistani auspices, including the Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, and local militias, rather than regular Pakistan Army troops at the outset.^[12] The Gilgit Scouts formed the core, numbering approximately 600 personnel, supplemented by about 200 deserters from the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry and up to 2,000 tribal and local militiamen, with Chitral Scouts providing further support; total strength exceeded 2,000.^[14]^[13] Key commanders included Major Ahsan Ali (also known as Ehsan Khan), Captain Muhammad Khan, and Lieutenant Babar Khan, operating under designations like Ibex Force.^[1]^[12] These forces were equipped with modern rifles and mortars, enabling sustained encirclement and assaults despite their irregular nature.^[1]

Strategic Importance of Skardu

Skardu, as the administrative headquarters of Baltistan, commanded critical terrain overlooking the Indus River valley and served as the primary hub for controlling northern access routes within the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Its location facilitated dominance over the Shyok and Indus river systems, which were essential for sustaining military movements and local populations in the high-altitude desert regions. During the 1947 conflict, Pakistani irregulars and scouts targeted Skardu to consolidate gains from the Gilgit rebellion, recognizing that its capture would secure the flank of their northern holdings and prevent Indian counteroffensives toward Gilgit Agency. ^[1] The town's airfield, operational with a rudimentary airstrip since the pre-partition era, amplified its logistical value by enabling air resupply operations in an area where overland routes like the Zoji La pass were seasonally impassable due to heavy snowfall from November to May. Indian forces had reinforced the garrison via Dakota aircraft landings as late as November 1947, underscoring the site's role in sustaining isolated outposts amid harsh winter conditions that restricted ground transport to mule trains and limited vehicular access. Control of this airfield was pivotal for projecting power into Ladakh, as it offered the only viable aerial link bypassing the vulnerable Srinagar-Leh axis. ^[15] From a broader operational standpoint, Skardu anchored the western gateway to Ladakh, with roads linking it southward to Kargil and eastward across the Deosai Plateau toward Leh, positions that, if held by Indian state forces, could threaten Pakistani supply lines from Gilgit and isolate Baltistan. Failure to defend Skardu risked severing Ladakh's northern defenses, potentially allowing invaders to envelop Indian positions from multiple directions and complicating relief efforts reliant on the single, precarious Srinagar-Kargil-Leh route. Pakistani command, led by figures like Major Aslam Khan, prioritized the siege to neutralize this threat, viewing Skardu as the linchpin for denying India territorial depth in the trans-Himalayan sector. ^[1]^[16]

Prelude

Tribal Invasion and Gilgit Rebellion

The tribal invasion of Jammu and Kashmir commenced on 22 October 1947, when roughly 5,000 to 20,000 Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province and adjoining tribal agencies, including Mahsuds, Afridis, and Yusufzais, crossed the border at Muzaffarabad under the banner of jihad against Dogra rule.^[17] ^[18] These irregular lashkars, armed with rifles and supported logistically by Pakistani military officers such as Colonel Akbar Khan (operating under the pseudonym "General Tariq"), advanced swiftly, capturing Muzaffarabad by 23 October and Baramulla by 25 October after overcoming minimal resistance from Jammu and Kashmir state forces.^[19] ^[20] The invaders looted settlements, massacred non-combatants—particularly Hindus and Sikhs—and engaged in widespread rape, acts documented in contemporaneous reports that accelerated the Maharaja's decision to accede to India on 26 October.^[21] Indian paratroopers airlifted into Srinagar on 27 October halted the lashkars' push toward the capital, but detachments of tribesmen, numbering several thousand, diverted eastward and northward into the Ladakh region, exploiting the state's elongated terrain and poor communications.^[22] In parallel, the Gilgit Rebellion erupted in the remote Gilgit Agency on 1 November 1947, where the predominantly Muslim population (over 85 percent) chafed under nominal Dogra suzerainty following the agency's lease from British India in 1935.^[23] The Gilgit Scouts, a paramilitary unit of approximately 900 local levies commanded by British Major William Brown, mutinied against the newly appointed Hindu governor, Brigadier Ghansara Singh, arresting him without bloodshed and seizing the agency's administrative centers including Gilgit town.^[24] ^[25] Brown, motivated by fears of Hindu domination post-partition and local resentment toward Dogra policies, formed a provisional "Revolutionary Council" and sought affiliation with Pakistan, raising its flag on 16 November after dispatching a delegation to Peshawar for approval.^[26] This swift coup, unopposed due to the scouts' control over strategic passes and the absence of reinforcing state troops, secured Gilgit-Baltistan for Pakistani control and severed overland links from Srinagar to Skardu via the Indus Valley and Burzil Pass.^[1] The combined effects of the tribal incursions and Gilgit uprising isolated Skardu, the administrative hub of Baltistan, by early November 1947. Tribal lashkars, numbering around 1,000-2,000 in the eastern sectors, linked up with advancing Gilgit Scouts detachments (initially 400-600 strong under subalterns like Captain Nasir Khan), who traversed the high-altitude Deosai Plateau despite harsh weather, encircling the town and its fort-held garrison of roughly 250-300 Jammu and Kashmir state troops plus local Muslim militia under Colonel Sher Jung Thapa.^[1] ^[27] Pakistani sources portray the Gilgit action as a grassroots pro-Pakistan uprising against oppressive rule, while Indian accounts emphasize its coordination with the broader invasion strategy; primary records, including Brown's own memoir, confirm local agency but acknowledge covert Pakistani encouragement via radio links and supplies.^[28] These events precluded any timely reinforcement to Skardu, forcing its defenders into a prolonged siege amid winter's onset.^[29]

Isolation of Skardu Garrison

The Gilgit rebellion on 1 November 1947, led by the Gilgit Scouts under Major William Brown, resulted in the arrest of the Maharaja's governor, Brigadier Ghansara Singh, and the establishment of a provisional pro-Pakistan government in the region. This event severed administrative control over the northern areas of Jammu and Kashmir, including Baltistan where Skardu was located, and cut off the critical Indus River supply route linking Gilgit to Skardu, Kargil, and Leh. The loss of Gilgit effectively isolated the Skardu garrison from reinforcements and logistics from the north, as the Scouts rapidly advanced southward, capturing the strategic Bunji fort on the Indus by mid-November, further blocking any potential relief from that direction.^[1] In response to the deteriorating situation, Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa, second-in-command of the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry, was ordered to reinforce Skardu. Departing Leh on 23 November 1947 with two officers, two junior commissioned officers, and 72 other ranks amid heavy snowfall, Thapa arrived to bolster the existing garrison of approximately 71 troops at the Kharpocho Fort and barracks. However, the advancing Gilgit Scouts, augmented by local Baltistani levies and defectors from the state forces, encircled Skardu by late November, initiating the siege with coordinated assaults from the north and east. Early defections, including those led by Captain Hassan Khan of the 6th Infantry who urged mutiny via intercepted communications, compounded the isolation by eroding internal cohesion and providing intelligence to the besiegers.^[1]^[30] Local hostility in Baltistan further entrenched the garrison's predicament, as villagers withheld alerts about enemy movements and the Raja of Rondhu detained state postal runners while inciting raiders. The primary southern supply route from Srinagar via the Zojila Pass and Kargil became untenable due to harsh winter conditions and tribal threats elsewhere in Kashmir, leaving Skardu without viable resupply options. By early December 1947, the garrison was fully besieged, reliant on limited stockpiles amid dwindling ammunition and food, with no external communication or aid possible.^[1]

Course of the Siege

Initial Encirclement and Early Assaults (November 1947–February 1948)

Following the successful rebellion in Gilgit on 1 November 1947, pro-Pakistani forces comprising Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, tribal lashkars, and approximately 80 deserters from the Jammu and Kashmir state forces advanced southward, encircling the Skardu garrison by mid-November.^[1]^[12] The initial defending force numbered about 71 troops, including 40 Sikhs and 31 Muslims from the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry, holding the Skardu fort amid surrounding high-altitude terrain that limited resupply and favored the attackers' numerical superiority of roughly 600 men equipped with rifles and mortars.^[1] Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa assumed command on 3 December 1947, arriving with reinforcements of 2 officers, 2 junior commissioned officers, and 72 other ranks, bolstering the loyal non-Muslim contingent while contending with desertions among Muslim operators and troops.^[1]^[29] The encirclement isolated Skardu from external aid as winter snowfall intensified, restricting Indian relief efforts and forcing defenders to rely on limited stockpiles while facing intermittent sniping and probing attacks from positions across the Indus River.^[1] Thapa positioned detachments at key outposts like Tsari to block the Indus route, conducting aggressive patrols to maintain perimeter control and disrupt enemy buildup under commanders such as Major Ahsan Ali and Captain Mohammad Khan.^[1]^[12] By early February 1948, the garrison's effective strength had reached around 130 non-Muslims and 31 Muslims, though morale was strained by ammunition shortages and the defection of wireless operators, compelling Thapa to personally manage communications.^[1] Early assaults escalated in February, beginning with an attack on the Tsari outpost on 9 February 1948, where a Sikh platoon was overwhelmed and survivors executed, while an attached Muslim platoon defected to the attackers.^[1] This was followed by a major coordinated assault on the fort on 11 February, involving heavy fire and infantry advances that lasted six hours; defenders repelled the push through counterattacks, inflicting 10 enemy fatalities while suffering 7 killed, 1 officer and 15 other ranks wounded.^[1]^[29] Further reinforcements of 140 men arrived between 13 and 15 February, expanding the garrison to 285, which temporarily stabilized the defenses amid ongoing attrition from cold, hunger, and sporadic fire.^[1] These actions demonstrated the garrison's resilience against superior numbers, though the harsh environmental conditions and logistical isolation foreshadowed prolonged attrition.^[1]

Sustained Defense and Attrition (March–July 1948)

Following the repulsion of major assaults in February, the Skardu garrison, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa of the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry, shifted to a strategy of sustained defense centered on the fort's fortified positions, including trenches and bunkers, supplemented by aggressive patrolling and sorties to disrupt enemy movements. Troops numbering around 285 at the start of March maintained vigilance against probes by approximately 600 pro-Pakistani forces, comprising Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, tribal lashkars, and local deserters, who employed sniping and mortar fire but failed to breach defenses in clashes on March 4–6. A notable defensive action occurred on April 10, when a sortie led by Naik Chatru repelled an enemy attempt to overrun the School picket, preserving key outposts.^[1] Relief efforts from Indian forces proved futile, exacerbating the garrison's isolation. In mid-March, the "Biscuit Column"—a relief force of one company with mortars under Brigadier Faqir Singh—advanced toward Skardu but was ambushed near Gol (also referenced as Thorgo), suffering 26 killed and 18 wounded, with surviving elements withdrawing after heavy losses in arms and ammunition, including 27 rifles and two Vickers machine guns. The Indian Air Force attempted to mitigate shortages via Tempest aircraft sorties from Jammu, navigating high-altitude Himalayan challenges to deliver limited supply drops and conduct strafing, though operations remained constrained by oxygen deprivation, frozen armaments, and terrain hazards, providing only marginal sustenance amid the 400-mile round-trip demands.^[1]^[31]^[15] Attrition intensified through spring and summer due to chronic shortages and environmental factors. Food was rationed to 250 grams of wheat flour and 30 grams of dal per soldier daily, with stocks depleted by July 8, forcing reliance on barley; ammunition dwindled to critical levels, while non-combat losses mounted from malaria, dysentery, and scurvy, affecting nearly all remaining troops and straining resources further with 229 non-Muslim refugees and wounded under protection. Enemy reinforcements and the capture of nearby Kargil in May enabled sustained pressure, including an assault repelled on April 7, but cumulative combat casualties—building on prior losses—reduced effective fighting strength progressively, leaving the garrison vulnerable despite Thapa's leadership in maintaining morale.^[1]^[31]

Internal Dynamics and Local Support

The Skardu garrison, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa of the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry, initially comprised a mixed force of approximately 71 troops on December 3, 1947, including 40 Sikhs and 31 Muslims, which grew to 285 by mid-February 1948 with reinforcements from outposts.^[1] Internal cohesion was undermined by significant desertions among Muslim personnel, such as Captain Nek Alam's platoon surrendering without resistance on February 9, 1948, and three Muslim wireless operators fleeing, forcing Thapa to personally operate communications.^[1] ^[32] Captain Hassan Khan defected and attempted to incite further revolt through intercepted correspondence, exacerbating morale challenges amid severe shortages of food, ammunition, and medical supplies by July 1948, when rations sustained only 70-80 individuals despite 600 total personnel including refugees.^[1] Thapa's leadership maintained discipline among the remaining loyal troops, primarily non-Muslims, through personal example and motivational efforts, holding the fort against encirclement starting February 11, 1948, for over six months until surrender on August 14, 1948.^[32] However, internal vulnerabilities were compounded by intelligence failures, including enemy awareness of the "Biscuit Column" relief force's movements, leading to its ambush on March 15, 1948, near Gol, where 26 were killed and 18 wounded.^[1] The local Balti population in Skardu and surrounding areas provided no support to the garrison and actively aided besieging forces, reflecting resentment toward Dogra rule under the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.^[32] Muslim civil officers, schoolboys, shopkeepers' servants, and villagers withheld warnings of raider advances despite knowledge of their approach, instead relaying intelligence to the enemy; as Thapa later stated, "Every Muslim civil officer, schoolboys, servants of local shopkeepers and all who were employed to secure information about the enemy did not do so. They knew that the enemy was coming… They wanted the Pakistan flag to fly."^[32] The Raja of Rondhu further incited raiders and detained postal runners, ensuring the garrison remained isolated without local logistical or informational aid.^[1] This hostility facilitated surprise attacks and contributed to the eventual attrition of the defenders.^[32]

Relief Attempts

Indian Military Operations Toward Skardu

Following the encirclement of Skardu in early February 1948, Indian forces initiated ground relief efforts from Srinagar southward via the difficult terrain toward Kargil, aiming to reinforce the besieged garrison of the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces. On 17 February 1948, a company equipped with two 2-inch and two 3-inch mortars was dispatched from Srinagar, later augmented by a platoon at Kargil known as the "Biscuit Column" under Brigadier Faqir Singh and Major Coutts; this force advanced toward Skardu but was ambushed by Pakistani-aligned Ibex Force elements near Gol on 15 March 1948, resulting in 26 killed, 7 missing, and 18 wounded, forcing a retreat without reaching the garrison.^[1]^[29] A subsequent larger-scale effort, termed the "Sugar Column," involved approximately battalion-strength reinforcements departing from positions between Srinagar, Dras, and Kargil starting around 10 May 1948, intended to break through to Skardu and recapture key points like Kargil. However, the column faced repeated ambushes and outflanking maneuvers by Ibex Force, leading to its rout by late May; Pakistani forces captured Kargil on 10-11 May and Dras on 6 June, severing the primary overland route and rendering further ground advances infeasible.^[1]^[29]^[33] Parallel to ground operations, the Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) provided aerial support from June onward, conducting supply drops and strikes with Tempest fighter-bombers based in Srinagar to sustain the garrison and disrupt besiegers. Drops occurred on 28 June, 1 July, 8 July (recovering 4 of 6 canisters), 16-17 July, and 7 August 1948, alongside repeated bombing runs targeting enemy positions around Skardu Fort; while some ammunition and rations reached defenders, many containers landed outside the fort under enemy fire, proving insufficient to avert attrition or lift the siege.^[1]^[33] These combined efforts failed to relieve Skardu, contributing to the garrison's surrender on 14 August 1948 after over six months of isolation.^[29]

Logistical and Environmental Obstacles

The rugged terrain of Baltistan, encompassing steep Himalayan and Karakoram slopes, deep Indus River gorges, and high passes such as Zoji La at 3,528 meters, severely impeded Indian relief columns advancing from Srinagar toward Skardu.^[31] Narrow, winding tracks with hairpin bends and weak bridges limited vehicular movement, forcing reliance on foot marches, mules, and porters over distances exceeding 300 kilometers from Srinagar to Skardu via Kargil.^[31] ^[1] These features, combined with enemy ambushes exploiting elevated cliffs and ravines, rendered supply convoys highly vulnerable, as seen in the "Biscuit Column" operation on 17 February 1948, where a relief force carrying mortars was intercepted near Gol on 15 March, suffering 26 killed, 18 wounded, and 7 missing.^[1] Environmental conditions exacerbated these difficulties, with extreme winter cold, blizzards, and heavy snowfall—often 30 to 75 centimeters deep—blocking passes for extended periods and restricting viable routes primarily to the Indus valley floor.^[31] ^[1] High-altitude operations above 3,000 meters induced frostbite among troops lacking adequate greatcoats and acclimatization, while freezing winds and temperature swings slowed advances and increased attrition; for instance, a blizzard on 26-27 June 1948 killed 45 mules in a supply effort.^[31] Air resupply attempts by the Royal Indian Air Force, including Dakota drops totaling thousands of kilograms, proved insufficient due to aircraft limitations at elevations up to 4,670 meters and imprecise delivery in gusty conditions, with Tempest sorties on 28 June, 1 July, and 8 July 1948 failing to alleviate the garrison's shortages.^[1] Logistical strains were compounded by stretched resources, communication failures such as wireless set breakdowns, and enemy maneuvers that captured Kargil on 10 May 1948, severing the 136-kilometer Kargil-Skardu link and outflanking relief pushes.^[31] ^[1] Earlier winter crossings of Zoji La on 30 January 1948 by small companies—reaching Skardu by 10 February with only about 285 total defenders—highlighted the perils of manhandling equipment through snow, but subsequent mobilizations of two battalions in April 1948 faltered amid these cumulative barriers, contributing to the siege's prolongation until the garrison's capitulation on 14 August 1948.^[1]

Fall and Surrender

Final Offensive (August 1948)

As the siege progressed into August 1948, the Skardu garrison under Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa faced acute shortages, with rations limited to two barley chapattis and a cup of tea per soldier daily, exacerbating malnutrition and weakening defensive capabilities.^[29] On August 7, Indian aircraft conducted strikes on enemy positions and airdropped two supply containers, but the quantities proved insufficient to sustain the defenders amid ongoing attrition.^[29] The besieging forces, including Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, and Pakistani-supported irregulars, escalated their offensive by deploying two 3.7-inch howitzers on August 9, enabling more effective shelling of garrison pickets.^[29]^[1] The pivotal assault occurred on August 12, when approximately 200 attackers, following howitzer bombardment, targeted a key picket outside Skardu Fort.^[1]^[29] Defenders repulsed the advance after four hours of intense hand-to-hand combat, expending their final reserve ammunition box and leaving numerous enemy dead around the perimeter.^[1]^[29] This engagement reduced available small-arms ammunition to roughly 10 rounds per rifleman, rendering further sustained resistance untenable.^[1] On the night of August 13–14, the enemy launched a renewed fierce assault across multiple fronts, exploiting the garrison's depleted resources and manpower, which had dwindled to about 40 combatants including Thapa and four officers.^[32]^[1] The defenders fired their remaining ammunition in desperate counterfire, but the onslaught induced panic amid the chaos of close-quarters fighting, marking the culmination of the final offensive after six months of encirclement.^[32] These attacks, coordinated under Pakistani officers such as Major Ahsan Ali, overwhelmed the isolated Jammu and Kashmir State Forces troops, who had previously held off larger numbers through fortified positions and limited resupply.^[1]

Terms of Surrender and Capture of Defenders

On the night of 12–13 August 1948, amid intensifying assaults and with ammunition nearly depleted, Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa, commander of the Skardu garrison, requested terms of surrender from the besieging forces led by Colonel Shahzada Muhammad Mata-ul-Mulk.^[4] ^[1] The garrison had exhausted its reserve ammunition, leaving approximately 10 rounds per rifleman, and faced orders from Major General K. S. Thimayya to capitulate due to the impossibility of relief or resupply.^[32] ^[1] The surrender occurred on 14 August 1948, after six months and three days of siege, with Thapa's force comprising roughly 250 men at the time of capitulation according to Pakistani accounts, though Indian estimates indicate fewer survivors: four officers, one junior commissioned officer, and 35 other ranks.^[4] ^[1] Specific terms were not formally documented in available records beyond an earlier June 1948 offer by Mata-ul-Mulk promising protection upon laying down arms, which Thapa had rejected; the final capitulation appears to have been unconditional, driven by total depletion of resources.^[1] ^[32] Following surrender, accounts diverge sharply on the treatment of the defenders. Indian military histories report a post-surrender massacre, with most non-Muslim troops and male refugees executed in cold blood, including Captain Ganga Singh who was tied and shot; women reportedly faced abduction or suicide to avoid capture, leaving only Thapa and his orderly, Sepoy Kalyan Singh, as survivors among the Sikhs, possibly spared through intervention by Pakistani General Douglas Gracey.^[1] ^[32] Thapa himself anticipated severe reprisals, stating he knew "the fate my troops will meet after surrendering to the enemy."^[32] In contrast, Pakistani narratives describe the captured officers and men, including Thapa, as prisoners of war who were repatriated to India post-ceasefire, with no acknowledgment of executions.^[4] Thapa was later awarded the Maha Vir Chakra by India for his leadership during the defense.^[4]

Aftermath and Consequences

Immediate Territorial Control

Following the unconditional surrender of the Indian garrison on 14 August 1948, Pakistani forces commanded by Colonel Muhammad Mata-ul-Mulk of the Chitral Scouts immediately assumed control of Skardu Fort and the town itself.^[1] The besieging troops, comprising Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, and local Baltistani militias supportive of accession to Pakistan, secured the perimeter defenses and key positions without further resistance, as the defenders' ammunition and supplies were depleted.^[34] This transfer of authority ended nearly seven months of encirclement and positioned Skardu as a forward base for Pakistani operations in Baltistan.^[35] In the days immediately after the fall, Pakistani military elements conducted sweeps of the surrounding valleys to neutralize any residual pockets of Indian-aligned locals or stragglers, consolidating territorial hold over southern Baltistan up to the Indus River line.^[1] No Indian relief column reached Skardu in time to contest this, due to ongoing commitments elsewhere in Ladakh and logistical constraints from high-altitude terrain; the area thus integrated into Pakistan-administered Kashmir's northern sector, later formalized as part of Gilgit-Baltistan under direct Pakistani oversight.^[35] Local pro-Pakistan elements, including Baltistani levies, assisted in establishing administrative outposts, ensuring stable control amid the ceasefire negotiations that concluded the broader conflict in January 1949.^[34]

Fate of Prisoners and Casualties

Following the capitulation of the Skardu garrison on August 14, 1948, approximately 250 surviving Indian defenders, primarily from the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces under Lt. Col. Sher Jung Thapa, were taken prisoner by pro-Pakistani forces led by Col. Shahzada M. Mata ul Mulk.^[1] ^[32] Post-surrender, many non-Muslim prisoners, especially Sikhs, were subjected to summary executions; Captain Ganga Singh, the garrison's adjutant, was reportedly tied to the ground and shot, while other Sikhs were killed en masse.^[32] Women among the captives were spared execution but faced implied abuses, as per accounts from the period.^[1] Lt. Col. Thapa and his Sikh orderly, Sepoy Kalyan Singh—the sole Sikh survivor—were among the exceptions, detained as prisoners of war in Pakistan but ultimately released, attributed to Thapa's personal intervention via his acquaintance with Pakistani Commander-in-Chief General Douglas Gracey.^[32] Thapa remained in captivity until repatriation, later receiving the Maha Vir Chakra for his defense.^[32] Pakistani narratives, such as those emphasizing orderly surrender without detailing subsequent events, contrast with these reports, highlighting interpretive differences in post-conflict accounts.^[4] Casualties during the February–August 1948 siege stemmed more from prolonged attrition—starvation, disease, and supply shortages—than decisive engagements. Indian losses included one officer and seven enlisted men in the initial February 11 assault, with cumulative combat deaths likely in the dozens amid intermittent enemy probes; total defender fatalities, including non-combat, reduced the garrison from over 500 to the 250 who surrendered.^[1] Pro-Pakistani attackers, comprising Gilgit Scouts, Chitral forces, and irregulars, suffered higher exposure in assaults, with at least 10 killed on February 11 and additional losses in subsequent failed advances, though exact aggregates remain unquantified in available records.^[1]

Strategic Analysis

Role in Broader Kashmir War

The Siege of Skardu formed a critical component of the northern theater in the 1947–1948 Indo-Pakistani War, where pro-Pakistan forces, including the Gilgit Scouts and Chitral Scouts, sought to isolate Jammu and Kashmir state forces from reinforcements originating in Srinagar and to sever land connections to Ladakh. Following the Gilgit rebellion on November 1, 1947, which placed the Gilgit Agency under de facto Pakistani control, these irregular units advanced southward, besieging Skardu by late November and effectively cutting off the western approach to Leh via the Indus Valley. This maneuver complemented the broader Pakistani strategy of exploiting ethnic and religious divisions within the princely state's Muslim-majority northern regions, where local levies largely defected, contrasting with Indian efforts to secure the Kashmir Valley through airlifted regular troops starting October 27, 1947.^[1]^[36] The prolonged blockade, lasting approximately seven months until the garrison's surrender on August 14, 1948, diverted limited Indian resources northward amid ongoing battles in the Valley and at Uri, where Indian forces recaptured key positions by November 1947 but struggled with overextended supply lines across the Himalayas. Skardu's strategic position as a hub for Baltistan routes threatened Indian control of Leh, prompting urgent air supply operations to that town from December 1947 and a subsequent armored thrust over the Zoji La Pass in early November 1948 to relieve it, which succeeded despite severe weather and terrain challenges. Pakistani consolidation in Skardu following its fall prevented any Indian counteroffensive in Baltistan, securing for Pakistan an area encompassing roughly 28,000 square miles of mountainous territory with sparse population but vital passes linking to Afghanistan and China.^[33]^[35]^[37] In the war's denouement, the loss of Skardu contributed to the delineation of the Line of Control under the January 1, 1949, ceasefire, leaving Pakistan in possession of Gilgit-Baltistan and enabling subsequent infrastructure developments like the Karakoram Highway. This outcome underscored the war's fragmented nature, with Pakistan gaining territorial depth in the north despite India's retention of the Valley and Jammu, and highlighted how local agency rebellions amplified the conflict's asymmetry beyond conventional state-to-state engagements. Indian military analyses later attributed the northern setbacks to underestimation of logistical imperatives and reliance on potentially disloyal state troops, while Pakistani accounts framed the siege as a grassroots assertion of self-determination in Muslim-majority enclaves.^[1]^[36]^[35]

Tactical Lessons from the Siege

The Siege of Skardu exemplified the defensive advantages conferred by mountainous terrain on a numerically inferior force, where fortified positions and control of high ground enabled Lt Col Sher Jung Thapa's garrison—peaking at approximately 285 troops—to repel initial assaults by around 600 Gilgit Scouts, Chitral forces, and tribal irregulars on February 11, 1948.^[1] Aggressive patrolling and bunker-based defenses mitigated the attackers' early surprise tactics and occupation of Point 8853, demonstrating that proactive small-unit actions can offset disparities in manpower during high-altitude engagements.^[1] Logistical sustainability emerged as the decisive factor in prolonged sieges, with the defenders rationing food to 250 grams of flour and 30 grams of dal per soldier daily by July 1948 amid isolation after enemy captures of Kargil and Dras.^[1] Inadequate aerial resupply—via imprecise Tempest drops and unsuitable Dakota aircraft lacking precision in thin air—highlighted the necessity of specialized aviation assets and forward bases to sustain encircled positions, as ground convoys like the March 15 "Biscuit Column" suffered ambushes inflicting 26 killed and 18 wounded.^[1] Attacker tactics of sustained sniping, mortar fire, and encirclement, culminating in 3.7-inch howitzer barrages by August 9, 1948, underscored the value of mobility and local knowledge in eroding defender resilience without risking decisive frontal assaults, leading to surrender on August 14 due to ammunition exhaustion rather than overrun.^[1] Failed relief operations exposed coordination shortfalls, as terrain-familiar foes exploited chokepoints, emphasizing the need for integrated air-ground reconnaissance to preempt such vulnerabilities in expeditionary warfare.^[1] Individual leadership sustained morale amid desertions and refugee strains (248 non-Muslims), with Thapa personally operating wireless sets, yet the garrison's collapse illustrated how even resolute command cannot indefinitely compensate for systemic supply and reinforcement deficits in remote theaters.^[1] Initial attacker errors, such as understrength probes, were rectified through attrition, reinforcing that sieges reward patient resource allocation over hasty offensives in unforgiving environments.^[1]

Perspectives and Debates

Indian Narrative of Heroic Resistance

The Indian military perspective portrays the Siege of Skardu as an exemplar of resolute defense against overwhelming adversity, led by Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa of the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry. From early February 1948, Thapa commanded a garrison of approximately 217-250 troops, comprising Gurkha and Dogra soldiers loyal to the Maharaja's forces, entrenched in the Skardu Fort amid the harsh Baltistan winter. Besieged by an estimated 1,000-2,000 fighters from the Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, and pro-Pakistani militias under Ibex Force, the defenders repelled multiple assaults despite being outnumbered roughly 5-10 to 1, enduring extreme cold, food shortages, and limited medical supplies.^[32]^[1] Thapa's leadership is credited with sustaining morale and tactical ingenuity, including improvised fortifications and counterattacks that inflicted significant casualties on the attackers, such as during clashes in March 1948 where defenders held key positions against probing attacks. Indian accounts highlight instances of individual bravery, like soldiers fighting hand-to-hand when ammunition dwindled, and Thapa's refusal to abandon the post despite appeals for evacuation, arguing it would shield the Leh-Ladakh sector from immediate threat. Air resupply attempts by the Indian Air Force, though hampered by weather and enemy fire, symbolized national commitment, with pilots risking high-altitude drops to bolster the garrison until late July 1948. This prolonged resistance, spanning over 160 days, is said to have delayed Pakistani advances southward, allowing Indian reinforcements to secure Zojila Pass and airlift troops to Leh by August 1948.^[38]^[13]^[15] The narrative underscores themes of loyalty amid betrayal, as some local Muslim troops defected early in the siege, yet the core force—predominantly non-Muslims—remained steadfast, viewing their stand as a defense of Jammu and Kashmir's accession to India. By mid-August 1948, with rations exhausted and no ammunition left following a final enemy bombardment, Thapa negotiated surrender terms on August 14 to spare his wounded, resulting in the capture of 120 survivors, including himself. Indian sources frame this not as defeat but as a moral victory, buying critical time that preserved Ladakh's integration into India, with Thapa later awarded the Maha Vir Chakra for "conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty."^[1]^[14]^[32] Post-war reflections in Indian military historiography emphasize the siege's role in highlighting the valor of state forces integrated into the Indian Army, contrasting it with logistical failures elsewhere, such as delayed reinforcements from Srinagar. Accounts from veterans and official records stress that the defenders' endurance prevented a quicker enemy consolidation in Baltistan, influencing the ceasefire lines under UN mediation. While acknowledging the eventual territorial loss, the Indian view elevates Skardu as a symbol of sacrificial resistance that aligned with broader operational successes in recapturing key passes.^[38]^[12]

Pakistani View of Local Liberation

In Pakistani accounts, the Siege of Skardu is depicted as an extension of the indigenous uprising in Gilgit-Baltistan against Dogra rule under the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, reflecting the predominant Muslim population's desire to integrate with Pakistan following the partition of British India. The Gilgit rebellion on November 1, 1947, led by local Gilgit Scouts, set the stage for operations in Baltistan, where Skardu—administratively part of the region—was viewed as a symbol of oppressive Sikh and Hindu governance imposed despite local demographic realities. Forces comprising Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, and supporting levies initiated the blockade in late 1947, framing their efforts as a rightful liberation rather than external aggression, with emphasis on the volunteers' resilience amid winter hardships and logistical isolation.^[24]^[39] The narrative highlights the strategic encirclement and incremental pressure on the Skardu garrison, which surrendered on August 14, 1948, to Colonel Muhammad Mata-ul-Mulk of the Chitral Scouts, coinciding symbolically with Pakistan's Independence Day. Pakistani sources portray this as a triumph of local determination, involving approximately 1,000-2,000 fighters who withstood counter-relief attempts and supply shortages, ultimately securing Baltistan without substantial regular army involvement until later stabilization. Accounts attribute success to the cohesion of paramilitary units drawn from regional ethnic groups like Baltis and Shins, who reportedly provided intelligence and manpower, underscoring a grassroots momentum for "azadi" (freedom) from what was seen as alien rule.^[4]^[40] Post-surrender, the area was handed to local committees for administration, reinforcing the view of Skardu’s fall as a people-led emancipation that preserved Gilgit-Baltistan's alignment with Pakistan amid the broader Kashmir conflict. This perspective critiques Indian intervention as an imposition on self-determining northern agencies, with the siege's outcome credited for preventing Dogra reconquest and enabling subsequent defenses like those at the [Indus River](/page/Indus River) line. Commemorations, such as Baltistan's "freedom war" remembrance, stress the event's role in regional identity formation, though some analyses note coordination with Pakistani frontier authorities as facilitative rather than directive.^[41]^[4]

Critiques of Strategic Decisions

The Indian military's strategic prioritization in the early phases of the 1947-48 Kashmir conflict has been critiqued for failing to extend airlift and resupply operations to isolated garrisons like Skardu immediately after the successful defense of Srinagar in late October 1947, allowing the siege—initiated by pro-Pakistani forces in early November—to persist without timely external support.^[42] This oversight stemmed from a focus on securing the Kashmir Valley core, underestimating the cascading effects of losing northern outposts on overall territorial control, as Skardu's fall enabled Pakistani consolidation in Baltistan and threatened Leh.^[1] Reinforcement efforts exemplified coordination lapses: on 15 March 1948, Brigadier Faqir Singh's "Biscuit Column"—comprising approximately 140 men—advanced toward Skardu but was ambushed near Gol, suffering 26 killed, 7 missing, and 18 wounded, primarily due to a failed wireless set preventing calls for air support despite requests from the besieged Lt. Col. Thapa's garrison of about 285 troops.^[1] A subsequent push in April 1948 with two battalions (around 2,000 men) from Srinagar faltered as pro-Pakistani raiders outflanked via Kargil and Dras by early July, capturing key passes and severing routes amid low state forces' morale and decentralized command structures.^[1] In June 1948, General K.S. Thimayya proposed Operation Snipe—a brigade-sized offensive from Gurais across the Burzil Pass and Deosai Plateau to relieve Skardu and sever enemy supply lines to Dras and Kargil—but Delhi's higher command rejected it owing to administrative hurdles and strategic indecision, forgoing a potential game-changing maneuver despite India's growing troop superiority.^[43] Air resupply attempts by the Royal Indian Air Force, using Tempest aircraft, proved insufficient at Skardu's 4,670-meter elevation; for instance, only 4 of 6 dropped containers were recovered on 8 July 1948, highlighting equipment limitations unfit for high-altitude precision drops.^[1] On the pro-Pakistani side, an early tactical error occurred on 11 February 1948 when Capt. Ahsan Ali committed only half of his 600 available troops in an assault, retreating prematurely after initial setbacks and permitting Indian reinforcements to bolster the fort, thus prolonging the siege from six months of irregular blockade to a resource-draining stalemate.^[1] Reliance on Chitral Scouts and Ibex Force—totaling around 500 by mid-February—without fuller regular army integration exposed vulnerabilities to the defenders' resolute holdout, as noted in post-war analyses emphasizing underutilized numerical advantages.^[1]

Legacy

Military Honors and Recognition

Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa, commanding officer of the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry Regiment garrison at Skardu, received the Maha Vir Chakra, India's second-highest wartime gallantry award, for his leadership during the six-month siege from 11 February to 14 August 1948.^[1] Under his command, approximately 250 Indian and state forces troops withstood repeated assaults by numerically superior Pakistani-backed forces, including Gilgit Scouts and Chitral Bodyguards, despite severe shortages of ammunition, rations, and medical supplies.^[44] Thapa's citation highlighted his inspirational resolve in maintaining morale, organizing defenses, and repelling attacks that inflicted significant casualties on the besiegers, thereby delaying their advance and contributing to the broader Indian strategy in Ladakh.^[32] The award was gazetted post-war following Thapa's repatriation from Pakistani captivity, recognizing the garrison's heroic stand that prevented an earlier fall of Skardu and potential threats to Leh.^[45] No other individual gallantry awards specifically tied to the Skardu defense are prominently documented in official records from the 1947-1948 conflict, though unit-level battle honors were later conferred on the 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry for its role in the operation.^[3] Pakistani sources have acknowledged Thapa's tenacity, with some accounts noting the respect earned by the defenders amid the eventual surrender due to exhaustion rather than defeat in battle.^[4]

Long-Term Impact on Gilgit-Baltistan

The fall of Skardu on August 14, 1948, cemented Pakistani military dominance over Baltistan, integrating it administratively with the earlier-captured Gilgit region into what became known as the Northern Areas, later formalized as Gilgit-Baltistan under direct federal control via the 1949 Karachi Agreement, which separated it from Azad Jammu and Kashmir governance.^[35] This arrangement excluded Gilgit-Baltistan from Pakistan's constitutional frameworks of 1956, 1962, and 1973, subjecting it to Frontier Crimes Regulations that curtailed judicial and political rights, with administration handled by a centrally appointed Political Agent under the Ministry of Kashmir Affairs.^[35]^[24] Local hereditary rulers were abolished by 1972, transitioning the area to Federally Administered Northern Areas status, perpetuating a colonial-style governance that limited legislative autonomy and national electoral representation until partial reforms in the 2000s and 2020 Gilgit-Baltistan Order, which introduced a local assembly but stopped short of provincial status amid resident demands for fuller integration.^[35]^[24] Strategically, the siege's outcome fortified Pakistan's hold on high-altitude passes and routes linking to China and Afghanistan, enabling infrastructure like the Karakoram Highway (completed 1979) and facilitating the 1963 cession of Shaksgam Valley to China, while enhancing defenses against Indian advances in Ladakh and Siachen.^[36] This control positioned Gilgit-Baltistan as a corridor for the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor since 2015, boosting connectivity but prioritizing external strategic interests over local development, with the region's disputed status tied to the broader Kashmir conflict preventing full sovereignty resolution.^[35]^[36] Socioeconomically, the events disrupted Baltistan's demographic balance through reported massacres of non-Muslim populations during the siege, fostering long-term sectarian divides, particularly between Shia majorities in Baltistan and Sunni influences from mainland Pakistan, intensified by post-1977 Islamization policies under Zia-ul-Haq.^[1] Economic exploitation persisted, with resource extraction in gems and tourism yielding limited local benefits amid underdeveloped infrastructure until recent CPEC investments, though grievances over rights denial and cultural marginalization continue, as evidenced by annual "independence day" commemorations reflecting unresolved aspirations for constitutional parity.^[35]^[24]^[36]

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