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Fecal immunochemical test

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is a non-invasive, at-home screening method designed to detect hidden (occult) blood in stool samples, which can signal the presence of colorectal cancer or precancerous polyps in the lower gastrointestinal tract.^[1] Unlike older guaiac-based fecal occult blood tests (gFOBT), FIT specifically uses antibodies to identify human hemoglobin, making it more accurate for detecting blood from the colon and rectum without interference from diet or medications.^[2] This test plays a crucial role in early colorectal cancer detection, as hidden bleeding is an early indicator of potential neoplasia.^[3] To perform FIT, individuals collect a small stool sample using a provided kit—typically by brushing the stool surface in the toilet bowl and applying it to a test card or solution—then mail it to a laboratory for analysis; no special preparation, such as dietary restrictions or laxatives, is required.^[1] Results are generally available within days, with a negative outcome indicating no detectable blood and a positive one prompting follow-up diagnostic procedures like colonoscopy to investigate potential abnormalities.^[2] The test is recommended annually for average-risk adults aged 45 to 75, aligning with U.S. Preventive Services Task Force guidelines for colorectal cancer screening.^[2] FIT demonstrates high sensitivity of approximately 80% for detecting colorectal cancer and 20-30% for advanced neoplasia in a single application, outperforming traditional gFOBT in sensitivity with comparable specificity while maintaining low false-positive rates.^[3] Its advantages include ease of use, which boosts adherence rates compared to multi-sample gFOBT, and the absence of risks since it involves no invasive procedures or radiation exposure.^[3] Quantitative FIT variants are preferred for their ability to adjust detection thresholds (e.g., ≤20 μg hemoglobin/g stool) to optimize screening programs.^[3] Overall, FIT contributes significantly to reducing colorectal cancer mortality by enabling early intervention when combined with timely follow-up.^[1]

Introduction

Definition and purpose

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is a non-invasive, stool-based screening method that employs specific antibodies to detect human hemoglobin in fecal samples, thereby identifying occult blood from the lower gastrointestinal tract.^[4] Unlike earlier chemical-based fecal occult blood tests, such as guaiac-based FOBT, FIT specifically targets human hemoglobin and is not influenced by dietary factors like red meat or peroxidase-containing foods.^[5] This antibody-based approach enhances its specificity for human blood, making it a preferred modern tool for colorectal screening.^[2] The primary purpose of FIT is the early detection of colorectal cancer (CRC) and advanced precancerous polyps by identifying hidden (occult) bleeding in the stool, which often signals lower gastrointestinal pathology.^[6] By quantifying hemoglobin levels, FIT helps identify individuals at higher risk who may harbor lesions such as adenomas or carcinomas that bleed intermittently but are not yet symptomatic.^[7] A positive FIT result indicates the potential presence of colorectal pathology and typically prompts further diagnostic evaluation, such as a follow-up colonoscopy to visualize and biopsy any abnormalities.^[5] As of 2025, FIT is recommended annually by major organizations including the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the American Cancer Society (ACS) for average-risk adults aged 45 to 75 years as part of routine CRC screening.^[8]^[9]

Clinical indications

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is primarily indicated for colorectal cancer (CRC) screening in asymptomatic adults at average risk, specifically those aged 45 to 75 years, as recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) in its 2021 guidelines.^[8] This update aligns with the American Cancer Society's (ACS) 2018 recommendation to lower the starting age from 50 to 45, reflecting rising CRC incidence in younger adults and evidence supporting earlier detection to reduce mortality.^[9] For ongoing screening in this population, FIT is performed annually to maintain its effectiveness in identifying occult bleeding associated with precancerous lesions or early-stage CRC.^[8] In symptomatic patients, FIT serves as a noninvasive diagnostic aid, particularly for those presenting with unexplained iron-deficiency anemia, unintentional weight loss, or rectal bleeding, helping to triage individuals for further evaluation such as colonoscopy.^[10] However, it is not the primary test for high-risk groups, where direct visualization methods like colonoscopy are preferred due to higher yield and the need for more intensive surveillance.^[9] FIT is not recommended for individuals with known inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a recent normal colonoscopy within the past 10 years, or hereditary high-risk syndromes such as Lynch syndrome, as these conditions require tailored screening protocols that account for elevated CRC risk and potential false positives.^[9] In such cases, adaptations or alternative tests may be considered under specialist guidance to avoid inappropriate use.^[8]

Scientific basis

Detection mechanism

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) utilizes monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies targeted against the globin moiety of human hemoglobin to detect occult blood in stool samples. These antibodies are designed to specifically recognize human globin chains, thereby distinguishing human blood from non-human dietary sources such as meat consumption, which eliminates the need for dietary restrictions prior to testing.^[11] In the detection process, the antibodies bind to intact globin or its degradation products present in the stool, forming an immune complex that initiates a measurable reaction. For qualitative FIT assays, this binding triggers a colorimetric reaction, where a visible color change on a test pad indicates the presence of human hemoglobin. Quantitative variants, often automated, employ an immunoturbidimetric method, in which the antibody-antigen complexes cause light scattering that is proportional to hemoglobin concentration, allowing for precise measurement.^[11]^[12]^[13] FIT demonstrates lower sensitivity to hemoglobin originating from upper gastrointestinal bleeding due to the degradation of globin by gastric acids and digestive enzymes during transit through the stomach and small intestine. This property enhances the test's specificity for lower gastrointestinal sources, such as colorectal lesions, by minimizing detection of degraded heme from proximal sites. Quantitative FIT systems report hemoglobin levels in micrograms per gram (μg/g) of stool, enabling risk stratification based on concentration thresholds for further clinical evaluation.^[11]^[13]^[14]

Biochemical principles

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) relies on the detection of human hemoglobin, a tetrameric protein consisting of two α-globin chains and two β-globin chains, each bound to a heme prosthetic group that facilitates oxygen transport. In the context of FIT, the assay specifically targets the globin protein component rather than the heme moiety, as the latter is prone to rapid degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. This selectivity arises because FIT employs antibodies that bind to epitopes on the intact globin chains, enabling the identification of human-specific bleeding sites without interference from non-human sources.^[4] Within the gut, particularly the colon, ingested or bled hemoglobin undergoes degradation primarily through bacterial enzymatic action and proteolytic enzymes, which cleave the heme groups from the globin chains. The globin portion is degraded more rapidly than the heme moiety, especially in the upper GI tract due to digestive enzymes and acids during prolonged transit. The heme component is relatively stable and can persist throughout the GI tract, but since FIT targets globin, it is particularly sensitive to colorectal sources where globin degradation is minimal. The apoglobin (heme-free globin) remains relatively stable in stool, resisting full proteolysis for several days post-defecation under ambient conditions, which allows for reliable antibody-based detection in stool samples from lower gastrointestinal bleeding.^[15]^[4] The antibodies used in FIT are typically immunoglobulin G (IgG) molecules, either polyclonal or monoclonal, engineered to recognize specific epitopes on the human α-globin chains, thereby minimizing cross-reactivity with animal hemoglobins or dietary proteins. This specificity targets conserved regions of the α-chain structure, allowing detection of both adult hemoglobin (HbA) and fetal hemoglobin (HbF) variants, while cutoff thresholds for positivity are generally set at 10-50 μg of hemoglobin per gram of feces to balance sensitivity and specificity. Such thresholds correspond to clinically relevant bleeding levels and are calibrated based on the assay's quantitative measurement of globin-bound heme equivalents.^[13]^[4] To preserve sample integrity, FIT collection devices incorporate stabilizing buffers that maintain an optimal pH (typically neutral to slightly alkaline) and inhibit proteolytic and bacterial degradation of globin post-collection. These buffers prevent protein denaturation and heme reattachment or further breakdown, ensuring globin epitopes remain accessible to antibodies for up to several days at room temperature, though stability diminishes at elevated temperatures above 30°C. This buffering system enhances the test's robustness compared to non-buffered methods, supporting accurate downstream immunochemical analysis.^[15]^[16]

Procedure

Sample collection

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) involves at-home sample collection using a single-use kit provided by healthcare providers, which typically includes a probe or brush attached to a collection vial or card, along with instructions and a return envelope. Patients are advised to flush the toilet 2-3 times before having a bowel movement to remove any chemicals or residues, then position a collection paper across the toilet rim if provided to prevent stool from mixing with water. A small sample of stool is obtained by inserting the probe into the stool or brushing its surface for about 5 seconds, ensuring to avoid urine or menstrual blood contamination by collecting only from solid stool.^[1]^[17]^[18] The required stool volume is minimal, generally 10-50 mg per sample, achieved by the probe tip or brush, which is then transferred to a buffer solution in the vial to preserve the sample for hemoglobin detection. Some kits require only one sample, while others may need 2-3 samples collected over consecutive days from separate bowel movements to improve reliability through averaging. Unlike guaiac-based tests, FIT collection has no dietary or medication restrictions, allowing patients to perform sampling during normal daily routines without altering food intake or stopping medications like aspirin.^[11]^[11]^[1] After collection, the vial or card is sealed, labeled with the date and time, and stored at room temperature, where samples remain stable for up to 10-15 days due to the preservative buffer. Patients then place the sealed sample in a provided specimen bag and mail it back to the laboratory using a prepaid envelope, typically within a few days for optimal results. Hands should be washed thoroughly with soap for at least 20 seconds after handling to maintain hygiene.^[11]^[17]

Laboratory processing

Upon receipt in the laboratory, the fecal sample collected in a specialized vial is prepared by homogenization to release hemoglobin into the extraction buffer. The sample probe, containing a fixed amount of stool (typically 10-30 mg), is inserted into the vial containing 2 mL of buffer (such as HEPES-based solution), and the vial is vigorously shaken or vortexed to create a uniform suspension.^[19]^[20]^[11] Laboratory assays for FIT are categorized as qualitative or quantitative based on the detection method. Qualitative tests employ lateral flow immunochromatography, where a portion of the prepared sample is applied to a test strip; antibody-bound hemoglobin migrates to produce a visible reddish or pink line if the concentration exceeds the threshold, typically read after 5 minutes. Quantitative tests use automated analyzers with immunoturbidimetric or latex-enhanced immunoassays, where the sample reacts with anti-hemoglobin antibodies coated on latex particles, and the resulting agglutination is measured photometrically by absorbance changes at approximately 660 nm to quantify hemoglobin levels.^[20]^[21]^[11]^[22] Quality control measures ensure assay reliability, including daily calibration with multi-level standards traceable to international references (e.g., WHO NIBSC code 98/708) to generate dose-response curves, and running internal positive and negative controls with each batch. Proficiency testing programs demonstrate high reproducibility, with sensitivities and specificities exceeding 99% in spiked samples. Turnaround time from sample receipt to result is generally 1-3 days, depending on batch processing and laboratory volume.^[21]^[23]^[24] Results are reported as binary positive/negative for qualitative assays or numerical concentrations (e.g., ng hemoglobin per mL buffer) for quantitative assays, using predefined cutoffs such as 50-100 ng Hb/mL buffer (equivalent to 10-20 µg Hb/g stool) to determine positivity. Laboratories may adjust cutoffs based on program goals, but results are typically communicated electronically to providers within the turnaround period.^[11]^[21]^[23]

Performance characteristics

Sensitivity and specificity

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) demonstrates high sensitivity for detecting colorectal cancer (CRC), with meta-analyses reporting pooled estimates ranging from 79% to 92% depending on the hemoglobin cutoff threshold. For instance, a 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis of 31 studies involving over 120,000 average-risk individuals found a pooled sensitivity of 91% (95% CI, 84%-95%) for CRC at a low threshold of 10 μg hemoglobin per gram of stool, while sensitivity decreased to approximately 79% at higher thresholds above 20 μg/g.^[25] Sensitivity for advanced adenomas, however, is more modest, typically ranging from 24% to 40% across studies, with the same 2019 meta-analysis reporting 40% (95% CI, 33%-47%) at the 10 μg/g cutoff.^[25] Specificity for CRC is generally high, estimated at 90% to 96%, which helps minimize false positives compared to guaiac-based fecal occult blood tests (gFOBT); quantitative FIT further allows adjustment of cutoffs to optimize the balance between sensitivity and specificity for different screening goals.^[25] A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis highlighted stage-specific variations, noting lower sensitivity for early-stage CRC (e.g., 73% for stage I) but consistent performance around 79% to 82% for stages II to IV, underscoring FIT's strength in detecting more advanced disease.^[26] Clinical trials provide additional evidence of FIT's performance. In a 2012 randomized trial comparing colonoscopy to FIT in over 50,000 average-risk adults, FIT at a 47 μg/g cutoff achieved 67% sensitivity for advanced neoplasia (including CRC and advanced adenomas), with detection rates confirming its utility as a first-line screening tool.^[27] Programmatic screening data further support FIT's impact; a 2024 cohort study in a U.S. community setting linked repeated FIT screening to a 20% to 30% reduction in CRC mortality, consistent with long-term benefits observed in population-based programs.^[28]

Influencing factors

Several biological factors can affect the reliability of fecal immunochemical test (FIT) results, particularly by contributing to false positives or reducing detection of certain bleeding sources. Hemorrhoids are associated with false-positive FIT results, with studies indicating positivity rates of 10% or higher among individuals with this condition.^[29] Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) increases the risk of false positives, with a relative risk of 1.16 compared to non-users.^[30] Menstruation can lead to false positives through potential contamination of the stool sample with menstrual blood, and guidelines recommend avoiding testing during this period.^[31] Additionally, upper gastrointestinal bleeds are less likely to be detected by FIT due to the degradation of the globin component of hemoglobin by gastric acid and digestive enzymes during transit through the upper tract.^[32] Technical aspects of sample handling and processing also influence FIT outcomes. Without proper buffering, hemoglobin in the stool sample can degrade over time, potentially leading to falsely low measurements and missed detections; collection devices include stabilizing buffers to mitigate this risk.^[33] Variability in stool consistency affects homogenization, as harder stools may result in uneven distribution of hemoglobin, introducing measurement variability.^[34] Furthermore, exposure to elevated temperatures or delays in laboratory processing (beyond 5 days) can reduce sample stability, with each 1°C increase in temperature linked to a 0.7% decrease in positivity rates.^[35] The choice of cutoff threshold for positivity directly impacts the balance between sensitivity and specificity in FIT. Lower thresholds, such as 20 μg hemoglobin per gram of stool, enhance sensitivity for colorectal neoplasia detection but reduce specificity, resulting in higher false-positive rates; for instance, cutoffs below 20 μg/g yield approximately 86% sensitivity and 91% specificity, while those above 50 μg/g achieve 67% sensitivity and 96% specificity.^[11] This relationship underscores the need for tailored cutoffs based on screening goals, as reviewed in advancements on FIT optimization.^[11] Performing repeat FIT testing with multiple samples modifies positivity rates and enhances overall accuracy. Positivity rates typically decrease with additional samples compared to single-sample testing, which improves specificity to around 95% when negative results are consistent across samples, building on baseline performance metrics of 90-97% specificity for single tests.^[11]

Comparisons with other tests

Versus guaiac-based fecal occult blood test

The guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) detects occult blood in stool through the pseudoperoxidase activity of heme in hemoglobin, utilizing a chemical reaction where guaiac turns blue upon oxidation by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of peroxidase-like substances.^[36] This mechanism renders gFOBT susceptible to interference from dietary sources, such as peroxidase-containing foods like red meat, which can cause false-positive results, and inhibitors like vitamin C, which may lead to false negatives.^[13] In contrast, the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) employs antibodies specific to human globin, providing greater selectivity for lower gastrointestinal bleeding without such dietary sensitivities, as detailed in the scientific basis of detection.^[37] FIT demonstrates superior performance over gFOBT in colorectal cancer (CRC) screening, with a pooled sensitivity of 79% (95% CI: 0.63–0.90) for detecting CRC compared to 50% (95% CI: 0.44–0.57) for gFOBT, and a specificity of 94% (95% CI: 0.92–0.95) versus 83% (95% CI: 0.80–0.86).^[38] This enhanced accuracy stems from FIT's immunological targeting of intact human hemoglobin, reducing false results from upper gastrointestinal or non-human sources that affect gFOBT's chemical detection. Adherence to screening protocols is notably higher with FIT due to its simpler, single-sample collection process compared to the multi-sample requirements of traditional gFOBT, resulting in approximately 20% greater participation rates in organized programs.^[11] Although FIT incurs slightly higher per-test costs than gFOBT, its improved specificity leads to fewer false positives, thereby reducing the need for costly follow-up colonoscopies and yielding overall cost savings alongside gains in quality-adjusted life years.^[39]

Versus colonoscopy and other methods

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) serves as a non-invasive initial screening tool compared to colonoscopy, which is considered the gold standard for colorectal cancer (CRC) detection due to its direct visualization capabilities and high sensitivity of approximately 95% for CRC and advanced adenomas.^[27] In contrast, a 2024 study reported FIT sensitivity of 67% for CRC and 23% for advanced precancerous lesions, making it suitable for broad population screening where colonoscopy's invasiveness limits widespread use.^[40] A key advantage of FIT is its ability to reduce the need for colonoscopy in low-risk individuals by up to 71-91%, as only positive FIT results prompt further invasive evaluation, thereby minimizing procedural burdens and complications.^[41]^[42] Compared to next-generation multi-target stool DNA testing (mt-sDNA), such as Cologuard Plus (FDA-approved in 2024), which combines FIT with DNA mutation detection, FIT offers slightly lower sensitivity for CRC (67% vs. 94%) and advanced precancerous lesions (23% vs. 43%) while maintaining higher specificity for advanced neoplasia (95% vs. 91%), based on 2024 data.^[40] mt-sDNA requires testing every three years due to its comprehensive analyte panel, whereas FIT is recommended annually, but mt-sDNA incurs substantially higher costs—approximately five times that of FIT (around $600 vs. $120 for a three-year period)—limiting its feasibility for routine population-level screening.^[43]^[44] FIT complements procedures like flexible sigmoidoscopy and CT colonography, which primarily visualize the left colon and may miss right-sided lesions in up to 20-30% of advanced neoplasia cases, as these tests do not fully examine the proximal colon.^[45]^[46] In such scenarios, FIT's detection of occult blood from right-sided sources provides additive value, enhancing overall screening efficacy when used in combination. Overall, FIT is preferred for population-based CRC screening owing to its accessibility, lower cost, and non-invasive nature, despite its reduced adenoma detection rate (approximately 23% sensitivity for advanced precancerous lesions compared to over 90% for colonoscopy, as of 2024).^[11]^[47] This positions FIT as an effective first-line option that identifies high-risk individuals for subsequent colonoscopy, optimizing resource allocation in screening programs.^[8]

Advantages and limitations

Key benefits

The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) offers significant non-invasiveness, allowing at-home sample collection without the need for dietary restrictions or bowel preparation, which contributes to higher participation rates in screening programs compared to more invasive options like colonoscopy. In organized outreach programs, FIT uptake can reach 60-70%, substantially exceeding the approximately 40% participation typically observed for colonoscopy invitations.^[48]^[49] FIT demonstrates strong cost-effectiveness, with per-test costs ranging from $20 to $30, making it an affordable option for population-level colorectal cancer (CRC) screening. In adherent populations, regular FIT screening has been associated with reductions in CRC incidence by 20-30% and mortality by 15-33%, providing substantial public health impact at a low resource investment.^[43]^[50] The test promotes health equity by being accessible in low-resource settings and among underserved groups, as it requires no special equipment or preparation and can be mailed directly to participants, thereby improving screening uptake in low-income and minoritized populations.^[51] FIT's quantitative measurement of fecal hemoglobin enables effective program triage, where higher hemoglobin levels strongly correlate with increased risk of advanced colorectal neoplasia, allowing prioritization of follow-up colonoscopies for those at greatest need.^[52] Compared to guaiac-based fecal occult blood tests, FIT provides superior sensitivity for detecting advanced adenomas and cancer.^[53]

Potential drawbacks

Despite its effectiveness, the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) has notable limitations that can impact its utility in colorectal cancer (CRC) screening. One key drawback is the occurrence of interval cancers, which are CRCs diagnosed after a negative FIT but before the next scheduled screening. FIT misses approximately 15-25% of CRCs in a single screening round due to the intermittent nature of tumor bleeding, where blood may not be present in the sampled stool at the time of testing.^[54] This underscores the need for annual FIT screening to minimize interval cancers, as biennial intervals may allow more cases to progress undetected.^[11] False-positive results represent another challenge, occurring in about 5-8% of screenings from benign sources such as hemorrhoids, polyps, or upper gastrointestinal bleeding.^[55]^[56] These lead to unnecessary colonoscopies, which carry a low risk of serious complications (approximately 0.5%), including perforation, bleeding, or sedation-related issues.^[57] FIT's detection is limited to bleeding lesions, failing to identify non-bleeding precancerous polyps or early-stage tumors that do not cause occult blood loss.^[11] Its sensitivity for proximal adenomas—those in the right colon—is particularly low, ranging from 20-30%, due to slower transit times and less bleeding propensity in that region.^[58]^[11] Logistical barriers further hinder FIT implementation, especially in rural areas where access to laboratories for sample processing can be restricted by distance and limited infrastructure.^[59] Additionally, patient non-return of kits occurs at rates of 10-20%, often due to forgetfulness, discomfort with sample collection, or mailing difficulties, reducing overall screening participation.^[60]

Guidelines and implementation

Screening recommendations

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends annual fecal immunochemical testing (FIT) as a Grade A intervention for colorectal cancer screening in asymptomatic adults aged 45 to 75 years who are at average risk, emphasizing its role in reducing mortality through early detection.^[8] For adults aged 76 to 85 years, the USPSTF advises that clinicians selectively offer screening, including FIT, based on the individual's overall health, life expectancy, and preferences (Grade C recommendation).^[8] This annual interval aligns with FIT's sensitivity for detecting advanced neoplasia, enabling timely intervention while balancing test accuracy and participation rates.^[8] The American Cancer Society (ACS) similarly recommends initiating colorectal cancer screening at age 45 for average-risk adults, with annual FIT offered as a primary noninvasive option alongside colonoscopy every 10 years.^[9] Screening should continue through age 75 for most individuals, but for those older than 75, decisions should prioritize expected benefits relative to life expectancy and comorbidities, potentially favoring FIT for its ease of implementation in ongoing surveillance.^[9] Internationally, the World Health Organization (WHO) endorses FIT-based screening within integrated population programs to address colorectal cancer globally, particularly in settings where resource constraints limit access to invasive methods. In the European Union, guidelines target adults aged 50 to 74 years for biennial FIT screening, with Europe's Beating Cancer Plan which aimed to offer tests to 90% of the eligible population by 2025 to enhance early detection and reduce disparities, with implementation ongoing as of 2025.^[61] For high-risk individuals, such as those with a first-degree family history of colorectal cancer, standard guidelines recommend initiating colonoscopy earlier (e.g., at age 40 or 10 years before the relative's diagnosis age) as the preferred modality for comprehensive evaluation; while some studies suggest FIT may serve as an alternative in select cases with adjusted intervals or lower hemoglobin cutoffs to improve detection yield, colonoscopy remains first-line.^[62]^[63]

Result interpretation and follow-up

A fecal immunochemical test (FIT) result is interpreted as negative when the concentration of hemoglobin in the stool sample is below the established cutoff threshold, commonly set at 20 μg/g of feces for quantitative assays.^[8] This threshold, which can vary slightly by assay and program but influences the overall positivity rate, indicates no detectable occult blood, suggesting low immediate risk for colorectal neoplasia.^[11] Individuals with a negative result require no further diagnostic evaluation at that time and should continue routine annual FIT screening to maintain ongoing colorectal cancer detection.^[8] A positive FIT result occurs when hemoglobin levels meet or exceed the cutoff, signaling potential bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract that warrants prompt investigation.^[11] Guidelines strongly recommend follow-up with diagnostic colonoscopy within 1 to 3 months to identify the source, as this approach achieves high adherence rates (up to 80%) and facilitates early detection of lesions.^[64] In such cases, colonoscopy yields advanced neoplasia (including colorectal cancer and advanced adenomas) in approximately 30% to 50% of patients, with positive predictive values varying by cutoff and population but consistently supporting the procedure's value in reducing long-term cancer risk.^[11]^[65] For quantitative FIT results that fall in an equivocal or low-positive range (e.g., near the cutoff), some protocols employ a tiered response to optimize resource use: mildly elevated levels may prompt a repeat FIT to confirm, while higher concentrations mandate direct referral for endoscopy to avoid missing significant pathology.^[66] This approach balances sensitivity and specificity, though major guidelines prioritize colonoscopy for any positive finding without routine retesting.^[11] Patient counseling following FIT results is essential to ensure informed decision-making and adherence. Providers should discuss the test's implications, including the risks and benefits of follow-up procedures like colonoscopy, emphasizing that a positive result often (in over 90% of cases for cancer specifically) represents a false positive for malignancy but still necessitates evaluation to rule out precancerous changes.^[11] Addressing potential anxiety from false positives, which can cause short-term psychological distress such as worry or altered self-perception, involves reassuring patients about the transient nature of these effects and the overall benefits of screening in preventing colorectal cancer progression.^[67]

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Guaiac‐based FOBTs enable detection of occult blood in stool through the pseudo‐peroxidase activity of haem, whereas FITs targets human globin specifically. A ...Missing: mechanism | Show results with:mechanism
[37]
The effectiveness of FOBT vs. FIT: A meta-analysis on colorectal ...
The immunochemical fecal occult blood test (FIT) has a better sensitivity than g FOBT and a similar specificity to g-FOBT for detecting advanced neoplasia and ...
[38]
Cost-effectiveness of the faecal immunochemical test at ... - BMJ Open
Our results suggest that FIT is cost-effective compared with gFOBT at all thresholds, resulting in cost savings and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained ...
[39]
Multitarget Stool DNA Testing for Colorectal-Cancer Screening
Mar 19, 2014 · We compared a noninvasive, multitarget stool DNA test with a fecal immunochemical test (FIT) in persons at average risk for colorectal cancer.Abstract · Comparison With Fit · Discussion
[40]
Faecal immunochemical tests (FIT) versus colonoscopy for ... - Gut
Substituting 3 yearly colonoscopy in intermediate-risk patients with low-threshold annual FIT could therefore reduce numbers of colonoscopies by 71%. However, ...Methods · Results · Discussion
[41]
The diagnostic accuracy of the faecal immunochemical test ... - PMC
Nonetheless, in our results, FIT would have reduced the number of low-risk patients undergoing colonoscopy by up to 91% without missing colorectal cancer.
[42]
Comparing Costs of At-Home Colorectal Screening Tests
Jan 17, 2023 · The researchers used Medicare reimbursement rates to estimate that FIT tests run in this study cost around $24 per test, while the Cologuard ...
[43]
CRC screening success hinges on patient participation - Healio
Aug 13, 2025 · A FIT test costs about $25 and is done once a year, whereas Cologuard costs about $500 to $600 and is done every 3 years. Colonoscopy ...
[44]
(PDF) Diagnostic Performance of Fecal Immunochemical Test and ...
Sep 4, 2025 · We compared fecal immunochemical test and simulated sigmoidoscopy diagnostic accuracy for advanced right-sided neoplasia detection. We analyzed ...
[45]
Colorectal Cancer Screening (PDQ®) - Kaiser Permanente
Apr 10, 2025 · Sigmoidoscopy detects lesions in the left colon directly but detects lesions in the right colon only indirectly when a positive sigmoidoscopy ...
[46]
Colonoscopy vs the Fecal Immunochemical Test: Which is Best?
Feb 9, 2024 · This review will separately state the “best case” for FIT and colonoscopy as the screening tool of first choice.Colonoscopy Vs The Fecal... · Picking Colonoscopy Or Fit... · Economic Considerations
[47]
Colorectal cancer screening with faecal immunochemical test
Jul 18, 2023 · The overall participation rate was 71.5% and is higher in comparison with most other gFOBT/FIT-based CRC screening programmes with reported ...
[48]
Outreach invitations for FIT and colonoscopy improve colorectal ...
Nov 4, 2015 · Screening participation rates were 58.8% for patients in the FIT outreach arm (1410 of 2400 patients), 42.4% for patients in the colonoscopy ...Crc Screening Interventions · Fit And Colonoscopy Outreach · One-Time Screening...
[49]
Long-Term Effectiveness Associated With Fecal Immunochemical ...
Jun 12, 2025 · This study found that initiating FIT screening at age 40 to 49 years was associated with further reduction in CRC mortality and incidence ...
[50]
A pragmatic randomized trial of mailed fecal immunochemical ...
May 25, 2024 · A pragmatic randomized trial of mailed fecal immunochemical testing to increase colorectal cancer screening among low-income and minoritized populations.
[51]
Precision Colorectal Cancer Fecal Immunological Test Screening ...
May 9, 2024 · Specifically, the use of FIT tests decreased by 49% and colonoscopies by 28% given 80% referral rate, if personalized f-Hb–guided screening were ...
[52]
Guaiac-Based FOBTs vs. FITs for Colorectal Cancer Screening in ...
In this analysis, FITs resulted in more follow-up colonoscopy than gFOBTs, with a specificity of 94% vs. 98%, respectively. Although FITs demonstrated superior ...
[53]
Missed colorectal cancers in a fecal immunochemical test-based ...
Nov 15, 2022 · Fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is effective in reducing colorectal cancer (CRC) but FIT testing is not perfect. FIT interval cancers, i.e. CRCs ...
[54]
[PDF] Colorectal Cancer Screening Test - ASGE
FIT has a false positive rate of about 5%, which again, needs to be followed up with a colonoscopy. The tier 2 test, the FIT-Fecal DNA Test, is designed to ...<|separator|>
[55]
Diagnostic Accuracy of a Qualitative Fecal Immunochemical Test ...
FIT detected distal advanced adenoma with 39.7% sensitivity (95% confidence interval [CI], 32.0%−48.0%) vs proximal advanced adenoma with 25.0% sensitivity ...
[56]
Rural patient preferences for fecal immunochemical test (FIT ...
Patients may experience barriers to completing colonoscopies related to emotional (e.g., fear) and logistical challenges (e.g., costs, bowel preparation, ...
[57]
Community-Based Colorectal Cancer Screening in a Rural Population
The return rate was 82.0%. In adjusted analyses, those indicating an annual income of less than $15,000 were 2.85 times more likely to return their kits (95% CI ...
[58]
European Health Union: cancer screening - European Commission
Sep 19, 2022 · The recommendation aims to increase the uptake of cancer screening for breast, colorectal and cervical cancer to reach the target set in Europe's Beating ...Missing: participation | Show results with:participation
[59]
ACG Clinical Guidelines: Colorectal Cancer Screening 2021
The purpose of this article is to update the 2009 American College of Gastroenterology CRC screening guidelines.
[60]
Performance of the Fecal Immunochemical Test in Patients With a ...
Oct 4, 2019 · FIT is more strongly associated with high-risk findings on colonoscopy than type of family history. FIT may be an alternative screening strategy to colonoscopy.Introduction · Figure 1 · DiscussionMissing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[61]
Follow-Up Colonoscopy after Positive FIT Test - NCI
May 5, 2022 · People with a positive FIT test result are advised to have a colonoscopy to investigate the cause of the bleeding because a FIT test alone ...Missing: interpretation | Show results with:interpretation
[62]
Positive predictive values of fecal immunochemical tests used ... - NIH
The mean proportion of FIT‐positive results ranged from 8% in centers using the OC‐Micro test to 21% for Hemosure. PPVs for advanced neoplasia were 0.30 to 0. ...
[63]
Is It Necessary to Repeat Fecal Occult Blood Tests with Borderline ...
A follow-up study is necessary to examine borderline FIT results to improve the diagnostic efficiency of detecting CRC. Laboratory directors should consider ...Missing: equivocal | Show results with:equivocal
[64]
Psychosocial consequences of receiving false-positive colorectal ...
May 11, 2019 · Receiving false-positive results from CRC screening can lead to negative psychosocial consequences such as changes in self-perception and anxiety.Missing: counseling | Show results with:counseling