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Smart battery

A smart battery is a rechargeable battery pack that integrates electronic circuitry, such as a microcontroller, sensors, and a communication interface, to monitor its internal parameters like state of charge, voltage, temperature, and cycle count, while enabling bidirectional data exchange with the host device for optimized performance and safety.^[1] These batteries adhere to standards like the System Management Bus (SMBus), a two-wire protocol developed in 1995, which allows the battery to report real-time data and even control charging processes to prevent overcharge or overheating.^[1] Key components include a battery management system (BMS) with fuel gauge integrated circuits for coulomb counting—measuring charge flow to estimate remaining capacity—and protective circuits that enhance longevity and reliability.^[1] Commonly used in portable electronics, medical devices, military equipment, and electric vehicles, smart batteries provide benefits such as precise state-of-charge indications, automated charger configuration, and alerts for maintenance needs, though they add approximately 25% to the cost compared to dumb batteries.^[1] Recent advancements have evolved smart batteries into intelligent systems incorporating multi-signal sensors, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and self-healing materials, enabling real-time perception, dynamic self-protection, and autonomous decision-making for applications in smart grids and wearables.^[2]

Introduction

Definition

A smart battery is a rechargeable battery pack that incorporates an onboard Battery Management System (BMS) equipped with a microprocessor, sensors, and communication interfaces to monitor, control, and optimize its performance in real time. This integration enables the battery to provide critical data such as state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH), facilitating communication with the host device and charger for precise energy management.^[3]^[1] At its core, a smart battery includes non-chemical electronic components, such as microchips for data processing and fuel-gauging algorithms (e.g., coulomb counting), alongside sensors for measuring voltage, current, and temperature. While most commonly associated with lithium-ion cells due to their prevalence in portable applications, the smart battery architecture is adaptable to other rechargeable chemistries, enhancing safety and efficiency across various systems.^[3]^[1] In contrast to traditional "dumb" batteries, which lack built-in intelligence and depend on external chargers or devices for basic management, smart batteries actively participate in their own operation, configuring charging parameters and preventing issues like overcharge or thermal runaway through closed-loop feedback.^[3]^[1] The emergence of smart batteries in the 1990s was driven by the growing demand for reliable power in portable computing devices, such as laptops, with early innovations like Benchmarq's 1990 fuel-gauge technology and the 1995 standardization of the System Management Bus (SMBus) by Intel and Duracell enabling widespread adoption.^[3]^[1]

Key Characteristics

Smart batteries are distinguished by their ability to perform real-time monitoring of critical parameters such as voltage, current, and temperature, which allows for precise oversight of battery performance and safety.^[4] This monitoring is facilitated through integrated sensors within the battery management system, enabling continuous data collection to detect anomalies promptly.^[5] Additionally, smart batteries estimate State of Charge (SoC) and State of Health (SoH) using advanced algorithms, providing accurate assessments of remaining capacity and overall degradation without delving into detailed operational mechanics.^[4] A core protective feature is the automatic safeguards against overcharge, over-discharge, and thermal runaway, where the system halts charging or discharging upon detecting fault conditions to prevent damage or hazards.^[4] Communication capabilities further enhance functionality, employing standards like SMBus—based on I2C protocols—for reliable data exchange between the battery and host devices, supporting real-time transmission of metrics such as capacity and temperature.^[6] This bidirectional interface, operating at up to 100 kHz, ensures interoperability across systems like notebooks and medical devices.^[7] Self-calibration mechanisms in smart batteries adjust internal parameters during charge-discharge cycles to maintain accuracy in capacity reporting, while cell balancing equalizes voltages across cells to promote uniform performance and extend lifespan.^[8] Passive or active balancing techniques redistribute charge, preventing imbalances that could lead to reduced efficiency.^[9] Finally, adaptability is achieved through dynamic adjustment of charging rates in response to environmental conditions, such as temperature thresholds, optimizing safety and efficiency across varying scenarios.^[4]

History

Origins and Early Development

The development of smart batteries emerged in response to the inherent limitations of nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and early lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries used in portable electronic devices during the pre-1990s era. NiCd batteries, dominant in early portable computing, suffered from the memory effect—where partial discharges reduced apparent capacity—along with high self-discharge rates and environmental concerns due to toxic cadmium content, necessitating better charge management to ensure safety and extend longevity.^[10] Early Li-ion prototypes, explored from the mid-1980s, faced additional challenges such as dendrite formation leading to short circuits and thermal runaway risks from overcharging, which demanded precise monitoring to prevent failures in compact applications like mobile phones and early laptops.^[11] Following the commercialization of lithium-ion batteries in 1991, their adoption as the dominant chemistry in smart systems post-mid-1990s drove further refinements in battery management. A key milestone occurred in the mid-1980s with the introduction of prototypes in laptop computers that incorporated basic intelligent power tracking systems. These early systems utilized microcontrollers to monitor voltage, temperature, and charge states in NiCd packs, enabling algorithms for charge termination and cycle counting to mitigate overcharge and memory effect issues.^[12] Such innovations addressed the unreliability of unmanaged batteries in emerging portable devices, where sudden power loss could disrupt critical operations, marking the transition from passive to active battery oversight. Pioneering contributions came from companies like Intel and Duracell, who began conceptualizing embedded electronics for battery packs between 1990 and 1994. Their collaborative efforts focused on integrating digital communication interfaces to allow batteries to report status data directly to host devices, laying the groundwork for more reliable power management in portable computing.^[13] This period was driven by the rapid rise of portable computing in the late 1980s and early 1990s, where accurate runtime predictions became essential to user experience, prompting the shift toward batteries capable of self-diagnosis and optimized performance.^[12]

Standardization and Evolution

The Smart Battery System (SBS) was proposed by Duracell and Intel in 1994 to enable intelligent battery management and communication in portable devices, culminating in the release of the SMBus 1.0 specification on February 15, 1995.^[14] In 1996, Intel and Duracell handed the specifications to a core group of companies, leading to the formation of the SBS Implementers Forum in 1997 to oversee further development.^[14] This standard defined a two-wire serial bus protocol for interoperability between smart batteries, chargers, and host systems, addressing key challenges like data exchange for state-of-charge monitoring and fault detection.^[14] The evolution continued with the introduction of SMBus 2.0 on August 3, 2000, which enhanced data rates and introduced features like dynamic address assignment via the Address Resolution Protocol, supporting more complex systems beyond initial battery applications.^[15] By 2024, smart battery technology had progressed through three generations: the 1990s real-time perception generation focused on basic sensor data collection; the 2000s dynamic response generation enabled adaptive control based on environmental inputs; and the 2010s onward self-decision-making generation integrated artificial intelligence for predictive optimization and autonomous operation.^[2] Adoption accelerated in the 2010s with smart batteries becoming integral to electric vehicles (EVs), where advanced management systems improved range estimation and thermal regulation amid the exponential rise in EV production.^[16] As of 2025, advancements in wireless communication protocols, such as wireless sensor networks for battery management systems, further reduced wiring complexity and enabled real-time remote diagnostics in distributed energy storage setups.^[17] These standards profoundly impacted consumer electronics by promoting interoperability and reducing compatibility issues, allowing seamless integration across devices like laptops and mobile phones while minimizing proprietary barriers.^[7]

Components

Battery Management System (BMS)

The core architecture of a Battery Management System (BMS) typically consists of a microcontroller (MCU) as the central processing unit, integrated with an analog front-end (AFE) and a fuel gauge for comprehensive battery oversight.^[18] The MCU runs specialized firmware that processes incoming sensor data—such as voltage, current, and temperature—and executes control algorithms to manage battery operations efficiently.^[19] This microcontroller-based design enables real-time decision-making, ensuring the system adapts to varying conditions while minimizing power consumption.^[18] The BMS coordinates essential functions including protection against faults like overvoltage or overcurrent, cell balancing to equalize charge levels, and communication with external systems for status reporting.^[20] It incorporates analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) within the AFE to precisely digitize analog signals from the battery pack, enabling accurate monitoring and rapid response to anomalies.^[18] These functions collectively enhance battery safety and longevity by integrating data from sensors into unified control strategies.^[20] BMS topologies vary to suit different pack sizes and applications, primarily categorized as centralized or distributed. In a centralized topology, a single control unit monitors and manages all cells directly, offering simplicity but risking a single point of failure in large packs.^[21] Distributed topologies, in contrast, employ decentralized modules for greater scalability and fault tolerance; for instance, master-slave configurations use a central master controller to oversee multiple slave units, each handling a subset of cells in multi-cell packs like those in electric vehicles.^[21] The BMS derives its operating power directly from the battery pack through DC-DC converters, such as buck-boost topologies, which step down the high-voltage battery output to stable low voltages (e.g., 3.3V or 5V) required for the MCU and other electronics.^[22] This self-powered approach ensures autonomy but necessitates efficient conversion to avoid draining the battery excessively.^[22]

Sensors and Communication Interfaces

Smart batteries incorporate various sensors to monitor critical parameters, providing essential data inputs to the battery management system (BMS). Voltage sensors measure the potential difference across individual cells, typically using high-precision analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) integrated into monitoring ICs, such as the MAX11068, which supports up to 12 lithium-ion cells with auxiliary inputs for additional monitoring.^[23] These per-cell measurements ensure detection of imbalances or faults, with accuracy often calibrated to within ±1.5 mV to maintain reliable operation. Current sensors employ two primary methods: shunt resistors, which detect voltage drops across a low-value resistor in series with the battery pack using Ohm's law, as implemented in Texas Instruments' current sense amplifiers for precise flow monitoring, or Hall effect sensors, which provide non-contact magnetic field-based measurement suitable for high-current automotive applications without insertion loss.^[24]^[25] Temperature sensors commonly utilize negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors placed near cells to track thermal variations, as seen in Linear Technology's (now Analog Devices) LTC4061 charger, which biases the thermistor for accurate pack temperature assessment, or integrated ICs like the TI LMT70, offering ±0.05°C precision for direct voltage output proportional to temperature.^[26]^[27] Communication interfaces in smart batteries enable data exchange between the BMS and external systems, facilitating real-time reporting and control. The System Management Bus (SMBus), a two-wire serial protocol derived from I²C, serves as the standard for consumer and portable applications, supporting commands for reading battery status with features like arbitration and alerting to prevent bus collisions.^[28] Over SMBus, data packets convey key metrics such as state of charge (SoC), state of health (SoH), and fault conditions, adhering to the Smart Battery Data Specification for interoperability.^[29] In automotive contexts, the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus provides robust, multi-node communication for distributed battery packs, enabling high-speed transmission of monitoring data across vehicle subsystems while offering fault tolerance and error detection.^[30] Interface hardware integrates sensing and communication functions, enhancing smart battery efficiency. Fuel gauge integrated circuits (ICs), such as the Analog Devices DS2784, employ impedance tracking algorithms to estimate remaining capacity by combining current integration, voltage, temperature, and cell impedance models, with programmable calibration for sense resistor gain and temperature coefficients to achieve <1% error over the battery's life.^[31] Protection field-effect transistors (FETs) act as switches for overcurrent and short-circuit safeguards, monitored by ICs like the TI BQ2970, which drives external FETs to disconnect the load or charger in fault scenarios, ensuring safe operation without continuous power draw.^[32] To sustain measurement precision throughout the battery lifecycle, sensors require periodic calibration adjustments, typically performed during manufacturing or via host-initiated routines to compensate for drift in components like shunt resistors or thermistors.^[33] These calibrations, such as offset corrections in TI's bq20z70 gauge, maintain SoC accuracy better than 1% by accounting for aging effects and environmental variations, preventing cumulative errors that could degrade performance over hundreds of cycles.^[34]

Functionality

State Monitoring

Smart batteries employ state monitoring to continuously assess key internal parameters, enabling precise performance optimization and user feedback through integrated battery management systems (BMS). This process relies on algorithms that process data from embedded sensors to track variables such as charge levels and degradation, ensuring safe and efficient operation without direct human intervention.^[35] The state of charge (SoC) represents the remaining capacity of the battery as a percentage of its rated capacity, typically estimated using methods like Coulomb counting and voltage-based approaches. Coulomb counting, a fundamental open-circuit technique, calculates SoC by integrating the battery current over time to determine the charge transferred, assuming an initial SoC value. The core equation for this method is:

\text{SoC} = \frac{\text{Initial Charge} + \int \text{Current} \, dt}{\text{Rated Capacity}} \times 100\%

This integration accounts for both charging and discharging currents, with positive values for charging and negative for discharging, though it requires periodic recalibration to mitigate cumulative errors from sensor inaccuracies.^[36]^[37] Voltage-based estimation complements Coulomb counting by correlating open-circuit voltage (OCV) with SoC via a predefined curve specific to the battery chemistry, offering simplicity for rested batteries but reduced accuracy during dynamic operation due to factors like temperature and load effects.^[38]^[39] State of health (SoH) quantifies battery degradation, primarily through metrics of capacity fade—the reduction in maximum chargeable capacity—and internal resistance increase, which hampers power delivery. Capacity fade arises from electrochemical side reactions and material loss over cycles, while resistance growth stems from electrode deterioration and electrolyte breakdown, both tracked relative to the battery's initial pristine state. SoH is commonly calculated by performing full charge-discharge cycles to measure actual capacity against the rated value, yielding a percentage such as SoH = (Current Capacity / Rated Capacity) × 100%, or by monitoring resistance ratios.^[40]^[41]^[42] Beyond SoC and SoH, smart batteries monitor the depth of discharge (DoD), defined as the percentage of capacity used since the last full charge (DoD = 100% - SoC), to prevent over-discharge and inform usage patterns. Remaining useful life (RUL) predictions extend this by forecasting cycles until failure, often using machine learning models trained on historical voltage, current, and temperature data to model degradation trajectories and estimate end-of-life thresholds like 80% SoH. These models, such as neural networks or support vector machines, achieve prediction accuracies within 5-10% error for lithium-ion batteries under varied conditions.^[38]^[43]^[44] Accuracy in state monitoring is enhanced by error compensation techniques, including periodic full charge-discharge cycles that reset estimation drifts in algorithms like Coulomb counting, typically recommended every 40 partial discharges or quarterly. Sensor data on current, voltage, and temperature underpins these estimations, feeding into the BMS for real-time processing. Without such calibrations, errors can accumulate to 10-20% over time, underscoring the need for occasional full cycles to maintain reliability.^[45]^[46]

Protection and Balancing

Smart batteries incorporate protection mechanisms within the battery management system (BMS) to prevent damage from electrical and thermal extremes. Overvoltage protection typically cuts off charging at 4.2 V per cell for lithium-ion batteries to avoid electrolyte decomposition and gas generation.^[47] Undervoltage protection activates a low-voltage cutoff, often around 2.5–3.0 V per cell, to halt discharge and prevent copper dissolution in the anode that could lead to internal short circuits.^[48] Overcurrent protection monitors discharge or charge currents and interrupts the circuit if they exceed safe limits, such as through MOSFET switches in the BMS.^[49] Overtemperature protection employs temperature sensors to trigger shutdowns above thresholds like 60–80°C, safeguarding against accelerated degradation or thermal runaway.^[50] These protections can be implemented via hardware components, such as fuses that melt under excessive current to open the circuit, or software-based interrupts that command FETs to disconnect the battery.^[51] Cell balancing ensures uniform voltage across series-connected cells, mitigating uneven aging and capacity loss in multi-cell packs. Passive balancing dissipates excess charge from higher-voltage cells as heat through bleed resistors connected in parallel, typically during the constant-voltage charging phase when cell voltages exceed a threshold like 4.18 V.^[9] This method is simple and cost-effective but generates waste heat and is limited to low currents, around 50–200 mA per cell. Active balancing, in contrast, transfers charge between cells using energy shuttling techniques, such as inductor-based or capacitive methods, to move surplus energy from overcharged cells to undercharged ones without dissipation.^[52] For instance, in a switched-capacitor active balancer, capacitors are charged from high-voltage cells and discharged into low-voltage ones, achieving balancing currents up to several amps and improving overall efficiency by up to 99%. The process involves periodic voltage measurements during charging or rest periods, with the BMS activating balancers until all cells reach equilibrium within 10–20 mV.^[53] Fault detection in smart batteries relies on diagnostic routines embedded in the BMS to identify anomalies like short circuits or sensor failures. Short-circuit detection compares measured currents against expected values; if an abrupt spike occurs, the BMS isolates the affected section by opening protection switches and logs the event.^[49] Sensor failures, such as voltage or temperature inaccuracies, are flagged through redundancy checks or plausibility tests, where the BMS cross-validates readings from multiple sensors. Alerts for these faults are communicated via the SMBus protocol, where the battery sends interrupt signals or status updates to the host system, enabling proactive responses like reduced operation or user notifications.^[54] Compliance with safety standards is integral to smart battery design, ensuring protection against thermal runaway. UL 1642 specifies tests for individual lithium-ion cells, including overcharge, short-circuit, and abnormal heating simulations to verify no fire or explosion occurs.^[55] IEC 62133 extends this to battery packs, mandating evaluations for continuous charging, forced discharge, and temperature cycling to prevent propagation of thermal events in multi-cell configurations.^[56] These standards guide BMS implementations to incorporate layered safeguards, such as thermal fuses and venting mechanisms, reducing the risk of catastrophic failure.^[57]

Charging and Discharging

Charging Processes

Smart batteries employ a multi-stage charging process to optimize safety, efficiency, and longevity, typically following a constant current (CC) phase followed by a constant voltage (CV) phase for lithium-ion chemistries. In the CC stage, the battery is charged at a maximum current (I_max) until approximately 80% state of charge (SoC) is reached or the voltage approaches the maximum safe threshold (V_max, often 4.2 V per cell). This phase allows rapid energy transfer while minimizing heat buildup. The process then transitions to the CV stage, where voltage is held constant at V_max, and current tapers off as the battery saturates, typically terminating when the current drops to C/20 (5% of the battery's capacity in amperes). This CC-CV protocol ensures full charging without overvoltage risks.^[58] The battery management system (BMS) in smart batteries intelligently adjusts these stages based on environmental conditions, particularly temperature, to prevent degradation. Charging is prohibited below 0°C in most systems to avoid lithium plating, with reduced rates applied at low temperatures above 0°C. Charging is similarly curtailed above 45°C to mitigate thermal runaway risks; optimal charging occurs between 10°C and 30°C. These adjustments are monitored via integrated sensors, ensuring the current or voltage is scaled dynamically during both CC and CV phases.^[59] Charging protocols in smart batteries leverage the System Management Bus (SMBus) for directed communication between the battery, host, and charger, enabling negotiation of parameters like current and voltage. The battery broadcasts requests for specific charging current and voltage every 5 to 60 seconds via SMBus Write Word commands, such as ChargingCurrent() and ChargingVoltage(), allowing the charger to adjust or confirm compliance; if requests exceed capabilities, the charger supplies a safe maximum. This host-mediated negotiation supports adaptive profiles tailored to the battery's chemistry and state. For enhanced speed, smart batteries integrate fast-charging modes like Qualcomm Quick Charge, where the BMS negotiates higher voltages (up to 20 V) and currents through proprietary protocols, reducing charge time by up to 75% while monitoring for thermal limits. As of 2025, advancements include Qualcomm Quick Charge 5+, enabling up to 150 W power and 50% charge in 5 minutes while maintaining thermal monitoring.^[54]^[60]^[61] Adaptive algorithms further refine the process, incorporating impedance-based detection for precise end-of-charge determination. During the CV taper, the BMS measures electrochemical impedance spectra; a rapid change in impedance rate signals saturation, allowing termination before the C/20 threshold if needed, which improves accuracy in variable conditions. The CC-CV transition is triggered precisely when cell voltage hits V_max, with current held at I_max beforehand to maintain efficiency.^[62] In multi-cell configurations, smart batteries manage charging either sequentially (cell-by-cell for precision in imbalanced packs) or simultaneously (pack-level CC-CV with parallel current distribution), depending on the BMS design. Balancing occurs concurrently during the CV phase, using passive bypass circuits to equalize voltages across cells by diverting excess current from higher-voltage ones, typically at currents of 50-200 mA per cell to converge differences within 10-20 mV. This prevents overcharge in weaker cells and maximizes pack capacity utilization.^[63]

Discharging Control

Smart batteries employ discharge limits to safeguard the battery pack from damage during operation, primarily through current throttling mechanisms integrated into the battery management system (BMS). The BMS monitors state of charge (SoC) and temperature in real time, reducing the allowable discharge current at low SoC or when temperatures exceed operational bounds to prevent deep discharge and thermal issues.^[64]^[65] Low-battery warnings are triggered at low SoC levels, alerting the device to initiate power-saving modes or notify the user, thereby extending usable runtime and avoiding abrupt shutdowns.^[66] Power delivery in smart batteries is optimized via dynamic voltage scaling, where the BMS adjusts output voltage and current to match device requirements while maximizing efficiency. This includes support for protocols like USB Power Delivery (PD), which enables adjustable voltages (e.g., from 5V to 20V) and currents up to 5A, allowing seamless power negotiation between the battery and load for applications requiring variable power profiles.^[67] Efficiency is further enhanced by minimizing conversion losses through real-time impedance matching, ensuring stable output even as battery voltage sags under load.^[65] At end-of-discharge, the BMS implements precise cutoffs to protect cells, typically disconnecting the load at a minimum voltage of 3.0 V per cell for lithium-ion batteries to avoid irreversible damage from over-discharge.^[68] To minimize self-discharge during storage or inactivity, the system enters a hibernation mode, where the protection circuit isolates the cells, reducing quiescent current to near zero and preserving residual capacity until reactivation.^[69] This handling aligns with broader protection strategies, such as cell-level cutoffs detailed in battery balancing protocols.^[64] Load adaptation allows the BMS to make real-time adjustments to discharge rates in response to varying demands, using sensor data to modulate current limits and prevent overloads. For instance, under fluctuating loads like those in portable devices, the system dynamically scales power output based on instantaneous SoC, temperature, and predicted demand, ensuring reliable performance without compromising longevity.^[65]^[70]

Applications

Consumer Electronics

Smart batteries have been a cornerstone of portable computing since the mid-1990s, when the Duracell/Intel Smart Battery system was standardized, enabling laptops to incorporate battery management systems (BMS) for enhanced monitoring and control.^[1] Early adoption of lithium-ion batteries in mid-1990s laptops incorporated basic battery management systems (BMS) to monitor voltage, current, and temperature for reliable performance.^[71] Today, smartphones and tablets universally employ integrated BMS to estimate runtime, optimizing power delivery based on usage patterns and environmental factors.^[72] These systems communicate via protocols like SMBus to provide devices with real-time data on battery status.^[73] A key benefit in consumer electronics is the accurate depiction of battery status through State of Health (SoH) estimation, which assesses degradation over time to refine user interface indicators like battery icons and percentage readouts.^[74] This precision helps users avoid unexpected shutdowns by predicting remaining capacity more reliably than basic voltage checks, particularly in high-drain scenarios common to smartphones and tablets.^[75] Additionally, smart batteries facilitate compatibility with wireless charging in accessories such as Apple's AirPods, where the charging case's BMS manages inductive power transfer while monitoring temperature to prevent overheating.^[76] As of 2025, smart batteries dominate the consumer electronics landscape, with the global BMS market valued at approximately USD 10.2 billion, reflecting near-universal integration in laptops, where advanced packs with embedded controllers are standard for runtime optimization.^[77] A notable case is Apple's ecosystem, where proprietary BMS in iPhones enable features like Optimized Battery Charging, which learns user habits to limit charging to 80% until shortly before unplugging, thereby extending battery lifespan by reducing time spent at full capacity.^[78] This approach, introduced in iOS 13 and refined through subsequent updates, has become a benchmark for smart battery integration in mobile devices.^[79]

Industrial and Automotive Uses

In automotive applications, smart batteries equipped with advanced battery management systems (BMS) are integral to electric vehicle (EV) battery packs, which often comprise thousands of cells to deliver high energy density and range. For instance, Tesla's BMS manages thermal and electrical interactions across these cells, maintaining optimal voltage, temperature, and charge rates while monitoring for degradation to ensure longevity and performance.^[80] These systems actively oversee regenerative braking by regulating energy flow back to the battery during deceleration, recapturing up to 70% of kinetic energy to extend driving range and reduce wear on traditional brakes.^[81] Thermal management is equally critical, with BMS-integrated cooling mechanisms—such as liquid immersion or phase change materials—keeping cell temperatures between 15°C and 35°C to prevent overheating during high-power operations like fast charging.^[82] Industrial uses of smart batteries emphasize ruggedized designs for demanding environments, including power tools, medical devices, and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems. In power tools, smart lithium-ion packs with embedded BMS provide intelligent power management, enabling features like rapid charging and over-discharge protection for extended runtime in cordless drills and saws.^[83] Medical devices such as automated external defibrillators (AEDs) incorporate smart battery packs that self-report power status via LCD or wireless transmission, ensuring reliability during emergencies by alerting users to low charge levels.^[84] For UPS systems in industrial settings, ruggedized smart packs with lithium-ion or LiFePO4 chemistries offer seamless failover during outages, integrating BMS for real-time monitoring of voltage and temperature to support critical infrastructure like data centers.^[85] Advancements as of 2025 have seen smart BMS integrations enabling vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities in EVs, allowing bidirectional energy flow where batteries act as distributed storage units, discharging excess power to the grid during peak demand while drawing from it off-peak.^[86] This supports grid stability and revenue opportunities for owners, with the V2G market valued at USD 6.3 billion in 2025 and projected to reach $16.9 billion by 2030.^[87] Safety in these applications is enhanced by fault-tolerant designs in high-voltage systems exceeding 400V, where BMS employs redundant monitoring and isolation techniques to detect and mitigate risks like short circuits or thermal runaway, ensuring compliance with automotive standards.^[88] For example, fault-tolerant DC-DC converters in EV packs provide seamless operation even under component failure, minimizing downtime in 400V–800V architectures.

Advantages and Limitations

Benefits

Smart batteries significantly enhance safety by incorporating proactive thermal monitoring and real-time anomaly detection through integrated battery management systems (BMS), which prevent thermal runaway and reduce the risk of fires compared to traditional batteries lacking such features.^[2] Advanced sensors track internal temperature, voltage, and gas emissions to identify potential failures early, enabling automatic shutdowns or alerts that mitigate hazards like explosions.^[2] In applications with lithium-ion cells, AI-driven BMS with predictive maintenance can reduce failure rates by 30-50%.^[89] The technology extends battery lifespan by employing cell balancing techniques that equalize charge across cells, preventing uneven degradation and increasing usable capacity by more than 20%.^[90] Accurate state-of-charge (SoC) estimation, as detailed in state monitoring processes, avoids over-discharge and overcharge, further preserving cell integrity and allowing batteries to maintain 88-94% of maximum capacity over extended periods.^[90] Cell balancing also improves overall pack life. User convenience is improved with precise runtime predictions derived from real-time SoC and load data, enabling reliable estimates of remaining operational time without manual calculations. Remote diagnostics via connected apps allow users to monitor battery health, receive alerts for issues, and perform firmware updates, reducing downtime and the need for physical inspections.^[91] Efficiency gains arise from optimized charging protocols that adjust current and voltage dynamically, reducing energy waste from heat dissipation and enhancing overall charge utilization.^[92] These algorithms prioritize balanced energy transfer, minimizing losses during the charging process and supporting faster, safer replenishment without compromising cell longevity.^[92]

Challenges

The integration of advanced electronics in smart batteries, including microcontrollers and sensors for battery management systems (BMS), increases the overall cost of the battery pack by approximately 25-40% compared to basic packs without such features. This premium arises primarily from the added components like integrated circuits and communication interfaces, which elevate manufacturing and assembly expenses.^[93] Smart batteries introduce significant complexity through their firmware, which is susceptible to vulnerabilities such as hacking that could compromise battery operation or lead to permanent failures. For instance, researchers have demonstrated that default or weak passwords in battery controllers allow unauthorized access, potentially enabling attackers to alter charge parameters or induce bricking of the device.^[94] Additionally, firmware failures during operation or updates can disrupt system reliability, necessitating regular over-the-air or manual updates to patch security flaws and maintain performance.^[95] These updates, while essential, pose risks if interrupted, further highlighting the operational intricacies of smart battery systems.^[96] Accuracy in state-of-charge (SoC) estimation remains a key limitation, with errors reaching up to 5% under extreme conditions such as high temperatures or rapid discharge rates. These inaccuracies stem from challenges in modeling battery behavior amid varying environmental factors and sensor noise, which can mislead users on remaining capacity and affect device runtime.^[97] Over time, as batteries degrade due to aging and cycle wear, SoC estimation accuracy further diminishes, requiring recalibration to mitigate cumulative errors. Sensor calibration needs, as addressed in related interfaces, can briefly alleviate some discrepancies but do not fully resolve long-term drift.^[98] The environmental footprint of smart batteries is exacerbated by the inclusion of non-recyclable electronic chips, contributing to higher e-waste volumes compared to simpler battery designs. These components, often containing rare earth metals and plastics, complicate disassembly and recovery processes, leading to increased landfill accumulation of hazardous materials. As of 2025, recycling challenges persist due to limited infrastructure for separating BMS electronics from battery cells, resulting in lower recovery rates and ongoing pollution risks from improper disposal.^[99] Efforts to address this include emerging hydrometallurgical techniques and regulations like the EU Battery Regulation (2023), which mandates digital product passports for batteries to improve traceability and recycling by 2027, though scalability remains hindered by the diverse materials in smart battery assemblies.^[100]^[101]

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How to Design BMS? Battery Management System Design Explained
The core components of BMS architecture include the Analog Front-End (AFE), Microcontroller (MCU), and Fuel Gauge. Selecting the right ICs is essential for ...Battery Management System... · State Estimation And... · Adapting Bms Design For...<|separator|>
[20]
What is a Battery Management System (BMS)? - Inventus Power
Oct 2, 2020 · A BMS detects current, voltage, and temperature events by using either an Analog to Digital (A/D) converter, a comparator, and a sense resistor/ ...
[21]
A Consensus Algorithm for Multi-Objective Battery Balancing
Summary of each segment:
[22]
https://www.ti.com/lit/an/slva721a/slva721a.pdf
[23]
MAX11068 Datasheet and Product Info - Analog Devices
12-Cell Battery Voltage Measurement with Temperature Monitoring. Up to 12 Lithium-Ion (Li+), NiMH, or Super-Cap Cells; Two Auxiliary Analog Inputs for ...
[24]
[PDF] An Engineer's Guide to Current Sensing - Texas Instruments
Current sense amplifiers, also called current shunt monitors, measure voltage drop across a shunt resistor to monitor current flow.
[25]
A Lithium-Ion Battery Current Estimation Technique Using an ...
Jan 24, 2017 · This measurement is typically taken using either a shunt resistor or a Hall-effect current sensor. ... This paper explores a novel alternative to ...
[26]
[PDF] LTC4061 - Standalone Linear Li-Ion Battery Charger with Thermistor ...
NTC Thermistor (NTC). The temperature of the battery is measured by placing a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor close to the battery pack.
[27]
[PDF] LMT70, LMT70A ±0.05°C Precision Analog Temperature Sensor ...
The LMT70 can be applied easily in the same way as other integrated-circuit temperature sensors. It can be glued or cemented to a surface. The temperatures of ...
[28]
[PDF] Implementing SMBus Using MSP430 Hardware I2C (Rev. B)
SMBus is used as a communication link for smart batteries, power- related devices, and a wide variety of other system devices. This report includes the support ...
[29]
[PDF] Autonomous Smart Battery Guide - Texas Instruments
Oct 8, 2021 · TI SMBus gauges allow for accurate State of Charge (SOC) reported using LEDs, passive cell balancing, and integrated battery protection. An ...Missing: real- | Show results with:real-
[30]
Battery Management System of Electric Vehicle Based on CAN
And the study of charge and discharge management of electric vehicle battery by CAN bus technology is of great significance to the development of electric ...Missing: automotive | Show results with:automotive
[31]
DS2784 Datasheet and Product Info | Analog Devices
### Summary of DS2784 Fuel Gauge IC
[32]
BQ2970 data sheet, product information and support | TI.com
The BQ2970 is a single-cell battery protector for Li-ion and Li-Po batteries, with features like overcurrent, overvoltage, and short-circuit protection.
[33]
[PDF] BQ769142 3-Series to 14-Series High Accuracy Battery Monitor and ...
The BQ769142 device enables the customer to calibrate the internal as well as external temperature measurements on the production line, by storing an offset ...
[34]
[PDF] bq20z70 - Texas Instruments
The achievable accuracy is better than 1% error over the lifetime of the battery and there is no full charge discharge learning cycle required. See Theory and ...
[35]
[PDF] State of Charge Estimation Using Smart Battery Charger
Oct 1, 2021 · A fuel gauge is typically used to calculate the SOC by measuring battery voltage, current, and temperature as inputs to a gauging algorithm.
[36]
SoC Estimation by Coulomb Counting - Battery Design
May 27, 2022 · SoC Estimation by Coulomb Counting is based on the measurement of the current and integration of that current over time.Missing: smart | Show results with:smart
[37]
A Novel Battery State of Charge Estimation Based on Voltage ...
Oct 21, 2023 · Coulomb counting is a method that calculates the remaining charge capacity of a battery by continuously monitoring the current flowing through ...
[38]
BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge - Battery University
Measuring state-of-charge by voltage is simple, but it can be inaccurate because cell materials and temperature affect the voltage.
[39]
A voltage dynamic-based state of charge estimation method for ...
Dec 15, 2021 · This paper proposes a novel data-driven optimization based methodology for battery SoC estimation, namely VDB-SE.
[40]
A new state-of-health estimation method for lithium-ion batteries ...
In this paper, a method to estimate state of health (SoH) is presented through the established linear relationship between ohmic internal resistance and ...
[41]
State of Health Estimation of Li-Ion Battery via Incremental Capacity ...
As a battery undergoes repeated charge and discharge cycles, various degradation will occur, such as the growth of the SEI layer, electrolyte decomposition, and ...
[42]
Method for evaluating the accuracy of state‐of‐charge (SOC)/state ...
Oct 4, 2023 · Typically, the SOH can be observed by comparing the capacity and internal resistance ratio of a degraded battery to those of a new battery.
[43]
Battery Remaining Useful Life Prediction Using Machine Learning ...
Predicting the remaining useful life (RUL) of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries is crucial to preventing system failures and enhancing operational performance.
[44]
The development of machine learning-based remaining useful life ...
The RUL prediction result describes when the battery will fail (i.e., it will no longer meet the requirement of the application). The battery RUL can be ...
[45]
Testing and Calibrating Smart Batteries
May 17, 2024 · Cell balancing is not as effective as calibration because weak cells remain weak, even after being fully charged. Cell balancing does not ...
[46]
Benchmarking battery management system algorithms
A possible solution is to recalibrate state estimation algorithms like SoC after a full charge. However, this presupposes a certain behavior from the user ...
[47]
[PDF] Guidelines on Lithium-ion Battery Use in Space Applications
May 1, 2009 · The typical charging protocol for the lithium/Li-Ion polymer cells includes a constant current charge to a voltage of 4.1 V or 4.2 V. (depending ...
[48]
[PDF] Lithium-ion Battery Safety Issues for Electric and Plug-in Hybrid ...
Increasing the cutoff voltage from 3.9 to 4.2 V resulted in higher overvoltage for the side reaction (more negative voltage than 0.4) and increased resistance.
[49]
[PDF] Technical Reference Manual - Texas Instruments
When the bq29312A detects a short circuit in charge or short circuit in discharge fault, the charge and discharge FETs are turned off, the XALERT pin of the ...
[50]
The Importance of a Battery Management System (BMS) - Evlithium
The BMS will shut down or throttle back the charge or discharge current if temperatures become too high, ensuring safe operation. This is crucial for ...
[51]
[PDF] AVR453: Smart Battery Reference Design - Professor Dan Web
The Battery Protection circuitry in the ATmega406 device provides CPU-independent hardware monitoring of the pack voltage and current levels, and can disconnect ...
[52]
https://www.renogy.com/blogs/learn-center/lithium-battery-balancing
[53]
Active Balancing vs Passive Balancing Differences - Cell Saviors
Jan 24, 2023 · Passive balancing is generally less accurate and slower than active balancing and may take longer to achieve the desired result. Both methods ...
[54]
[PDF] Smart Battery Data Specification
Dec 11, 1998 · - The first uses the SMBus CLOCK and DATA lines and is the primary communication channel between the Smart Battery and other SMBus devices. The ...
[55]
[PDF] Safety Issues for Lithium-Ion Batteries
Test standards are in place that mandate a number of individual tests designed to assess specific safety risks associated with the use of lithium-ion batteries.
[56]
IEC 62133: Safety Testing for Lithium Ion Batteries - Intertek
The IEC 62133 standard sets out requirements and tests for the safety and performance of lithium ion batteries used in portable electronic devices, including ...Missing: prevention | Show results with:prevention
[57]
A review of lithium-ion battery safety concerns - ScienceDirect
The test standards are formulated to reduce the probability of thermal runaway accidents in actual use. Thus, they are intended to assess responses of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion - Battery University
Li-ion is fully charged when the current drops to a set level. In lieu of trickle charge, some chargers apply a topping charge when the voltage drops.
[59]
BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures - Battery University
Mar 1, 2022 · For best results, charge between 10°C and 30°C (50°F and 86°F). Lower the charge current when cold. Low-temperature Charge. Nickel Based: Fast ...
[60]
Qualcomm Quick Charge 5
*Quick Charge is designed to increase the battery charge of a device by up to 50% in 5 minutes. Actual results may vary depending on device design.
[61]
End of Charge Detection by Processing Impedance Spectra of ...
This paper proposes a new criterion for detecting the end of the charging process that is based on the rate of change of electrochemical impedance spectra of ...
[62]
None
### Summary of Multi-Cell Management, Charging, and Balancing in Smart Batteries/BMS
[63]
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS)
A BMS sets flags when receiving a full discharge and charge. During a rest period, an advanced BMS may also calculate SoC on hand of the stable open circuit ...
[64]
Current Limit Estimation - Battery Design
Apr 12, 2023 · Instantaneously the BMS will adhere to the cell voltage limits, hence changes in SOC, temperature and internal resistance will all be accounted ...
[65]
https://www.batterydesign.net/current-limit-estimation/
[66]
USB Charger (USB Power Delivery) - USB-IF
USB Power Delivery offers the following features: An adjustable voltage supply mode allows the device being powered an ability to request intermediate voltages ...Missing: scaling | Show results with:scaling
[67]
BU-802c: How Low can a Battery be Discharged?
Prabhanjan, Typical cut-off voltages for li-ion cells lie in the range of 3 to 2.5V depending on the discharge rate (lower cut-offs at higher discharge rates); ...
[68]
What is battery hibernation? How should a lithium battery be ...
Sep 8, 2021 · Battery hibernation is when a lithium battery's voltage drops below a threshold, cutting off power output, and it can't be charged.
[69]
What is a Battery Management System (BMS)? – How it Works
Battery management system (BMS) is technology dedicated to the oversight of a battery pack, which is an assembly of battery cells.
[70]
History-of-lithium-ion-battery - Su-vastika
Sep 3, 2023 · The history of lithium-ion battery can be traced back to the early 1970s when a team of scientists at Exxon were developing a new type of battery.
[71]
https://suvastika.com/history-of-lithium-ion-battery/
[72]
Lithium-ion Batteries and Their Management with Smart BMS
Mar 30, 2023 · State-of-charge (SOC) estimation is one such feature that enables the BMS to accurately determine the amount of charge remaining in the battery.Missing: runtime | Show results with:runtime
[73]
What are SOC and SOH of a battery, how to measure them? - BioLogic
Oct 8, 2024 · Battery SoC/State of Charge describes the remaining electricity available in the cell. SoH is the difference between used/fresh batteries.Missing: smart characteristics features real- protection SMBus I2C balancing adaptability
[74]
(PDF) Battery state-of-health estimation for mobile devices
In this paper, we design V-BASH, a new battery SoH estimation method based only on their voltages and is compatible to commodity mobile devices.
[75]
Charge AirPods, AirPods Pro, or AirPods Max - Apple Support
Optimized Battery Charging is designed to reduce the wear on your battery and its lifespan by reducing the time that your AirPods 3, AirPods 4, or AirPods Pro ...
[76]
Battery Management System Market Growth 2025-2035
The battery management system (BMS) market is projected to rise from USD 10.2 billion in 2025 to USD 23.3 billion by 2035, growing at a CAGR of 8.6%.
[77]
About Charge Limit and Optimized Battery Charging on iPhone
Optimized Battery Charging is designed to reduce the wear on your battery and improve its lifespan by reducing the time your iPhone spends fully charged.Missing: system | Show results with:system
[78]
Batteries - Maximizing Performance - Apple (CA)
Optimized Battery Charging and Optimized Charge Limit adapt to your daily usage and preserve your battery lifespan over time.
[79]
Tesla's Battery Management System (BMS) Technology - XRAY
Tesla's BMS manages thermal and electrical interactions, maintains voltage and temperature, manages charge rates, and monitors for cell degradation.
[80]
Understanding regenerative braking in electric vehicles (EVs)
٢٧‏/١١‏/٢٠٢٤ · Regenerative braking systems are generally quite efficient, returning 60 to 70% of the kinetic energy recaptured during braking back to the battery.
[81]
Thermal Regulation Techniques for EV Batteries while Charging
Sep 12, 2025 · Lithium-ion battery performance during charging depends heavily on maintaining optimal temperature ranges, typically between 15-35°C.
[82]
2022 Cordless Tools Awards Winners and Finalists
The FLEX 24V 10.0Ah Stacked Lithium Battery Platform offers industry-dominating power and performance. Its intelligent power management enables higher ...
[83]
https://protoolinnovationawards.com/winners/2022-pro-tool-innovation-awards/cordless-tools/
[84]
Top 5 Innovations Driving Efficiency in Industrial UPS Systems in 2025
Jan 16, 2025 · Energy Storage and Smart Management: Advances in lithium-ion and LiFePO4 battery technologies allow UPS systems to store renewable energy, such ...
[85]
V2G: What You Need to Know About Vehicle-To-Grid in 2025! - go-e
Feb 11, 2025 · Vehicle-to-Grid, or short V2G, is a technology that enables electric vehicles to send power stored in their batteries back to the power grid.
[86]
How Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology is Powering the Future of ...
Aug 22, 2025 · The global market for Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) is expected to grow from $6.3 billion in 2025 and is projected to reach $16.9 billion by the end ...
[87]
Designing a High Voltage BMS: Essential Hardware and Software ...
Jul 30, 2025 · Isolated voltage sensors are generally utilized in EV battery packs ranging from 400V to 800V+, large-scale batteries for grid, solar, and ...
[88]
The Impact of AI on Battery Technology - PatentPC
Oct 20, 2025 · AI-driven battery management systems can improve battery lifespan by up to 40% through optimized charging and discharging cycles.
[89]
None
### Quantitative Benefits of Cell Balancing on Battery Lifespan and Capacity
[90]
How Smart Lithium Batteries are Changing the Landscape - Xantrex
Jan 2, 2024 · The benefits of safety, remote monitoring, longer lifespan, and power optimization, make smart lithium batteries a game-changer for RV ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[91]
A critical review on optimal charging methods of lithium ion batteries
Sep 15, 2019 · It demonstrates that the optimized charging methods can reduce charging time, improve charging performance and extend battery life cycle ...
[92]
Cost and Performance of Electric Vehicle Batteries
Jul 10, 2012 · Non-cell pack components account for another 30 percent of the overall pack price, with the BMS, housing and power electronics particularly ...
[93]
[PDF] Battery Firmware Hacking - DEF CON
A permanent failure is reported when either: (i) After a full reset the instruction flash checksum does not verify; (ii) if any DataFlash write does not verify; ...
[94]
[PDF] Cybersecurity of Firmware Updates | NHTSA
Having even a modest percentage of customers adversely affected by a failed firmware update is likely to be unacceptable to manufacturers and the public. ... hack ...
[95]
Cybersecurity for Battery Management Systems | eInfochips
Mar 27, 2025 · System Downtime – Attacks can damage BMS functionality, which results in system shutdowns or operational failure in the applications. Data ...
[96]
Smart sensing breaks the accuracy barrier in battery state monitoring
Accurate state-of-charge (SOC) estimation is essential for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and maximizing economic value.
[97]
Analysis of State-of-Charge Estimation Methods for Li-Ion Batteries ...
This review systematically examines the research progress on SOC estimation techniques over a wide temperature range, focusing on two mainstream approaches.
[98]
Sustainable Wireless Power Solutions Combat IoT Battery Waste
Aug 8, 2025 · Researchers warn that a looming crisis in IoT battery waste is set to see up to 78 million batteries discarded daily by 2025.Missing: non- | Show results with:non-
[99]
Recycling and environmental issues of lithium-ion batteries
Lithium-battery recycling can help to preserve the environment, save resources, reduce the volume of waste, and also bring economic benefits [14]. Lithium, ...