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Substrata

Substrata is the plural form of substratum, a term denoting an underlying layer, foundation, or base in various scientific and academic contexts.^[1] In general usage, it describes any stratum or material lying beneath another, serving as a groundwork or support structure.^[2] In geology, substrata refer to layers of rock, soil, or sediment positioned below the surface or overlying strata, where physical, chemical, and biological processes such as erosion, deposition, and mineralization occur.^[3] These underlying formations are critical for understanding Earth's crustal structure, groundwater flow, and resource extraction, often influencing surface topography and stability.^[4] For instance, a substratum of clay can retain moisture in topsoil, affecting agricultural productivity and ecosystem dynamics.^[3] In biology and ecology, substrata describe the nonliving surfaces or media—such as rock, sediment, or soil—upon which organisms grow, attach, or live, providing essential habitats for microbial, plant, and animal communities.^[1] This includes stable hard surfaces like bedrock in marine environments or softer sediments in wetlands, where they facilitate processes like biofilm formation and nutrient cycling.^[5] The characteristics of substrata, including texture and composition, directly impact biodiversity and species distribution in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.^[6] In linguistics, substrata (or substrate languages) denote earlier or displaced languages that exert influence on a subsequent dominant language, particularly through phonological, syntactic, or lexical features that persist as traces or "relics" in the newer tongue.^[7] This concept is central to historical linguistics and creole studies, explaining phenomena like substrate effects in pidgins, creoles, and language contact situations, where the substrate provides foundational elements such as syntax or morphology despite lexical replacement.^[8] For example, in multilingual societies, a substrate language may leave enduring impacts on the phonology or grammar of an overlaying superstrate language.^[8] In philosophy and metaphysics, substratum refers to the underlying substance or support that bears the properties or accidents of an entity, as conceptualized in Aristotelian philosophy where it serves as the primary subject of change and predication.^[9]

Etymology and Definition

Etymology

The term "substrata" is the plural form of "substratum," which originates from the Modern Latin substratum, employed as a noun from the neuter singular past participle of the Latin verb substernere, meaning "to spread underneath" or "to strew beneath."^[10] This verb combines the prefix sub- ("under") with sternere ("to spread out" or "to strew"), reflecting an underlying layer or foundation.^[11] The word entered English in the early 17th century through scientific and learned texts, marking its transition from classical Latin into vernacular usage.^[12] The first recorded English use of "substratum" dates to 1631, appearing in a theological work by John Burges, a Church of England clergyman, where it denoted an underlying support in metaphysical discussions.^[11] Initial applications in the 1630s were predominantly in theological and philosophical contexts, such as explorations of substance as an invisible bearer of qualities, as seen in later 17th-century philosophy.^[10] By the 1670s, the term began extending to material and physical underlayers, broadening beyond abstract speculation.^[10] The plural form "substrata," derived from the Latin, has been used in English since the 17th century. In scientific nomenclature during the 18th and 19th centuries, it came to describe multiple underlying layers or bases, while the singular "substratum" was often retained for specific foundational concepts in fields like natural history.^[13] This plural form gained traction amid the Enlightenment's emphasis on empirical observation, facilitating its adoption in emerging disciplines such as geology and biology.^[10]

General Definition

Substrata is the plural form of substratum, referring to underlying layers, bases, or foundations that lie beneath a surface or primary structure.^[1] This term denotes any supportive element or material that serves as a groundwork for something else, such as a layer spread underneath another or the foundational substance upon which qualities or phenomena are built.^[12] Derived from the Latin substratum, the neuter past participle of substernere meaning "to spread underneath," it emphasizes a position of support or origination below the visible or primary level.^[10] In figurative senses, substrata describe abstract underpinnings, such as the foundational elements in social structures, cultural frameworks, or intellectual systems that provide enduring support without being immediately apparent.^[2] These uses highlight substrata as the essential bases enabling the development or stability of overlying concepts or entities, akin to a bedrock in non-physical contexts.^[12] Substrata differ from related terms like strata, which typically denote visible or horizontal layers often at or near the surface, and superstrata, which refer to overlying influences or additional layers imposed above a base.^[1] This distinction underscores substrata's role as specifically foundational and subordinate, rather than intermediate or dominant.^[12]

Geological and Environmental Contexts

Stratigraphy and Earth's Layers

In stratigraphy, substrata refer to the deeper layers of consolidated rock within the Earth's crust, comprising sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic materials that underlie unconsolidated topsoil, regolith, or surficial deposits. These layers, often synonymous with bedrock, form the stable foundation distinguishing them from overlying, more recent geological features.^[14]^[15] The formation of substrata occurs over extensive geological timescales, typically spanning millions to billions of years, through processes such as erosion, sedimentation, and tectonic activity. Sedimentary substrata develop from the accumulation and lithification of particles derived from weathered pre-existing rocks, compacted under burial pressures; igneous substrata solidify from cooling magma or lava intrusions; and metamorphic substrata arise from the transformation of existing rocks under intense heat and pressure during tectonic events. These mechanisms, driven by plate tectonics and surface processes, create stratified sequences that record Earth's dynamic history.^[15] Prominent examples of bedrock substrata include the ancient Precambrian crystalline rocks exposed in continental shields, such as the Canadian Shield, where tectonic stability has preserved vast areas of igneous and metamorphic layers dating back over 4 billion years. In oceanic contexts, substrata consist of layered basaltic rocks forming the thin oceanic crust, approximately 5–10 km thick, with the Mohorovičić discontinuity serving as the seismic interface separating this crustal bedrock from the underlying mantle./04:_Plate_Tectonics/4.11:_Ancient_Parts_of_Continents-_Cratons_and_Shields)^[16] Substrata play a vital role in resource exploration, as fractured bedrock often hosts aquifers that supply groundwater through interconnected cracks, while sedimentary substrata trap oil and gas reserves in porous formations, and igneous or metamorphic layers contain economically significant minerals like gold and copper. These resources underpin industries, with assessments highlighting their distribution in stable crustal regions for sustainable extraction.^[17]^[18]

Soil and Sediment Substrata

In pedology, soil substrata refer to the unconsolidated layers beneath the surface soil horizons, primarily the C horizon in standard soil profiles, which consists of partially weathered parent material such as gravel, sand, silt, or clay with minimal pedogenic alteration.^[19]^[20] This layer represents the transition from active soil formation to underlying geologic materials, often retaining the texture and structure of the original deposits while serving as a reservoir for future horizon development.^[21] The formation of substrata involves pedogenic processes that differentiate soil horizons, including leaching (or eluviation), where soluble salts, clays, and organic matter are removed from upper layers by percolating water, and illuviation, the subsequent deposition of these materials in lower horizons like the B subsoil.^[22]^[23] Horizon differentiation arises from these translocation processes over time, influenced by climate, topography, and vegetation, resulting in the C horizon's relative stability and lack of significant structure or color changes compared to overlying layers.^[21]^[22] Substrata play key environmental roles in water retention, where coarser materials like sand and gravel allow percolation, while finer clays can impede drainage, leading to waterlogging in agricultural settings.^[24]^[25] They contribute to nutrient cycling by slowly releasing minerals from parent material into the soil profile, supporting plant roots that extend into this layer, though impermeable clay substrata often limit root penetration and require drainage improvements for crop productivity.^[26]^[25] Representative examples include alluvial substrata in river valleys, such as those in the Mississippi Delta, formed from loamy sediments deposited by floodwaters, which provide fertile but variably drained bases for agriculture.^[27] In northern hemispheres, glacial till substrata, like those underlying soils in the Great Lakes region, consist of unsorted mixtures of clay, sand, and boulders from Pleistocene glaciations, influencing cold-climate farming through moderate permeability and nutrient supply.^[28]

Biological and Ecological Contexts

Substrata in Habitats and Ecosystems

In ecology, substrata are defined as the solid or semi-solid surfaces—such as rock, sediment, or organic matter—that serve as the foundational physical base for macroscopic organisms in natural environments, supporting the attachment of plant roots, the construction of animal burrows, and the establishment of sessile communities.^[29] These surfaces provide essential structural support, enabling organisms to anchor, grow, and interact within their habitats, thereby shaping the spatial organization of ecosystems.^[30] Substrata vary by type, reflecting their material and environmental context, which influences the organisms they host. Epilithic substrata consist of hard, inert surfaces like gravel, pebbles, cobbles, or boulders, offering stable attachment points for algae, lichens, and invertebrates in aquatic and terrestrial settings.^[31] Epiphytic substrata involve living plant surfaces, such as bark or leaves, where organisms like orchids, ferns, and certain algae colonize without deriving nutrients from the host, fostering vertical habitat layering in forests and wetlands.^[32] Benthic substrata, found on seafloors or lake bottoms, include mud, sand, or rocky outcrops that underpin diverse bottom-dwelling communities in marine and freshwater systems.^[29] Ecologically, substrata significantly influence biodiversity by dictating habitat availability, resource distribution, and community dynamics. In coral reefs, calcium carbonate substrata formed from skeletal remains provide complex structures for coral polyps and associated species, sustaining high levels of marine biodiversity through shelter, nursery grounds, and trophic interactions.^[33] On forest floors, humus-rich organic layers act as nutrient reservoirs and moisture retainers, promoting diverse understory vegetation, invertebrates, and microbial activity that underpin food webs and ecosystem resilience.^[34] These functions highlight how substrata heterogeneity enhances species richness and ecological stability across habitats. Human activities profoundly disrupt substrata integrity, compromising their role in ecosystems. Deforestation removes vegetative cover, exposing underlying substrata to accelerated erosion and reducing their stability, which diminishes habitat suitability for root systems and burrowing species.^[35] Pollution, including sediment runoff and chemical contaminants, coats or alters substrata surfaces, inhibiting organism attachment and altering community composition in both terrestrial and aquatic environments.^[36] Such impacts, often exacerbated by land-use changes, lead to biodiversity loss and reduced ecosystem services like soil retention and water filtration.^[37]

Substrata in Microbiology and Cell Biology

In microbiology, substrata provide essential surfaces for bacterial adhesion, serving as the initial platform for quorum sensing and biofilm development, which are key to persistent infections on medical devices and in oral environments. The properties of the substratum, such as surface chemistry and conditioning films, interact with bacterial surface characteristics to facilitate attachment, leading to altered gene expression and enhanced gene transfer opportunities within biofilms. For example, Staphylococcus epidermidis clinical isolates exhibit significantly greater initial adhesion to hydrophobic substrata like acrylic compared to hydrophilic ones like glass, though bacterial cell hydrophobicity plays a minimal role in this process. Biofilm formation on these substrata varies by strain.^[38] A prominent example is Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which predominates in biofilms on urinary catheter substrata, forming dense, interconnected multilayers of cells enveloped in a protective extracellular polymeric substance matrix that resists antibiotic penetration and contributes to urinary tract infections. Quorum sensing in such biofilms enables intercellular communication, regulating processes like detachment and virulence factor expression to optimize community behavior on the substratum. In dental plaque, substrata similarly support multi-species biofilms, where surface topography and orientation affect bacterial proportions and cariogenic potential. These microbial communities on implants and oral surfaces underscore the substratum's role in pathogenesis, often leading to device failure and chronic infections.^[39]^[40]^[41] In cell biology, the extracellular matrix functions as a dynamic substratum that governs cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation, while artificial substrata in tissue culture replicate these effects to study cellular responses. Endothelial cells adhere and spread maximally on ECM components like fibronectin, laminin, and collagens I and IV, though optimal coating concentrations differ—laminin requiring higher levels for adhesion and spreading than vitronectin or fibronectin. Substratum composition influences endogenous ECM production; for instance, collagen IV promotes sustained secretion of fibronectin, laminin, and thrombospondin, whereas prolonged culture on vitronectin leads to declining matrix output. These interactions highlight how substrata modulate cellular phenotypes, with implications for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.^[42] Key concepts in substratum-microbe interactions include the impact of surface topography on colonization, where micro- and nanoscale features on implants can either deter bacterial attachment for antifouling purposes or inadvertently enhance it, as seen in tissue-integrative designs. Experimental techniques commonly utilize glass for assessing adhesion to hydrophilic surfaces or agarose-based hydrogels to mimic soft substrata in three-dimensional settings, enabling quantitative analysis of cell motility, biofilm kinetics via crystal violet staining, and scanning electron microscopy visualization of interactions. Such methods reveal transient shifts between planktonic and biofilm states, as observed in Acinetobacter baumannii on silicone substrata.^[39]

Linguistic Contexts

Substratum in Language Contact

In linguistics, a substratum refers to the language spoken by a conquered, minority, or displaced population that influences a dominant language, termed the superstratum, through contact, particularly affecting its phonology, syntax, or vocabulary.^[43] This influence manifests subtly as the substratum language is gradually displaced, leaving traces in the superstratum without fully replacing it.^[43] The mechanism driving substratum effects is primarily language shift, in which speakers of the substratum imperfectly acquire the superstratum, resulting in interference through the carryover of native features such as phonological patterns or syntactic structures.^[43] This process differs from borrowing, where elements are intentionally adopted by fluent speakers of the recipient language, and from adstratum influence, which involves mutual effects from prolonged coexistence of languages with comparable prestige, without displacement.^[43] Substratum interference tends to be more pronounced in grammar and phonology than in core vocabulary, as shifting speakers prioritize learnability over prestige-driven loans.^[43] The theoretical framework for substrata emerged in the 19th century, notably through Hugo Schuchardt's work on language mixture, which posited that the "inner form" of a substratum—its underlying grammatical and conceptual structure—could transmit to a conquering superstratum, challenging rigid genetic classifications of languages.^[44] Schuchardt's ideas on contact-induced change, including in creoles, emphasized dynamic social processes over isolation in language evolution.^[45] Later refinements, such as those distinguishing shift-induced interference from other contact types, built on this foundation to explain how imperfect group learning during shifts leads to systemic effects.^[43] Detecting substratum influences employs comparative reconstruction, a method that identifies anomalies by aligning sound correspondences and grammatical features across related languages to reveal irregularities unexplained by internal evolution or inheritance. Linguists verify such influences by confirming prior intense contact, the presence of shared traits across multiple linguistic subsystems (e.g., phonology and syntax), and historical attestation that these features existed in the substratum before contact but were absent in the pre-contact superstratum.^[46] Challenges include sparse documentation of extinct substrata, requiring indirect evidence like typological mismatches or areal patterns to substantiate claims.^[46]

Historical Examples of Linguistic Substrata

One prominent historical example of linguistic substratum influence is the Celtic impact on English, particularly from Brythonic languages spoken by the native population in Britain before the Anglo-Saxon invasions. This substratum is hypothesized to have contributed to certain phonological and syntactic features in English. For instance, some scholars attribute aspects of do-support in questions and negations to influence from Brythonic languages during the 5th to 7th centuries, as Brythonic speakers shifted to Old English amid population movements and cultural assimilation.^[47]^[48] In the Baltic region, Uralic languages, particularly Finnic varieties, exerted a substratum influence on East Baltic languages like Latvian and Lithuanian through prolonged contact in the prehistoric and early medieval periods. This is evident in borrowed vocabulary related to local flora, fauna, and daily life, such as Latvian laiva ('boat'), derived from Proto-Finnic laiva.^[49] Phonological shifts also occurred, including the adoption of Uralic-like vowel harmony patterns and palatalizations in certain lexical items, which altered Baltic sound systems in border areas where Uralic speakers shifted to Baltic around the 1st millennium BCE.^[49] These substrate loans constitute a significant portion of non-Indo-European etymologies in Baltic, highlighting how Uralic contributed to the lexical and phonetic diversification of Latvian and Lithuanian despite their primary Indo-European roots.^[50] African substrata from Niger-Congo languages played a key role in the formation of Caribbean English-based creoles during the transatlantic slave trade in the 17th and 18th centuries, as enslaved speakers from West and Central Africa contributed structural features to emerging creole grammars. In Jamaican Creole, serial verb constructions—such as "im run go a river" ('he ran to the river'), where multiple verbs chain without conjunctions—mirror patterns in Niger-Congo languages like Akan and Ewe, facilitating efficient expression of complex actions in the contact setting.^[51] Tonal systems, though not fully lexical in Jamaican Creole, influenced prosodic features like intonation and stress patterns, drawing from the tone-bearing substrates of languages such as Yoruba and Igbo, which helped distinguish grammatical meanings in the absence of inflection.^[52] These elements persisted as African speakers outnumbered Europeans on plantations, embedding substratum grammar into the English-lexified creoles across the Caribbean.^[53] Studies of substrate retention often involve quantifying lexical borrowing in cases of intense contact. Debates persist regarding the Gaulish (Celtic) substratum in French, where lexical retention is minimal—estimated at under 5% direct loans, mostly in toponyms and numerals like vingt ('twenty') from vigesimal systems—but some linguists argue for subtle phonological influences, such as the nasal vowels, amid Roman Latin's dominance over Gaulish in the 1st century BCE to 5th century CE.^[54] These examples illustrate how substrata shape language evolution through selective retention of core features during shifts.

Philosophical and Metaphysical Contexts

Substratum in Aristotelian Philosophy

In Aristotelian philosophy, the substratum, or hypokeimenon in Greek, refers to the underlying subject that serves as the bearer of properties and persists through changes, functioning as the primary substance to which accidents—non-essential attributes—are ascribed.^[55] In his Categories, Aristotle defines the hypokeimenon as "that of which the other things are said, but which is itself not further said of any other thing," positioning primary substances, such as individual humans or animals, as ultimate subjects of predication that neither inhere in nor are predicated of anything else.^[55] These primary substances are independent entities, essential for the existence of all other categories like qualities or relations, as nothing can exist without them.^[55] Aristotle further elaborates on the substratum in his Metaphysics, where it encompasses matter, form, or their compound, though he ultimately favors the compound or form as the truest substance due to their separability and determinacy.^[55] For instance, in Book Z, he illustrates the substratum with the example of wood serving as the underlying matter for a table: the wood persists as the potential bearer even as its shape and function change through crafting, while prime matter represents the ultimate, formless substratum underlying all natural changes, lacking any determinate qualities on its own.^[55] This concept underscores the substratum's role in explaining persistence amid alteration, where accidents modify the subject without destroying its essential identity.^[55] Central to this framework is Aristotle's doctrine of hylomorphism, in which the substratum—primarily matter—acts as the formless, potential base that combines with form (the organizing principle or essence) to constitute concrete substances.^[55] In Metaphysics Books Z and H, hylomorphic composites like the table (wood as matter united with the form of "tableness") exemplify how form actualizes the substratum's potentiality, creating a unified entity whose essence resides in the form rather than the matter alone.^[55] This synthesis resolves the problem of change by positing the substratum as the enduring substrate that receives new forms, ensuring the continuity of being.^[55] Aristotle's conception of the substratum laid foundational groundwork for medieval scholasticism, particularly in the interpretations of Thomas Aquinas, who adapted hypokeimenon and hylomorphism to reconcile Aristotelian metaphysics with Christian theology, viewing prime matter as a created potentiality actualized by divine forms.^[56] Aquinas, in works like the Summa Theologiae, employed these ideas to explain the unity of body and soul in human substances, treating the substratum as the individuating principle ordered toward God as the ultimate cause.^[56]

Substratum in Modern Ontology

In contemporary metaphysics, the concept of substratum refers to an underlying entity or "bare particular" that serves as the bearer of an object's properties, distinct from those properties themselves. This notion, inherited from earlier philosophical traditions, posits that ordinary objects require a non-qualitative core to unify their attributes and ensure their persistence through change. Substratum theory contrasts with bundle theory, which views objects as mere collections of properties (either universals or tropes) without any additional substrate. Proponents argue that without a substratum, the unity and identity of objects would be inexplicable, as properties alone might not account for why certain qualities cohere in one entity rather than another.^[9] A central debate in modern ontology concerns the necessity of bare particulars. Critics, such as Theodore Sider, contend that substrata introduce unnecessary ontological commitments, suggesting that properties can instantiate themselves without a distinct bearer, thereby simplifying the metaphysics of objects. In response, defenders like E. J. Lowe maintain that substances, understood as substrata equipped with sortal concepts (e.g., "human" or "electron"), are fundamental for explaining causal powers and modal properties. Lowe's neo-Aristotelian framework emphasizes the independence of substances from their accidental properties, allowing for a robust account of change while preserving the primacy of individual entities. This view has influenced discussions on persistence, where substrata provide the continuity needed for objects to survive alterations in their qualities.^[57]^[9] Recent developments have explored substratum theory through the lens of hylomorphism, a revived Aristotelian approach that integrates matter and form without reducing to a purely bare substratum. Kathrin Koslicki, for instance, argues that structured wholes—composites of parts arranged in specific ways—function as substrata, addressing challenges from mereology and quantum mechanics. In this model, the substratum is not an inert "thin particular" but a dynamically structured entity that grounds dispositions and causal interactions. Empirical considerations, such as those in particle physics, have prompted thinkers like Patrick Toner to refine substratum accounts, proposing that even fundamental particles possess an underlying essence beyond observable properties. These hylomorphic variants aim to reconcile substratum theory with scientific realism, avoiding the pitfalls of both radical bundle theories and overly simplistic bare particularism.^[9]^[58] The viability of substratum theory remains contested, with ongoing arguments centered on parsimony and explanatory power. Jiri Benovsky has examined whether substratum and bundle theories are metaphysically equivalent under certain interpretations, suggesting that the distinction may dissolve if properties are treated as internal relations. Nonetheless, the theory persists in analytic ontology due to its utility in addressing problems like the ship of Theseus paradox, where a substratum ensures diachronic identity despite part replacement. Influential critiques, including those from trope theorists like Robert K. Garcia, propose hybrid models where particularized properties (tropes) partially fulfill the substratum's role, blending elements of both camps. Overall, substratum theory continues to shape debates on the nature of being, emphasizing the ontological priority of underlying supports over mere aggregates.^[59]^[60]

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something that is spread or laid under something else; a stratum or layer lying under another. something that underlies or serves as a basis or foundation.
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In contrast, the natural substrate for most cells in living organisms is the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is three-dimensional, complex, and dynamic in its ...Missing: substratum | Show results with:substratum<|separator|>
[47]
Evaluation of the role of substrate and albumin on Pseudomonas ...
Feb 2, 2017 · Our present study aims at monitoring the variation in the biofilm architecture of a clinically isolated strain and ATCC 27853 strain of ...Missing: substratum | Show results with:substratum
[48]
https://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757
[49]
“HUGO SCHUCHARDT (1842-1927)” in “Portraits of Linguists
The 'inner form ' of a language may be transmitted from a substratum to a conquering language. New grammatical categories may be due to the influence of a ...
[50]
Pidgin and Creole Linguistics - Project MUSE
Undoubtedly, the most prominent and brilliant of the early creolists were Hugo Schuchardt and Derk Christiaan Hesseling, to whom the larger part of this essay ...
[51]
[PDF] How to Establish Substratum Interference
Jan 28, 2011 · The main purpose of this paper is to review methodological criteria for establishing the ef- fects of a substrate language on the structure ...
[52]
The Celtic Hypothesis - Do we actually speak British? - Academia.edu
Celtic Englishes retain linguistic features demonstrating Celtic influence, supporting the hypothesis of a Brittonic substratum.
[53]
(PDF) Comparative Brittonic syntax - Academia.edu
This has been cited as a possible source (via substrate influence of Brittonic Celtic on the early English of the southwest of England) of the use of d o d o ...<|separator|>
[54]
Celtic Influences in English: A Re-evaluation - jstor
possible Celtic influence on the emergence of the English it- cleft construction. Major factors supporting the Celtic Hypothesis include a clear chronological.
[55]
FINNO-UGRIC LOANS IN BALTIC - jstor
Slavic words from their Finno-Ugric counterparts. 2. Li. ménkè 'cod (Gadus morhua),' La. mçnca, menee, meneis, mçneka,.Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[56]
Proto-Finnic loanwords in the Baltic languages? - Academia.edu
In addition to listing Latvian and Lithuanian words previously compared with ... Bednarczuk's Uralic substrate hypothesis has gained support among non-Uralicists.
[57]
[PDF] SUBSTRATUM WORDS IN BALTO-SLAVIC
Mar 19, 2014 · Today, nearly all Uralic lan- guages are spoken near the Slavic and/or Baltic speaking area, and Ural- ic, Baltic, and Slavic contacts certainly ...<|separator|>
[58]
[PDF] Re-evaluating Relexification: The Case of Jamaican Creole
These substrates consist of various West and Central African tongues belonging to different subgroups of the Niger-Congo language family: Fon and Ewe (of the ...
[59]
[PDF] Creoles, their Substrates, and Language Typology
8 Serial verbs. Serial verb constructions are available in some creoles but not in others. They exist in creoles whose substrate has the construction (e.g. ...
[60]
(PDF) The homogeneity of the substrate and the grammar of space ...
Mar 18, 2018 · The two creoles reflect a large range of the structural possibilities found in African substrate and adstrate languages while maintaining a ...
[61]
The Classification of Romance Languages - jstor
language (including French and Spanish), an activity which contained the seeds of comparative analysis and of the reclassification of the entire family from ...
[62]
Aristotle's Metaphysics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 8, 2000 · In the Categories, Aristotle was concerned with subjects of predication: what are the things we talk about, and ascribe properties to? In the ...
[63]
Thomas Aquinas - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 7, 2022 · He wrote a brief treatise arguing for a middle ground on the vexed question of whether the world could be proved to be eternal or created in ...
[64]
Substance - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 3, 2004 · The idea that there is some fundamental kind of entity underlying the cosmos, a substance in the generic sense, existed before Aristotle.
[65]
http://tedsider.org/papers/bare_particulars.pdf
[66]
6 Hylomorphism as a Type of Substratum Theory - Oxford Academic
6.1 Substratum Theory and the Nature of Substrata. In contemporary metaphysics, it is standard to contrast substratum theory with bundle theory. Both ...
[67]
https://philpapers.org/archive/BENTBT-2.pdf
[68]
https://philpapers.org/archive/GARTWT-4.pdf