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Target ship

A target ship is a decommissioned or obsolete vessel, typically a warship, used by naval forces as a seaborne target for live-fire training exercises, gunnery practice, aerial bombing, and weapons testing to simulate enemy threats in realistic conditions.^[1]^[2] These ships may be employed statically, towed by support vessels, or modified with radio-control systems to maneuver autonomously, allowing crews to practice precision strikes without risking personnel.^[2] The practice serves dual purposes: disposing of surplus or hazardous vessels while providing invaluable combat readiness training that cannot be replicated with smaller or simulated targets.^[3] The concept of target ships emerged in the early 20th century as navies sought ways to test evolving weaponry and tactics amid rapid technological advancements. In the U.S. Navy, the first such vessel was the USS San Marcos (formerly USS Texas), a pre-dreadnought battleship renamed and deliberately sunk in 1911 off Chesapeake Bay during gunnery trials by the USS New Hampshire; data from its destruction informed future battleship armor designs, including the "all-or-nothing" scheme.^[1] Between World Wars I and II, several obsolete warships were converted into crewless "ghost ships" equipped with radio controls, gyrocompasses, and automated systems for remote operation from accompanying vessels like the USS Ohio.^[2] Notable examples include the USS Iowa (IX-6), sunk in 1923 after enduring over 300 hits from 14-inch shells, and the USS Utah (AG-16), which served until its loss at Pearl Harbor in 1941.^[2] These interwar experiments refined aerial bombing doctrines and gunnery accuracy, preparing forces for modern warfare. In contemporary naval operations, target ships play a central role in sinking exercises (SINKEX), a U.S. Navy program that integrates live-fire drills across gunnery, missiles, torpedoes, and special operations.^[3] Decommissioned vessels from the National Defense Reserve Fleet, such as former frigates or destroyers, are selected after environmental inspections to remove hazardous materials like PCBs and asbestos, then deployed at least 50 nautical miles offshore in waters over 6,000 feet deep for safe sinking.^[3] Exercises like the 2023 Balikatan multi-force SINKEX demonstrated coordinated strikes leading to rapid vessel destruction, enhancing interoperability with allies such as the Philippine Navy.^[4] In May 2025, a planned joint U.S.-Philippine SINKEX during Balikatan was aborted when the target ship, the decommissioned Philippine Navy corvette BRP Miguel Malvar, sank prematurely while being towed to the exercise site.^[5] Joint efforts, including planned 2026 operations with the Royal Navy, underscore the ongoing evolution of target ship use to counter advanced threats like fast-attack craft.^[6] This method not only boosts tactical proficiency but also provides a cost-effective disposal solution for aging hulls.^[3]

Definition and History

Definition

A target ship is an obsolete or decommissioned warship repurposed as a seaborne target for live-fire weapons testing, gunnery practice, or sinking exercises (SINKEX).^[3] These vessels provide realistic, full-scale representations of potential adversaries, allowing naval forces to evaluate weapon systems under operational conditions.^[3] Key characteristics of target ships include being unmanned to ensure safety during engagements, often fitted with radio-control systems to mimic evasive maneuvers, and structurally modified to absorb initial strikes before ultimately sinking.^[2] They are selected from vessels deemed unwanted, hazardous, or costly to maintain, ensuring their disposal serves dual training and environmental compliance purposes.^[3] Target ships differ from floating targets, such as non-ship dummies or barges, which lack the size, complexity, and seaworthiness of actual warships, and from artificial reefs, which are intentionally sunk for ecological benefits without prior use in combat simulations.^[3] The concept of using ships as targets emerged in early 19th-century naval experiments, notably those by French artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans in 1824, who employed a redundant ship-of-the-line as a test target for explosive shells.^[7]

Historical Development

The concept of using ships as targets for naval experimentation emerged in the early 19th century, driven by innovations in explosive ordnance. In 1819, French artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans proposed a fusing system for explosive shells that could be safely fired from sea-service guns, revolutionizing naval artillery by enabling high-powered, flat-trajectory firing of incendiary projectiles against wooden hulls.^[7] This idea was tested in 1824 at Brest, France, where one Paixhans shell gun fired 16 shells at the obsolete 80-gun ship of the line Pacificateur, demolishing and sinking the vessel in a brief bombardment and demonstrating the devastating potential of shell fire.^[8] The success prompted rapid adoption by the French Navy and influenced other powers, marking a doctrinal shift from solid-shot broadsides to explosive ordnance in naval warfare.^[7] Advancements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries focused on controlled, realistic training targets to simulate enemy maneuvers. The introduction of radio-controlled vessels enabled safer, more dynamic gunnery practice; a key milestone was the 1923 conversion of the decommissioned U.S. battleship USS Iowa (BB-4) into the radio-controlled target ship Coast Battleship No. 4 (IX-6), which was used in Fleet gunnery exercises off Panama on March 22, where it sustained heavy damage from battleship gunfire before sinking.^[9] This represented the first U.S. employment of such technology, allowing crews to hone accuracy against a moving, ship-sized target without risking lives, and set the stage for broader integration of remote control in naval training.^[2] World War II saw a significant expansion in target ship usage due to surplus fleets from pre-war disarmament treaties and rapid wartime production, providing ample obsolete vessels for intensive training. The U.S. Navy employed these hulks, such as the ex-battleship Utah, for gunnery, torpedo, and bombing practice, with destroyers like Lamberton and Boggs simulating agile threats in live-fire scenarios.^[10] This surge addressed the need for realistic combat preparation amid escalating threats, though actual sinkings were limited to preserve resources for the war effort. Similar practices were adopted by other navies, such as the Royal Navy's use of HMS Agamemnon as a radio-controlled target in the early 1920s.^[2] Postwar developments integrated target ships into nuclear weapons testing, exemplified by Operation Crossroads in 1946 at Bikini Atoll, where 95 vessels— including surplus warships, submarines, and captured German and Japanese ships—were arrayed as targets to assess blast and radiation effects on naval assets.^[11] The tests, comprising air-dropped (Able) and underwater (Baker) detonations of 23-kiloton devices, revealed severe contamination issues.^[12] From the Cold War onward, target ship practices evolved into standardized sinking exercises (SINKEX) to validate advanced missiles, torpedoes, and multi-domain strikes, reflecting doctrinal emphasis on precision and survivability. The U.S. Navy increased routine SINKEX during the late 20th century amid fleet expansion, conducting live-fire drills using decommissioned hulls to enhance combat readiness, such as multi-axis strikes in the Hawaiian Islands Operating Area.^[13] This shift prioritized environmental compliance and international regulations while maintaining high-fidelity training against realistic maritime threats.^[14]

Purpose and Rationale

Military Training Applications

Target ships play a crucial role in naval training by simulating enemy vessels during gunnery, torpedo, and missile drills, allowing crews to practice accuracy, targeting, and coordination in realistic at-sea conditions.^[14] These exercises enable sailors to engage moving targets with live munitions, honing skills in weapon employment and tactical maneuvering without the constraints of simulated environments.^[15] For instance, in multi-domain scenarios, surface ships, submarines, and aircraft coordinate strikes on a single target ship to replicate combat against adversarial fleets.^[16] The primary benefits of using target ships include enhanced crew proficiency in live-fire settings, where participants gain hands-on experience in high-stakes operations that build confidence and operational tempo.^[14] By employing decommissioned vessels, these drills minimize risks to manned ships and personnel, providing a safe proxy for testing combat procedures while indirectly informing damage control techniques through observed structural responses.^[3] Such training fosters interoperability among units, as seen in exercises where diverse platforms—air, surface, and subsurface—deliver synchronized attacks on the target to simulate modern warfare dynamics.^[17] The application of target ships in training has evolved significantly from World War II-era fleet exercises, where radio-controlled obsolete warships like the USS Utah served as maneuvering targets for gunnery and bombing practice, to contemporary joint operations.^[2] In the modern U.S. Navy, this tradition continues through SINKEX events, such as those integrated into the biennial Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) exercise off Hawaii and the multinational UNITAS 2025 exercise, which featured a SINKEX involving forces from multiple nations to enhance collective maritime capabilities.^[16]^[18] These evolutions emphasize integrated warfare, with exercises often involving over a dozen nations and platforms to prepare for complex peer conflicts.^[13]

Weapons Testing and Evaluation

Target ships serve a critical role in the realistic assessment of naval munitions, including torpedoes, anti-ship missiles such as the Harpoon and Tomahawk, and artillery shells, by providing full-scale representations of vessel hulls and structures under live-fire conditions.^[14] These evaluations occur primarily during Sinking Exercises (SINKEX), where decommissioned ships are subjected to coordinated strikes from air, surface, and subsurface platforms to measure weapons lethality and ship survivability.^[14] The primary function is to validate the performance of new or upgraded systems against actual maritime targets, offering data unattainable through simulations or subscale models. Evaluation processes involve detailed pre-strike preparations, such as instrumenting the target with sensors for monitoring structural integrity, followed by post-strike analysis of damage patterns, including hull penetration, compartment flooding, and explosive fragmentation effects.^[14] Inspections by naval engineers and marine specialists assess the extent of structural deformation and material failure, informing iterative improvements in munition design, warhead configurations, and targeting algorithms.^[14] For instance, telemetry from onboard sensors captures real-time data on impact dynamics during strikes, enabling quantitative analysis of factors like velocity retention and armor defeat mechanisms.^[19] Historically, the 1921 gunnery trials against the captured German battleship SMS Baden, conducted by the monitor HMS Terror, demonstrated the limitations of early armor-piercing shells, which often shattered upon impacting thick Krupp cemented armor rather than penetrating, prompting refinements in British naval ordnance design.^[20] Similarly, the 2005 deliberate sinking of the decommissioned aircraft carrier USS America over four weeks of sustained attacks revealed key vulnerabilities in supercarrier construction, such as progressive flooding and fire propagation, which influenced subsequent enhancements in damage control and compartmentalization for U.S. carrier classes.^[21] In modern applications, SINKEX integrates advanced sensors and telemetry to evaluate precision-guided and long-range precision munitions, including Harpoon Block II+ missiles tested against moving targets for GPS-enhanced accuracy and Tomahawk variants for anti-ship lethality.^[22] These exercises provide empirical data on such systems, supporting the development of resilient hull designs and countermeasure integrations for future naval platforms.^[14]

Preparation Methods

Hazardous Material Removal

The hazardous material removal process for target ships, also known as hulks prepared for sinking exercises (SINKEX), involves systematic decontamination to prevent environmental pollution during live-fire training. This decontamination targets legacy pollutants accumulated over the vessel's service life, ensuring compliance with federal regulations before ocean disposal. The U.S. Navy conducts these preparations in coordination with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), focusing on removing substances that could leach into marine ecosystems upon submersion.^[23] Key hazards identified for extraction include asbestos insulation, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in electrical equipment and paints, oils and fuels in tanks and reservoirs, refrigerants such as fluorocarbons and mercury-containing devices, and remnants of munitions or ordnance. Asbestos, prevalent in pre-1980s ships, is abated through encapsulation or physical removal to avoid fiber release. PCBs, banned in 1979 but lingering in older vessels, are prioritized due to their bioaccumulative toxicity, with liquid forms drained and solid components dismantled. Petroleum products are flushed from bilges, engines, and piping systems, while refrigerants are recovered from air conditioning and refrigeration units to prevent greenhouse gas emissions and heavy metal contamination. Munitions remnants, including small arms or explosive residues, are demilitarized to eliminate detonation risks and ordnance dispersal. These extractions follow a comprehensive inventory to map all potential sources, preventing oversight of hidden compartments.^[14]^[24]^[25] Regulatory drivers for these protocols originated in the 1970s with the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) of 1972, which prohibits ocean dumping of materials harmful to human health or the environment; the EPA issued its first general permit for Navy SINKEX transports in 1977, mandating hazardous material abatement. These requirements expanded in the post-1990s era amid Superfund investigations into WWII-era wrecks, which revealed persistent PCB and heavy metal contamination at sites like Pearl Harbor, prompting stricter Navy-EPA best management practices for vessel preparation. The protocols align with the Toxic Substances Control Act for PCBs and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act for hazardous waste handling, emphasizing "maximum extent practicable" removal to minimize ecological risks.^[26]^[27]^[28] The step-by-step process begins with an inventory audit, where certified environmental specialists survey the ship to catalog all hazardous materials using historical records, sampling, and non-destructive testing. This is followed by specialized disassembly, including draining and neutralizing liquids, cutting out PCB-laden components for incineration or land disposal, and abating asbestos through wet removal or thermal decomposition in controlled facilities. Oils and fuels undergo hot washing and vacuum extraction, while refrigerants are vented via certified recovery systems. Munitions remnants are inspected and neutralized by explosive ordnance disposal teams. The process concludes with certification: a thorough inspection by qualified marine chemists and EPA-authorized personnel verifies compliance, issuing a clearance certificate before towing to the exercise site. For instance, the ex-USS Tarawa (LHA-1) underwent this regimen prior to its 2024 sinking, with all identified hazards removed per EPA guidelines, and the ex-USS Simpson (FFG-56) followed similar procedures before its sinking during UNITAS 2025.^[14]^[24]^[29]^[30] Preparation timelines typically span 6-12 months, depending on ship size and hazard complexity, with costs ranging from several million dollars per vessel due to labor, disposal fees, and regulatory oversight. The ex-USS Tarawa's decontamination, starting post-stricken in April 2024 and culminating in its July sinking during RIMPAC, exemplified accelerated efforts but still incurred significant expenses for comprehensive abatement. These factors underscore the resource-intensive nature of ensuring environmental safety in military training.^[31]^[32]^[29]

Structural and Safety Modifications

Target ships undergo specific structural adaptations to enable safe and effective unmanned operation during naval exercises, ensuring they can withstand initial impacts while facilitating controlled sinking. These modifications typically follow rigorous environmental and safety protocols established by the U.S. Navy and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Prior to structural changes, hazardous materials such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), petroleum products, and other pollutants are removed from the vessel to comply with federal regulations under the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act.^[14] To support unmanned operation, target ships are equipped with systems for remote monitoring and positioning. In early examples, such as the USS Iowa (BB-4), the vessel was converted in 1921 into the U.S. Navy's first radio-controlled target ship, allowing remote steering and maneuverability during fleet gunnery practice off the coast of Panama in 1923, where it was ultimately sunk by gunfire from USS Mississippi (BB-41).^[33] Modern SINKEX preparations emphasize passive unmanned configurations, where decommissioned ships are towed to the exercise area, anchored, or permitted to drift without onboard crew, relying on pre-positioned tracking devices for location monitoring during the event.^[15] If live-fire attacks do not result in sinking, pre-installed scuttling charges are detonated to ensure the vessel submerges completely, preventing prolonged surface hazards.^[34] All modifications undergo thorough certification to verify structural integrity and compliance with operational safety standards. In preparation for sinking, particularly to promote post-exercise utility as artificial reefs, large openings are cut into the hull and watertight bulkheads according to U.S. Navy and EPA best management practices established following the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004. These openings facilitate rapid flooding and controlled submersion while creating entry points for marine life to form habitats on the seafloor.^[24] This practice has been standard for vessel sinkings since the early 2000s, balancing exercise objectives with ecological considerations. Note that not all SINKEX vessels are intentionally sunk as reefs.^[35] Contemporary adaptations in the 2020s incorporate drone technologies to enhance exercise realism and control. During SINKEX events, unmanned aerial and surface drones are integrated for targeting and surveillance of the target ship, as demonstrated in a 2021 U.S. Navy demonstration where a drone swarm successfully struck and contributed to the destruction of a surface vessel, simulating peer adversary tactics.^[36] These integrations allow for dynamic scenario testing without risking manned assets, evolving from historical radio controls to advanced autonomous systems.

Operational Use in Exercises

Sinking Exercise Procedures

Sinking exercises, commonly known as SINKEX, follow a structured sequence to ensure safe and effective execution during live-fire training. The process begins with target positioning, where the decommissioned vessel is towed to a designated offshore range, typically at least 50 nautical miles from land and in waters exceeding 6,000 feet deep to comply with environmental regulations.^[37]^[15] This positioning allows for realistic simulation of maritime threats while minimizing risks to coastal areas and navigation routes. Prior to engagement, the area is surveyed for marine life, vessels, and aircraft to confirm safety.^[37] The exercise progresses through phased strikes, starting with initial engagements using lower-yield ordnance such as gunnery fire and torpedoes to assess targeting accuracy and simulate early-phase combat scenarios. These are followed by escalation to heavier munitions, including missiles and aerial bombs, which are fired in coordinated volleys to overwhelm the target and replicate multi-domain attacks. For instance, during the 2024 RIMPAC exercise, the ex-USS Tarawa was struck by a variety of munitions, including advanced Quicksink weapons from U.S. Air Force B-2 bombers, alongside anti-ship missiles from surface vessels and aircraft operated by U.S. and partner forces, culminating in the ship's sinking after multiple hits.^[15]^[37]^[38] If the vessel remains afloat after primary strikes, final scuttling may occur via explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) teams deploying demolition charges to ensure complete submersion.^[15] Participant roles emphasize seamless coordination across naval assets, with surface ships, submarines, and aircraft operating under a unified task force command to execute strikes from various vectors. Spotters, often embedded in aircraft or on support vessels, provide real-time hit confirmation through visual observation and telemetry data, enabling adjustments during the exercise.^[37] This multi-national integration, as seen in joint operations, enhances interoperability and tactical proficiency.^[14] SINKEX events can last from several hours to a few days and involve a varying number of munitions depending on the exercise scale and objectives. Larger multinational drills like RIMPAC often concentrate the activity into a single intensive day.^[37]^[15] Emergency protocols include abort criteria triggered by adverse weather, equipment malfunctions, or unexpected hazards, with the exercise halted to prioritize safety. Post-sinking, debris monitoring via sonar and surface surveys ensures the site poses no ongoing navigation risks, with any floating remnants recovered or marked.^[15]^[14]

Regulatory and Logistical Frameworks

The U.S. Navy's SINKEX program operates under strict regulatory oversight from the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), ensuring compliance with environmental and safety standards prior to vessel disposal at sea. NAVSEA's Inactive Ships Program, through its SEA 21I office, manages the preparation and provision of decommissioned vessels for exercises, including inspections by qualified marine chemists to verify removal of hazardous materials such as PCBs, petroleum products, and floatable debris.^[14] The EPA issues a general permit under the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) at 40 C.F.R. § 229.2, authorizing the transport and ocean disposal of target vessels while mandating conditions like sinking in depths of at least 1,000 fathoms (6,000 feet) and at least 50 nautical miles from land to minimize environmental risks.^[23]^[39] Internationally, SINKEX exercises require coordination with host nations when conducted in foreign waters or near territorial seas, as seen in the annual Balikatan exercises with the Philippines, where U.S. and Philippine forces jointly plan and execute sinkings of decommissioned vessels to align with bilateral defense agreements.^[40] These operations adhere to customary international law derived from the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), ensuring activities occur in international waters to respect coastal state sovereignty and navigational freedoms on the high seas.^[41] Logistically, vessels are selected from the Navy's excess fleet of decommissioned ships or the Maritime Administration's National Defense Reserve Fleet, prioritizing those suitable for survivability testing or multi-national training without retention value.^[3] Transport to designated ranges, such as those off Hawaii or Southern California, typically involves towing by naval tugs, though larger hulls may use heavy-lift semi-submersible vessels for stability during long-distance relocation.^[14] Budgeting falls under broader Navy training and readiness appropriations, with costs covering preparation, transport, and post-exercise monitoring integrated into annual operations and maintenance funds.

Notable Examples

Early and Pre-WWII Instances

One of the earliest documented uses of a target ship occurred in 1824 when the French Navy conducted trials with the innovative Paixhans gun against the obsolete 80-gun ship of the line Pacificateur at Brest. Developed by General Henri-Joseph Paixhans, this was the first naval gun specifically designed to fire explosive shells, and the test involved bombarding the stationary vessel with an 80-pounder shell gun, resulting in severe structural damage to its wooden hull from just 16 shells.^[42] The dramatic success of the demonstration, which caused the Pacificateur to break up rapidly, prompted the rapid adoption of shell-firing artillery across the French fleet by 1827 and spurred similar innovations in other navies worldwide.^[7] The United States marked a technological milestone in 1923 with the radio-controlled sinking of the pre-dreadnought battleship USS Iowa (BB-4) during Fleet Problem I off the Panama Canal Zone. Decommissioned in 1919 and reclassified as the experimental target ship IX-6, Iowa was equipped with remote steering and propulsion controls, enabling her to maneuver realistically without a crew during live-fire exercises.^[2] On March 22, 1923, she was struck by multiple salvos from the battleship USS Mississippi (BB-41), leading to her rapid sinking and validating the feasibility of unmanned, remotely operated targets for gunnery training.^[33] This demonstration underscored the safety and tactical advantages of radio control in naval practice, paving the way for broader adoption of such systems in U.S. fleet exercises. Post-World War I, the captured German battleship SMS Baden served as a critical target for British shell impact evaluations in 1921, providing insights into armor vulnerabilities under realistic combat conditions. Scuttled by her crew at Scapa Flow in 1919 but subsequently refloated, Baden was prepared by removing coal and armor from one side to induce a list, simulating the effects of plunging fire on her 13.8-inch armored belt during trials east of the Horse Tail Bank. On November 18, 1921, she was sunk by 15-inch armor-piercing shells from the monitors HMS Terror and HMS Erebus after two rounds of firing, with the tests revealing key data on penetration mechanics and shell bursting against heavy German-style armor.^[43] These experiments significantly shaped interwar naval armor standards, informing British designs for improved protection against high-velocity impacts in ships like the Nelson class.^[44]

WWII and Cold War Era

During World War II and the immediate postwar period, target ships played a critical role in evaluating the devastating effects of emerging nuclear weapons on naval fleets. The most prominent example was Operation Crossroads, a series of nuclear tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in 1946, involving a target array of approximately 95 ships positioned in the lagoon to simulate a wartime naval formation.^[45] These vessels included decommissioned battleships such as the USS Nevada (BB-36) and USS Arkansas (BB-33), alongside carriers, cruisers, destroyers, and submarines, with animals placed aboard to study biological effects of radiation.^[45] The operation's Able test on July 1, 1946, featured an air-dropped plutonium implosion device yielding 21 kilotons, which detonated 520 feet above the water and immediately sank five target ships despite missing the intended aim point by over 2,100 feet.^[46] The subsequent Baker test on July 25, 1946, involved an underwater detonation at 90 feet depth, producing a massive radioactive plume that contaminated much of the fleet and led to eight additional immediate sinkings, including the USS Arkansas, which capsized due to shockwave damage, and severe structural compromise to the USS Nevada.^[45]^[46] Overall, the tests resulted in the loss of 14 ships directly from the blasts, with many survivors requiring extensive decontamination efforts that were ultimately abandoned due to persistent radioactivity, turning them into long-term hazards. Long-term radiation studies from Operation Crossroads informed naval doctrine on nuclear survivability, revealing how underwater bursts could render entire fleets inoperable through fallout and base surge effects, influencing Cold War strategies for dispersed operations.^[45] Beyond nuclear trials, conventional target ships supported ongoing weapons practice during and after the war. The SS James Longstreet, a Liberty ship launched in 1943, exemplifies repeated use in torpedo and aerial gunnery exercises; after brief wartime service, it was stripped and anchored in shallow waters off Eastham, Massachusetts, in Cape Cod Bay starting in 1945, where U.S. Navy aircraft targeted it with bombs and strafing runs until the early 1970s.^[47] Grounded on a shoal to facilitate low-altitude attacks, the vessel gradually settled into 20 feet of water, its rusting hulk serving as a visible landmark for training until fully submerged by natural erosion and accumulated damage.^[48] As the Cold War intensified, the U.S. Navy expanded target ship programs to validate new missile technologies, frequently employing decommissioned destroyers in live-fire exercises from the 1950s through the 1970s. These ex-warships, often from World War II-era classes like the Gearing or Fletcher, were modified for remote control and towed to open ocean ranges off California or Hawaii for tests of systems such as the Terrier surface-to-air missile and early Harpoon anti-ship variants.^[49] Such sinkings, conducted under controlled SINKEX protocols, demonstrated missile accuracy and warhead lethality against maneuvering targets, with representative cases including the scuttling of surplus destroyers like the USS Gyatt (DDG-1) in 1970 after its decommissioning in 1969 and role in guided-missile evaluations.^[50] This practice ensured operational readiness amid escalating naval arms races, prioritizing expendable hulls to refine tactics without risking active fleet assets.

Post-2000 Modern Cases

In the early 2000s, the United States Navy conducted one of the most extensive target ship sinkings to evaluate the survivability of large warships against modern weaponry. The decommissioned aircraft carrier USS America (CV-66), a Kitty Hawk-class vessel, underwent a four-week live-fire endurance test beginning in early May 2005, approximately 200 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. During this period, the ship was subjected to a barrage of bombs, missiles, and torpedoes from aircraft, ships, and submarines to assess structural integrity under repeated attacks. On May 14, 2005, USS America finally sank after withstanding significant damage, marking it as the largest warship ever deliberately sunk by the U.S. Navy.^[29]^[16]^[51] Although occurring just prior to 2000, the preparation and sinking of the Australian frigate HMAS Torrens (DE 53) exemplified transitional practices into the new millennium, with decommissioning in 1998 followed by detailed hazard removal and modifications for use as a target. On June 14, 1999, during combat systems trials, the River-class destroyer escort was sunk by a live Mark 48 Mod 4 torpedo fired from the Collins-class submarine HMAS Farncomb, approximately 100 km off the coast of Western Australia in the Indian Ocean. The exercise demonstrated the torpedo's effectiveness in breaking the ship's keel, with the vessel rapidly capsizing and sinking within minutes.^[52]^[53] In 2024, multinational forces participating in the Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) exercise off Hawaii conducted two high-profile sinking exercises (SINKEX) amid heightened Indo-Pacific tensions. The decommissioned Austin-class amphibious transport dock USS Dubuque (LPD 8) was sunk on July 11, 2024, in waters over 15,000 feet deep, approximately 50 nautical miles north of Kauai, after strikes from anti-ship missiles including the Naval Strike Missile and Harpoon, launched by U.S. and allied aircraft and vessels. This was followed by the sinking of the Iwo Jima-class amphibious assault ship USS Tarawa (LHA 1) on July 19, 2024, in the same area, targeted by a combination of precision-guided munitions, torpedoes, and missiles to test interoperability and weapon efficacy in scenarios reflecting potential peer conflicts. These operations involved over 25 nations and underscored advancements in joint anti-surface warfare capabilities.^[29]^[16]^[54] A notable unintended incident occurred in 2025 during preparations for joint U.S.-Philippine exercises. The World War II-era Cannon-class destroyer escort BRP Miguel Malvar (PS-19), decommissioned and prepped as a target for the Balikatan maritime strike exercise, sank accidentally on May 5, 2025, while being towed to the exercise site near the Luzon Strait. The 80-year-old vessel, originally commissioned in 1944, took on water and capsized approximately 7:20 a.m. local time due to structural fatigue and rough seas, just hours before it was scheduled for live-fire destruction. This event highlighted the challenges and risks associated with transporting aging target ships for modern drills.^[55]^[56]

Environmental and Broader Impacts

Ecological Effects and Mitigation

The sinking of target ships during naval exercises can release heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and copper from paints, hull coatings, and structural components into the marine environment, potentially leading to bioaccumulation in food chains and toxicity to marine organisms.^[57] Unexploded ordnance (UXO) remaining on or near the wrecks poses additional risks, as corroding munitions leach explosives like TNT and other toxic substances, contributing to localized contamination that persists for decades.^[58] Microplastics derived from degrading ship paints, which often contain biocidal additives and heavy metals, further exacerbate pollution by entering the water column and being ingested by plankton, fish, and larger predators, disrupting ecosystems through physical and chemical effects.^[59] Long-term ecological consequences are evident in sites like Bikini Atoll, where nuclear tests involving target ships during Operation Crossroads in 1946 resulted in radioactive contamination that remains significant as of 2025, rendering parts of the lagoon highly radioactive and unsuitable for habitation or extensive marine use.^[60] To mitigate these impacts, the U.S. Navy conducts pre-sinking preparations under EPA general permits for the SINKEX program, which require thorough removal of hazardous materials including PCBs, asbestos, and oils to minimize residual pollutants, with agreements limiting PCBs to no more than 100 pounds per vessel.^[23]^[61] Site selection plays a critical role, with most sinkings occurring in waters deeper than 6,000 feet (about 1,800 meters) to promote rapid dilution and sedimentation of contaminants, reducing exposure to coastal and shallow-water ecosystems. Despite these risks, many sunk target ships transform into artificial reefs that enhance biodiversity by providing complex habitats for coral, fish, and invertebrates; for instance, the USS Oriskany, intentionally sunk off Pensacola, Florida, in 2006 at a depth of 212 feet, has supported rapid coral colonization by species like staghorn and brain corals, attracting diverse marine life including sea turtles and crustaceans while alleviating pressure on nearby natural reefs.^[62]^[63] In the 2020s, emerging concerns include the release of perchlorate from missile remnants during sinkings, a persistent contaminant that can disrupt thyroid function in marine species and accumulate in sediments, prompting calls for enhanced scrutiny in naval exercises.^[64] The Department of Defense has incorporated adaptive management into its broader environmental strategies, including ongoing monitoring of sunk vessel sites to assess and respond to contamination levels through periodic sampling and ecosystem evaluations.^[65]

Cultural and Strategic Legacy

Target ships have profoundly influenced modern naval doctrine, particularly in shaping anti-ship warfare tactics and assessments of vessel resilience. The 2005 sinking exercise of the decommissioned aircraft carrier USS America, which required over four weeks and extensive ordnance to submerge, provided critical data on carrier survivability against sustained attacks, informing debates on the vulnerability of large surface combatants to missile and explosive threats.^[66] This exercise highlighted design improvements in compartmentalization and damage control, influencing subsequent U.S. Navy strategies for protecting high-value assets like supercarriers in peer conflicts.^[67] Culturally, target ships embody naval power projection and the evolution of military might, serving as tangible symbols of technological dominance and strategic experimentation. The wrecks from Operation Crossroads, the 1946 nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll, have become iconic dive sites, attracting global interest as underwater museums that preserve unadulterated records of atomic-era naval history.^[68] These 21 accessible vessels, including WWII veterans like USS Saratoga and HIJMS Nagato, offer divers immersive encounters with the legacy of nuclear testing, fostering public education on the human and strategic costs of such operations while symbolizing the shift to post-World War II deterrence paradigms.^[69] In recent decades, the use of physical target ships has declined due to escalating costs, environmental regulations, and advancements in alternatives, marking a strategic pivot toward sustainable training methods. Amendments to the London Convention and Protocol, including stricter 2006 protocols on ocean dumping, have imposed rigorous remediation requirements for vessels used in sinking exercises (SINKEX), compelling the U.S. Navy to limit such practices to comply with international pollution prevention standards.^[70] Post-2010s, navies have increasingly adopted virtual simulations and unmanned drone targets for anti-ship training, reducing reliance on live-fire sinkings while enhancing realism through systems like the U.S. Navy's Ghost Fleet Overlord program, which deploys autonomous surface vessels as expendable proxies.^[71] This shift favors "green disposal" options, such as scrapping or artificial reef conversion, over ocean disposal. Since 1999, the U.S. Navy has conducted over 100 SINKEX events, sinking more than 100 decommissioned vessels to test weapons lethality and tactics, though the proportion of disposals via SINKEX peaked at 65% between 2000 and 2010 before trending downward amid regulatory and budgetary pressures.^[72] These exercises underscore the enduring tactical value of target ships in validating anti-access/area-denial capabilities, yet their legacy now emphasizes innovation in low-impact alternatives to sustain naval readiness without environmental trade-offs.

References

[1]
Historic Ships - From 'Old Hoodoo' to Target Ship - U.S. Naval Institute
The first USS San Marcos must rank among the shortest-lived commissioned U.S. warships, having a service life (above water) of just 34 days.
[2]
Crewless Ghost Ships of the Interwar Navy | Naval History Magazine
Between World Wars I and II, several old warships were converted into radio-controlled ships to serve as U.S. Navy targets for experimental exercises. This ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[3]
SINKEX | MARAD - Department of Transportation
Feb 17, 2021 · SINKEX is a US Navy program using decommissioned warships for live-fire training, providing real-world targets and enhancing combat-ready units.
[4]
U.S. Forces Conduct Sinking Exercise - Navy.mil
Aug 18, 2021 · “The precise and coordinated strikes from the Navy and our Joint teammates resulted in the rapid destruction and sinking of the target ship and ...
[5]
Royal Navy and US Navy plan to sink vessel in live firing exercise ...
Aug 30, 2025 · It is unclear what the target vessel for AT26 will be, but decommissioned HMS Montrose and Northumberland are on the trots in Portsmouth and ...
[6]
From Shot to Shell: General Paixhans' Revolutionary Artillery
In 1824, a redundant ship-of-the-line, the Pacificateur, was supplied to serve as a target. To the shock of the naval observers, the ship broke up and sank ...Missing: 1819 | Show results with:1819
[7]
The Evolution of Naval Ordnance: 1820-1866 - The Mariners' Museum
Dec 21, 2022 · In 1824, Paixhans tested an 80-pounder shell gun against an old 80-gun ship of the line, Le Pacificate, at Brest, France. Sixteen shells ...Missing: 1819 Pacificateur
[8]
NH 96027 Coast Battleship No. 4
(ex-USS Iowa, Battleship # 4) Under fire by battleship guns, while in use as a radio-controlled target during Fleet gunnery practice off Panama, 22 March 1923.
[9]
The Evolution of Battleship Gunnery in the U.S. Navy, 1920-1945
Jan 19, 2022 · Force Battle Practice (a variation of Long Range Battle Practice) for the 1930-31 gunnery year was specifically designed to test the battle line ...Missing: surplus | Show results with:surplus
[10]
Operation Crossroads: Bikini Atoll
Operation Crossroads was an atmospheric nuclear weapon test series conducted in the summer of 1946 at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
[11]
[PDF] 7 Surprising Facts about the Nuclear Bomb Tests at Bikini Atoll
May 12, 2022 · On July 1, 1946, Test Able was staged. A target fleet of 95 ships was positioned in Bikini Atoll's lagoon, with laboratory animals—pigs, goats ...<|separator|>
[12]
Inactive Ships - Naval Sea Systems Command
The SINKEX program, which stands for Sink Exercise, provides numerous benefits to the Navy. The purpose of SINKEX is to satisfy requirements for ship ...
[13]
SINKEX - Sinking Exercise - GlobalSecurity.org
May 7, 2011 · Occasionally, the Navy uses unneeded ships as targets for military exercises known as SINKEX or sinking exercises.<|control11|><|separator|>
[14]
U.S., Partners Experiment with New Weapon Systems ... - USNI News
Jul 23, 2024 · “Sinking exercises give us a chance to sharpen our skills, learn from one another, and get real-world experience,” U.S. Navy Vice Adm. John ...
[15]
Multinational Partners Conducted a Multi-Domain Sinking Exercise
Jul 27, 2022 · Multinational partners conducted a multi-domain sinking exercise (SINKEX) in the Hawaiian Islands operating area as part of exercise Rim of the Pacific 2022 ...
[16]
MQ-9 makes its debut at RIMPAC SINKEX 2022
Jul 21, 2022 · ... SINKEX was the gathering of practical data about operating in a maritime environment as opposed to a desert environment. “The data that we ...
[17]
[PDF] Battlecruisers at Jutland: A Comparative Analysis of British and ...
In 1921, the ship was expended as a gunnery target after a pair of tests that examined new versions of the shellite-filled 15-inch AP rounds. 167. The majority ...
[18]
Army Fires: Enabling Joint Convergence in a Maritime Environment
As a notable example, during the 2005 deliberate sinking of the decommissioned aircraft carrier USS America, it took four weeks to sink the vessel after ...Missing: evaluation | Show results with:evaluation
[19]
[PDF] Decision Aids Derived from HARPOON/TOMAHAWK ... - DTIC
The Tomahawk cruise missiles (both the Tomahawk anti-ship missile (TASM) and the Tomahawk land attack missile are currently under test and evaluation) are ...
[20]
Transport of Target Vessels for Ocean Disposal | US EPA
The SINKEX Program uses ex-Navy vessels as targets for at-sea live-fire exercises. The United States views these exercises as essential for training personnel ...
[21]
[PDF] Best Management Practices for Preparing Vessels Intended to ...
• Remove hazardous materials and clean vessel;. • Inspect vessel to clear all findings (that the workplan for removal of materials as well as the vessel ...Missing: SINKEX | Show results with:SINKEX
[22]
[PDF] office of ship disposal programs - Maritime Administration
The primary factors include the vessel's size/condition, the type and quantity of hazardous materials, the quantity and type of recyclable materials, the ...
[23]
Transport of Target Vessels for Ocean Disposal - US EPA
Oct 26, 2016 · In 1977, EPA issued a general permit under the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) to the U.S. Navy for the transport ...Missing: protocols hazardous ships 1970s 1990s
[24]
[PDF] EPA Regulation of the Navy Training Program SINKEX under the ...
Nov 1, 2013 · ABSTRACT: The EPA currently regulates the Navy program Sink Exercise. (SINKEX) under a permit issued under the Ocean Dumping Act. The Navy.
[25]
[PDF] GAO-14-223, Maritime Administration: Ship Disposal Program ...
Feb 12, 2014 · MARAD considers the procedures for maintaining the stability of the ship; environmental abatement of hazardous materials, such as asbestos and ...
[26]
US and Partner Nations Conduct Multiple SINKEXs as Part of ...
Jul 23, 2024 · In accordance with EPA regulations, prior to a SINKEX, the Navy rigorously cleans the hulk and removes, to the maximum extent practicable, all ...
[27]
[PDF] Outline for the Annual Plan for the Disposal of
In 2006 MARAD identified six additional SINKEX candidates and requested that the Navy provide cost estimates for their preparation and sinking. The ...
[28]
U.S. Navy Picks a Full-Size Amphib for High-Profile Sinking Exercise
Jul 1, 2024 · USS Tarawa - named for the costly Battle of Tarawa in ... Tarawa was stricken from the registry in April 2024 and prepared for sinking.
[29]
USS Iowa (BB 4) - Naval History and Heritage Command
In 1920 the old warrior was converted to the Navy's pioneer radio-controlled target ship. While serving in this role, she was sunk by the guns of USS ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[30]
US Navy Ship Sinking Exercises (SINKEX) - Navysite.de
One way of disposing of decommissioned and stricken warships is to use them as targets during sinking exercises (SINKEX). The Navy conducts most of these ...
[31]
USS America: Why the Navy Took 4 Weeks to Sink Their Own ...
Jan 15, 2025 · If key lessons were learned about carrier vulnerability to certain weapons, the US Navy likely made many modifications, structural adjustments, ...Missing: preparation process
[32]
SS United States Leaves Philadelphia Berthing, Bound for Alabama ...
Feb 19, 2025 · Those modifications include poking holes in the ship's hull to facilitate its sinking,. “It's actually pretty hard to sink a ship,” Tomecek ...
[33]
U.S. Navy Destroys Target With Drone Swarm - Forbes
Apr 30, 2021 · The US Navy has destroyed a surface vessel with a swarm of drones for the first time. The strike, disclosed in a briefing on April 26, was carried out during ...Missing: SINKEX remote GPS scuttling charges
[34]
U.S. and Partner Nations Conduct SINKEX as Part of RIMPAC 2022
Jul 16, 2022 · Units from Australia, Canada, Malaysia and the US participated in the sinking exercise (SINKEX) to gain proficiency in tactics, targeting and live firing.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[35]
[PDF] SINKEX Determination and Agreement
SINKEX involves the targeting and sinking of obsolete Navy vessels in ocean waters for ship survivability or weapons lethality evaluation, major joint or multi- ...Missing: modifications | Show results with:modifications
[36]
Philippines and Partners Conduct Successful SINKEX in South ...
May 9, 2024 · The 39th edition of Balikatan (shoulder-to-shoulder) involved 16,000 troops – 11,000 from the U.S. and 5,000 from the Philippine side, along ...
[37]
US and Partner Nations Conduct Multiple SINKEXs as Part of ...
Jul 22, 2024 · Each SINKEX requires the hulk to sink to at least 1,000 fathoms (6,000 feet) of water and at least 50 nautical miles from land. In accordance ...
[38]
TECHNOLOGICAL HISTORY - Shipscribe
The navy was sufficiently interested in the technical details of Paixhans' gun to test it in January 1824 against an old 80-gun ship, the Pacificateur. The ...
[39]
HMS Agincourt - The Gin Palace - Navy General Board
Aug 28, 2018 · This new 'super-dreadnought' was to be named Rio de Janeiro, but along the River Tyne she would be known as 'Design 690' or “The Big Battleship” ...Missing: 1900s | Show results with:1900s<|separator|>
[40]
https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/05/philippines-and-partners-conduct-successful-sinkex-in-south-china-sea/
[41]
1921 firing trials against Baden - Naval History Forums
Mar 11, 2005 · The firing ship was the H.M.S. “Terror” [Monitor of the Erebus class] ... FH armor the slope effects for t/d = 0.916 (Note the 15-inch ...
[42]
Did the British copy anything from the test results gathered ... - Quora
Mar 17, 2016 · Baden was made to list to starboard by the removal of coal and armor from the port side, to simulate the effect of a shell striking armor from a ...
[43]
Operation Crossroads - Naval History and Heritage Command
Dec 27, 2021 · Operation Crossroads was a series of tests to examine the effect of atomic bombs on naval vessels, including aerial and underwater tests.
[44]
Manhattan Project: Operation Crossroads, Bikini Atoll, July 1946
A series of tests during summer 1946. Vice Admiral WHP Blandy, head of the test series task force, proposed calling the series Operation Crossroads.
[45]
James Longstreet | Mass.gov
The Navy used her as a test ship until it was towed to Cape Cod Bay for use as a target. By 1973 when William Quinn wrote Shipwrecks Around Cape Cod, the ...Missing: practice California<|separator|>
[46]
5 things to know about rusted target ship in Cape Cod Bay
Oct 10, 2014 · The rusted remnants of the target ship SS James Longstreet were seen above the sea surface this week during a lunar tide.
[47]
HMS Malaya, British battleship, WW2 - Naval-History.net
MALAYA was hit by a torpedo from U.106. The hit the port side caused damage in the boiler room and the ship had a 7 degree list. There were no casualties.Missing: postwar | Show results with:postwar
[48]
The Navy in the Cold War Era, 1945-1991
Only a few months before the launch of a Polaris missile, the Navy demonstrated what its undersea warships could do when nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton ( ...
[49]
https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/the-navy-in-the-cold-war-era-1945-1991.html
[50]
Sinking of Decommissioned Ships | Amusing Planet
Jun 6, 2010 · ... sinking of the HMAS Torrens on 14 June 1999. HMAS Torrens was a ... The warhead detonates below the keel of the target ship, the ...
[51]
HMAS Torrens - Fremantle History Centre
On 14 June 1999 during combat system trials for submarine HMAS Farncombe the HMAS Torrens (DE 53) was sunk by a live torpedo just under 100km from the coast ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
RIMPAC 2024: Decommissioned Navy Ships Sunk in SINKEX Drills
Jul 23, 2024 · The exercises allow for realistic training on weapons and systems, as well as improving the ability to plan, communicate, and execute the ...<|separator|>
[53]
World War II-era target ship prematurely sinks before US and ... - CNN
May 6, 2025 · The decommissioned Philippine Navy BRP Miguel Malvar (PS-19) takes on water before sinking during joint US-Philippines military exercises in the ...
[54]
Ship Sinks Just Before Being Pummeled With Weapons In Pacific ...
May 5, 2025 · Built in World War II, the decommissioned Philippine Navy corvette sank just hours before it was due to be sacrificed in a US-Filipino sinking exercise.Missing: Rajah Humabon
[55]
World war shipwrecks are leaking pollutants into the world's oceans
Oct 18, 2022 · Iron leaching from sunken ships can therefore contribute to algal blooms, which remove oxygen from the water and harm the growth of coral opens ...
[56]
Munitions in the Sea
After more than 70 years, old ammunition on the seabed is still a danger to humans and the marine environment, as it releases toxic substances such as TNT, ...
[57]
The Hidden Risks of Ship Paint Microplastics in Marine Environments
Oct 27, 2025 · Ship paint-derived microplastics contain heavy metals and biocidal additives, posing ecological risks due to their toxicity and detection ...Missing: sinking unexploded ordnance
[58]
How Bikini Atoll Nuclear Testing Has Impacted Generations
Aug 8, 2025 · The Nuclear Tests at Bikini Atoll. From 1946 to 1958, at least 23 nuclear tests were carried out over two operations: Operation Crossroads (1946).
[59]
[PDF] SINKEX 2014 Determination and Agreement between Navy and EPA
SINKEX is the Navy's program of sinking obsolete vessels for evaluation. The agreement clarifies permit requirements, including vessel preparation and PCB ...Missing: modifications | Show results with:modifications
[60]
Oriskany Reef - FWC
USS Oriskany (CVA-34) nicknamed the Mighty O, is the first naval warship and largest artificial reef ever to be intentionally sunk in US coastal waters.
[61]
USS Oriskany Marine Life: Coral Development Study on Artificial Reef
Jul 18, 2024 · After being decommissioned in 1976, it was eventually prepared to be sunk as an artificial reef off the coast of Pensacola, Florida in 2006. Key ...
[62]
Perchlorates | Public Health Statement | ATSDR - CDC
When an assessment indicates that the perchlorate contamination could result in adverse health effects, the site must be prioritized for risk management. DOD ...Missing: 2020s ships
[63]
[PDF] Department of Defense 2024-2027 Climate Adaptation Plan
The plan aims to ensure the DOD can operate under changing climate, preserving capability, and enhancing systems, while avoiding unmanageable impacts.
[64]
Too Big to Sink | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute
May 17, 2017 · Even if the carrier could be perfectly defended, there are still serious consequences of relying on ships too big to sink. Many of the Navy's ...
[65]
[PDF] Aircraft Carriers—Missions, Survivability, Size, Cost, Numbers
Jan 7, 2022 · recent SINKEX of the ex–USS America suggest that large carriers can survive tremendous punishment. The recent Bonhomme Richard fire tells us, ...
[66]
[PDF] The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb - NPS History
CHAPTER FIVE: The Significance of the Sunken Vessels of Operation Crossroads ... target ship for Operation Crossroads. Sakawa sailed to Bikini from Yokosuka ...
[67]
The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb (Chapter 4) - National Park Service
Sep 22, 2008 · Eleven shipwrecks from the Able and Baker tests were surveyed. The results include graphics, photographs, and narrative site descriptions included in this ...
[68]
International Treaties to Prevent Marine Pollution | US EPA
Mar 28, 2025 · The London Convention requires that Contracting Parties issue a permit for the dumping of wastes and other matter at sea and generally prohibits ...
[69]
Inside the Navy's Ghost Fleet: Uncrewed ships are here
Aug 1, 2025 · Greenough Advanced Rescue Craft (GARC) navy drone boats · The Navy is eyeing missile-hauling drone boats as escorts for transport ships. By ...
[70]
[PDF] U.S. NAVY OCEAN DUMPING PROGRAM
Aug 25, 2010 · conclusion that removal of the materials with the highest leach rates would result in the greatest reduction in PCB loading per unit material ...