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Variable-frequency oscillator

A variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates an alternating current signal with a frequency that can be continuously adjusted over a specified range, typically through variations in reactive components like capacitors or inductors.^[1] VFOs play a critical role in radio frequency (RF) electronics, serving as the local oscillator in superheterodyne receivers to mix incoming signals with a tunable frequency, thereby converting them to a fixed intermediate frequency for amplification and demodulation.^[2] They are also employed in transmitters to produce adjustable carrier frequencies for modulation and broadcasting.^[1] Beyond communications, VFOs find applications in instrumentation, such as temperature-to-frequency converters using sensors like thermistors, and in frequency synthesis for telecommunications and radar systems.^[1] Common types of analog VFOs include the Colpitts oscillator, which uses a variable capacitor in a tapped voltage divider across an LC tank circuit for frequency control, and the Clapp oscillator, a variant that enhances stability by placing the variable capacitor in series with the inductor and a fixed capacitor.^[1] Modern VFO designs often incorporate voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) for electronic tuning or digital direct synthesis (DDS) techniques, enabling precise and wide-range frequency adjustment with minimal phase noise. Other examples include resistor-programmable oscillators such as the LTC1799, which covers 1 kHz to 33 MHz via resistor programming.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

A variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) is an electronic oscillator whose output frequency can be tuned continuously or discretely over a specified range, distinguishing it from fixed-frequency oscillators by enabling adjustable signal generation.^[3] This tunability is typically achieved through mechanisms such as mechanical adjustment of capacitors or inductors, analog control via voltage inputs, or digital inputs in modern implementations.^[1] VFOs produce sinusoidal or other periodic waveforms from a direct current (DC) power source, serving as versatile signal sources in electronic circuits.^[1] The primary purpose of a VFO is to provide tunable reference signals in communication systems, such as generating variable carrier frequencies for modulation in radio transmitters or acting as local oscillators in superheterodyne receivers to convert incoming radio frequencies to an intermediate frequency for processing.^[1] In frequency synthesizers, VFOs function as tunable references to produce precise frequencies across bands.^[1] Unlike fixed-frequency crystal oscillators, which prioritize high stability for applications requiring constant output, VFOs trade some stability for flexibility in frequency selection, making them essential where adaptability is needed over precision.^[4] Key characteristics of VFOs include their tunability range, often spanning 1-30 MHz in amateur radio transceivers to cover high-frequency (HF) bands, and control methods that range from analog voltage tuning to digital synthesis for improved accuracy.^[4] However, this variability introduces trade-offs, such as reduced frequency stability compared to crystal oscillators, with potential drift of hundreds of hertz under environmental influences like temperature changes.^[4] Originating in early radio systems for manual tuning of receivers and transmitters in the 1930s, VFOs have evolved from mechanical designs to automated digital controls for enhanced reliability.^[4]

Basic Operating Principles

A variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) fundamentally operates by generating a periodic signal whose frequency can be adjusted, with the core principle in analog implementations centered on a resonant LC circuit. The oscillation frequency f is given by the resonant frequency of the tank circuit:

f = \frac{1}{2\pi \sqrt{LC}}

where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance. To enable frequency variation, the reactance—typically the capacitance—is altered while maintaining the feedback necessary for sustained oscillation. This adjustment shifts the resonant frequency without disrupting the circuit's ability to produce a stable waveform.^[5] Key components include inductors and capacitors forming the resonant tank, along with varactors for tunable capacitance in analog VFOs. Varactors, or voltage-variable capacitors, function as diodes operated in reverse bias, where the junction capacitance varies with applied voltage according to the approximate relation:

C = \frac{C_0}{(1 + V_r / \phi)^m}

with C_0 as the zero-bias capacitance, V_r the reverse bias voltage, \phi the built-in potential, and m the grading coefficient (typically 0.5 for abrupt junctions or higher for hyperabrupt designs).^[6] Feedback amplifiers sustain the oscillation by providing positive feedback at the resonant frequency, often using topologies such as the Hartley (with tapped inductors) or Colpitts (with capacitive voltage division), adapted for variability by incorporating the tunable element in the tank.^[7] These configurations ensure the loop gain exceeds unity with zero phase shift at the desired frequency, per the Barkhausen criterion. In digital VFOs, frequency variation is achieved through direct digital synthesis, where a phase accumulator incrementally adds a frequency-control word to generate a discrete phase sequence, which is then mapped to an amplitude via a lookup table or algorithm. The output frequency is proportional to the accumulation rate, f = ( \Delta \phi \cdot f_{clk} ) / 2\pi, where \Delta \phi is the phase increment and f_{clk} the clock frequency, resulting in discrete frequency steps determined by the word length (e.g., 32 bits for fine resolution).^[8] Thus, analog VFOs rely on continuous reactance changes for smooth tuning, while digital approaches provide precise, stepwise control suitable for programmable systems.^[8]

Historical Development

Early Analog Designs

The origins of analog variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) trace back to the early 20th century, emerging prominently in the 1910s and 1920s as vacuum tube technology enabled tunable radio systems. A foundational influence was Reginald Fessenden's development of the heterodyne principle in 1901, which demonstrated the use of an auxiliary oscillator to mix with incoming signals for frequency conversion, laying groundwork for VFO applications in radio tuning and detection.^[9] By 1912, Edwin Armstrong had invented the first practical vacuum tube oscillator using the Audion triode, providing a stable, electronically generated sinusoidal signal that could be varied for transmission and reception, supplanting less reliable spark-gap methods.^[10] These early VFOs operated on the principle of LC resonance, where frequency was determined by the product of inductance (L) and capacitance (C), allowing basic tuning for amateur and commercial radio experimentation.^[11] Early analog designs primarily employed mechanical adjustments to the LC circuit components for frequency variation. Variable capacitors, such as butterfly types with interleaved plates forming a symmetrical "butterfly" rotor for balanced operation, or split-stator configurations that minimized losses in multi-gang setups, were rotated to change capacitance precisely. For inductance tuning, roller coils—where a conductive wiper slid along a helical winding—or permeability tuners, involving the axial movement of a ferromagnetic slug to alter the coil's effective magnetic permeability, provided alternative or complementary adjustment methods, particularly useful in compact radio receivers.^[12] These mechanical elements were integral to vacuum tube oscillators like the Hartley circuit, introduced in the 1910s, which used inductive feedback for sustained oscillation across narrow bands.^[11] Despite their innovations, early analog VFOs suffered significant limitations that constrained their utility. Tuning required manual knob adjustment, which was imprecise and labor-intensive, often limited to a narrow range of about 10:1 due to the practical constraints of mechanical components and circuit Q-factor.^[11] Proximity effects, such as hand capacitance from the operator's body altering the electric field near the tuning capacitor, further degraded repeatability and stability during operation. During World War II, these designs saw widespread use in military applications, including radar and communication sets like the ART-13 transmitter, where the 837 vacuum tube served as the VFO for frequency agility in tactical radios, though the inherent narrowband limitations restricted coverage in dynamic battlefield scenarios.^[13] The constraints of mechanical analog VFOs became increasingly apparent in the post-war era, as the expansion of amateur radio and broadcast services demanded wider frequency coverage across multiple bands. This need for enhanced band-spanning capability in 1940s-1950s equipment spurred the exploration of electronic tuning precursors, such as reactance tubes, to supplement or replace purely mechanical methods and improve overall versatility.^[14]

Transition to Digital Methods

The transition from analog to digital variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, driven primarily by the inherent instabilities of analog circuits, such as thermal drift and poor repeatability when integrated into compact ICs, which limited their suitability for precision applications in communications and test equipment.^[15] The advent of microprocessors, starting with the Intel 4004 released in 1971, provided the computational power for programmable frequency control, allowing synthesizers to achieve finer resolution and automation without mechanical tuning elements.^[16] This shift was further propelled by advances in semiconductor technology, enabling the replacement of bulky analog components with integrated digital alternatives that offered superior stability and reduced size. A key enabler was the phase-locked loop (PLL), conceptualized by French engineer Henri de Bellescize in 1932 for synchronous detection but practically integrated into VFOs during the 1960s and 1970s through monolithic ICs like the RCA CD4046 introduced in the mid-1970s.^[17] PLL-based frequency synthesizers locked an output oscillator to a stable reference, multiplying frequencies with high accuracy and low phase noise. Hewlett-Packard advanced this technology with the HP 5100A in 1963, the first commercial synthesizer using direct digital techniques for 0.01 Hz resolution up to 50 MHz, followed by PLL-driven indirect synthesis in models like the HP 8660A (1973, up to 1.3 GHz) and the fractional-N HP 3335A (1977, 1 mHz resolution up to 80 MHz), which minimized spurious signals and supported automated testing via HP-IB interfaces.^[18] The 1980s marked the rise of direct digital synthesis (DDS), a breakthrough that generated arbitrary waveforms directly from digital phase accumulators and DACs, bypassing analog multiplication stages for even greater flexibility. Analog Devices led this development, with seminal research by Henry T. Nicholas III and Henry Samueli on DDS spectral purity and phase truncation effects presented at the IEEE Frequency Control Symposia in 1987 and 1988, paving the way for their first integrated DDS ICs in the late 1980s.^[19] By the 1990s, PLL and DDS technologies were widely adopted in commercial radios, including amateur transceivers like the Yaesu FT-757GX (1983) with digital PLL tuning and later DDS-equipped models, drastically shrinking form factors from rack-mounted units to handheld devices while enhancing frequency precision to parts per million.^[20] This digital foundation extended into the early 21st century with precursors to software-defined radio (SDR), exemplified by the Ettus Research Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) launched in 2004, which used FPGA-based digital processing for tunable RF front-ends under software control, enabling rapid prototyping of variable-frequency systems in research and beyond.^[21]

Types of VFOs

Analog VFOs

Analog variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) primarily achieve continuous tuning through variations in the resonant LC tank circuit, where inductance or capacitance is adjusted mechanically or electronically. Traditional manual tuning employs variable air capacitors, consisting of interleaved metal plates separated by air dielectric, allowing smooth capacitance changes from tens to hundreds of picofarads by rotating a shaft to overlap plates more or less.^[22] These are often used in amateur radio transceivers for direct dial control, providing intuitive operation without electronic intervention. Electromechanical variants incorporate servo motors or stepper drives to automate tuning, enabling remote or computer-assisted frequency selection while preserving analog continuity.^[23] For electronic control, varactor diodes—also known as varicaps—serve as voltage-variable capacitors in modern analog VFOs, replacing mechanical elements for faster and more precise tuning. The capacitance of a varactor diode varies inversely with the applied reverse bias voltage V_r, following the relation C(V) = C_0 (1 + V_r / V_j)^{-m}, where C_0 is the zero-bias capacitance, V_j is the junction built-in potential (typically 0.7 V for silicon), and m is the grading coefficient (around 0.5 for abrupt junctions or higher for hyperabrupt designs).^[24] This nonlinearity enables frequency adjustment in LC oscillators by altering the tank circuit's resonant frequency f = 1 / (2\pi \sqrt{LC}), with varactors biased from 0 to 30 V or more to achieve tuning sensitivities of several MHz per volt.^[25] Common circuit implementations include voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) integrated with phase-locked loops (PLLs) for stabilized output, where the varactor resides in the VCO's feedback path to correct frequency errors from a reference.^[25] The Clapp oscillator topology, a variant of the Colpitts, is particularly favored for analog VFOs due to its use of a series capacitor with the varactor, maintaining consistent feedback gain across the tuning range.^[25] Hybrid designs extend coverage beyond a single band by combining fixed inductors switched via low-loss FETs or PIN diodes, allowing selection of inductor sections to achieve ratios up to 10:1 while varactors handle fine tuning within each segment.^[26] These analog approaches offer smooth, continuous frequency sweeps ideal for sweeping applications and low-cost implementation in narrowband RF modules, such as those in FM modulators or simple transceivers.^[27] However, they are constrained to tuning ranges of approximately 2:1 without switching due to practical limits on capacitance variation (typically 4:1 max), and exhibit frequency drift from temperature changes, as varactor capacitance increases with heat via thermal expansion and leakage effects.^[25]^[24]

Digital VFOs

Digital variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) employ digital techniques to generate programmable output frequencies, offering precise control through computational methods rather than analog components.^[19] Core architectures include direct digital synthesis (DDS), which uses a phase accumulator to increment a digital phase value at a fixed clock rate and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to produce the analog waveform.^[19] In DDS, the frequency tuning word determines the phase increment, enabling fine-grained control where output frequency f_{out} = \frac{f_{clk} \cdot FTW}{2^N}, with f_{clk} as the clock frequency, FTW the tuning word, and N the accumulator bits.^[28] Another key method is frequency synthesis using phase-locked loops (PLLs) with programmable dividers, where the output frequency is given by f_{out} = f_{ref} \cdot \frac{N}{M}, with f_{ref} as the reference frequency and N/M the division ratio, often implemented fractionally for enhanced resolution.^[15] Implementations of digital VFOs frequently utilize numerically controlled oscillators (NCOs), which integrate phase accumulators and lookup tables for sine generation, commonly realized in field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) for flexible, high-speed operation.^[29] For instance, the Si5351 integrated circuit from Skyworks provides a multi-output VFO based on a PLL with fractional dividers, capable of generating frequencies up to 200 MHz across three independent outputs, suitable for clock generation in communication systems.^[30] Post-2010 advancements in DDS, such as the AD9910 from Analog Devices, extend capabilities to wideband applications with a 1 GSPS sampling rate and 14-bit DAC, supporting output frequencies up to 400 MHz and agile waveform synthesis for radar and test equipment.^[31] Digital VFOs excel in providing high frequency resolution, often achieving steps below 1 Hz with 32-bit or higher accumulators, and inherent repeatability since identical digital settings yield consistent outputs regardless of environmental variations.^[28] However, they suffer from spurious signals, or spurs, arising from phase truncation in the accumulator and DAC nonlinearities, as well as clock leakage that can introduce unwanted tones near the carrier.^[19] Additionally, the high-speed digital processing in integrated circuits leads to elevated power consumption compared to simpler analog designs, particularly under continuous clocking.^[32]

Performance Characteristics

Stability and Repeatability

Stability in variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) refers to the maintenance of consistent output frequency over time, divided into short-term fluctuations and long-term drifts. Short-term stability is quantified using Allan variance, a time-domain measure that analyzes frequency deviations across averaging periods, distinguishing noise types such as white phase noise (σ_y(τ) ∝ τ^{-1}) and flicker frequency noise (σ_y(τ) ∝ τ^0). This metric is essential for evaluating VFO performance in applications requiring precise timing, where short-term variations arise from inherent noise sources in the oscillator circuit. Long-term drift, conversely, stems from environmental influences like temperature and intrinsic component degradation, impacting overall frequency accuracy.^[33]^[34] In analog VFOs, temperature sensitivity poses a primary challenge to long-term stability, with components such as varactors exhibiting temperature coefficients around 100 ppm/°C, leading to substantial frequency shifts over typical operating ranges of 0–50°C. Component aging further contributes, as changes in capacitance or inductance due to material stress relaxation result in drifts of approximately 5 ppm during the first year, diminishing thereafter but still affecting reliability. The fundamental thermal drift can be modeled linearly as \frac{\Delta f}{f} = \alpha \Delta T, where \alpha is the temperature coefficient and \Delta T is the change in temperature; this approximation highlights the proportional impact of thermal variations on relative frequency error. Digital VFOs mitigate these issues through stable reference clocks, but analog designs remain more susceptible without compensation.^[35]^[36]^[37] Repeatability measures a VFO's capacity to reset to an identical frequency after tuning adjustments, crucial for reproducible operation. Analog VFOs suffer from limitations due to mechanical hysteresis in tuning elements like variable capacitors or potentiometers, where physical friction and material memory cause discrepancies of up to several percent in frequency upon return to the same dial position. In contrast, digital VFOs excel in repeatability via precise register-based control; for example, a 32-bit numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) driven by a 1 GHz clock offers a frequency resolution of about 0.23 Hz across the tuning range, ensuring settings can be exactly recreated subject to reference accuracy. This digital precision surpasses analog methods, particularly in systems employing phase-locked loops (PLLs) for synchronization.^[38]^[39] Mitigation strategies enhance both stability and repeatability across VFO types. Oven-controlled crystal oscillators (OCXOs) stabilize references by maintaining a constant temperature, achieving long-term drifts below 0.05 ppm/year and short-term Allan variances under 10^{-11} for τ = 1 s. Auto-calibration in digital VFOs, often integrated with PLLs, dynamically adjusts for drifts by phase-locking to a high-stability external reference, yielding superior performance compared to uncompensated analog designs. These techniques, prominent since the PLL's integration into digital synthesis, enable VFOs to meet demanding stability requirements in modern systems.^[40]^[41]

Spectral Purity and Phase Noise

Spectral purity in variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) refers to the degree to which the output signal consists of a single, clean tone at the desired frequency, free from unwanted emissions such as harmonics and spurious signals. Harmonics, which are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, are typically suppressed using bandpass filters or the inherent selectivity of the oscillator's resonator circuit, achieving levels greater than 40 dBc in high-performance designs. Spurious signals often arise from internal mixing products within the oscillator or associated circuitry, such as nonlinear interactions in varactor-tuned elements or digital-to-analog converters, potentially generating discrete tones that degrade signal integrity. These impurities are measured using a spectrum analyzer, which displays the power spectrum and quantifies suppression relative to the carrier in dBc. Phase noise represents random fluctuations in the oscillator's phase, manifesting as a broadening of the spectral line around the carrier frequency and limiting the usable signal-to-noise ratio in narrowband applications. It is characterized by the single-sideband phase noise spectral density L(f), defined as

L(f) = 10 \log \left[ \frac{S_\phi(f)}{2} + \frac{S_{\delta f}(f)}{2 f^2} \right],

where S_\phi(f) is the power spectral density of the phase fluctuations and S_{\delta f}(f) is that of the frequency fluctuations, with f denoting the offset frequency from the carrier. The phase noise spectrum typically exhibits a close-in region with a $1/f^3 slope due to flicker noise upconversion, transitioning to a noise floor dominated by thermal effects at higher offsets. In analog VFOs, spectral purity and phase noise are primarily influenced by the quality factor [Q](/page/Q) of the resonator, where higher [Q](/page/Q) values (ideally exceeding 1000) enhance selectivity to suppress harmonics and reduce phase noise by narrowing the impulse response. Digital VFOs, often implemented via direct digital synthesis (DDS), introduce additional noise from DAC quantization, which manifests as broadband phase noise or discrete spurs, though advanced techniques like dithering can mitigate this. Wider tuning ranges in VFOs generally trade off against purity, as varactor nonlinearities or phase accumulator resolution degrade performance across the band. Modern low-noise VCOs for 5G applications, operating in mm-wave bands, achieve exceptional spectral purity through techniques like multi-core architectures and high-Q inductors, exemplified by a 60 GHz quad-core design attaining a figure-of-merit of 186.5 dBc/Hz while minimizing harmonic and spurious content.

Applications

In Radio Communications

In radio transmitters, the variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) typically serves as the carrier source for modulation processes or as the local oscillator in upconversion mixers to shift baseband or intermediate-frequency signals to the desired radio-frequency band. In single-sideband (SSB) transmitters common in amateur radio, the VFO typically generates a tunable carrier over a range such as 4 to 9 MHz, enabling coverage of high-frequency (HF) bands (3.5 to 30 MHz) for voice communications through mixing with fixed oscillators and allowing operators to select specific frequencies within allocated spectrum segments. For low-power (QRP) transceivers, a stable low-frequency VFO operating around 4 MHz is often mixed with a crystal-controlled premix oscillator to produce output signals for higher bands, such as 14 MHz on the 20-meter band, while maintaining output power at approximately 5 watts after filtering. In receivers, the VFO functions as the local oscillator in superheterodyne designs, where its variable output mixes with the incoming radiofrequency signal to downconvert it to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF) for easier amplification and demodulation. Tuning is achieved by adjusting the VFO frequency to track the desired RF, keeping the IF constant—commonly 455 kHz in HF applications—thus providing wideband coverage in systems like amateur SSB receivers spanning 3.5 to 30 MHz. Advanced configurations, such as triple-conversion superheterodyne receivers, incorporate multiple variable IF stages driven by the VFO to enhance selectivity and cover extended frequency ranges without compromising image rejection. A primary challenge in VFO deployment arises from spurious emissions, including harmonics that lead to intermodulation distortion and unintended signal generation. In amateur radio QRP transceivers, VFO spurs—such as third- or fifth-order harmonics mixing with RF inputs—can produce false responses near the intended frequency, requiring tuned amplifiers and Chebyshev filters for suppression. In cellular base stations, similar issues manifest as intermodulation products from VFO-derived local oscillators operating across multiband frequencies (824–2170 MHz), where high phase noise exacerbates distortion in frequency-division duplexing systems; programmable fractional-N synthesizers mitigate this by achieving low-noise tuning with lock times under 200 µs. In modern 5G systems, digital VFOs enable precise frequency synthesis for beamforming and multi-band operation.^[42] In software-defined radios (SDR), the VFO role is emulated through digital signal processing, replacing hardware oscillators with software-controlled frequency translation for enhanced flexibility. Frameworks like GNU Radio, developed in the early 2000s, implement this by digitally generating local oscillator signals to tune receivers across wide spectra, as in FM demodulation flows where the emulated LO heterodynes the input to baseband.

In Test and Measurement Equipment

Variable-frequency oscillators (VFOs) play a critical role in signal generators used for frequency response testing in laboratory and industrial settings. These instruments employ VFOs, often implemented via phase-locked loops (PLLs) or direct digital synthesis (DDS), to produce swept signals that characterize device behavior across wide frequency bands. For instance, Keysight's N5172B EXG X-Series RF vector signal generator covers a range from 9 kHz to 6 GHz, enabling precise sweep testing for components like filters and amplifiers by varying the output frequency linearly or logarithmically.^[43] Similarly, the N9310A RF signal generator spans 9 kHz to 3 GHz with built-in sweep functions supporting up to 1,001 points and dwell times from 10 ms to 1 s, facilitating automated characterization of RF systems. In spectrum analyzers, VFOs serve as tracking local oscillators (LOs) to enable wideband scanning of input signals. The swept LO, tuned by a VFO, mixes with the incoming RF to downconvert frequencies across the analyzer's range, allowing measurement of signal power and harmonics in real time. This tracking mechanism ensures continuous coverage without gaps, essential for analyzing broadband emissions in test environments. Vector signal analyzers extend this capability by integrating digital VFOs for advanced modulation analysis, where high-resolution frequency synthesis supports demodulation of complex signals like QAM or OFDM, providing metrics such as error vector magnitude (EVM) for receiver validation.^[44] Specialized applications include electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing, where VFO-based signal generators perform immunity sweeps to simulate interference across regulatory frequency bands. These sweeps expose devices to modulated RF fields from 80 MHz to 6 GHz, verifying compliance with standards like IEC 61000-4-3 by incrementally varying frequency while monitoring for malfunctions. Digital VFOs enhance this process through automated scripting via SCPI commands, allowing programmable sequences for repeatable testing—such as setting sweep parameters and dwell times—reducing manual intervention in production-line validation.^[45] Modern benchtop instruments have democratized VFO access with compact, USB-based modules like the ADALM-PLUTO from Analog Devices, introduced in 2017. This software-defined radio (SDR) module functions as a versatile VFO for educational and prototyping in test setups, generating signals from 325 MHz to 3.8 GHz with up to 20 MHz bandwidth via its AD9363 transceiver. Powered over USB and controllable through APIs like libiio or MATLAB, it supports scripted frequency sweeps for basic signal analysis, filling a gap in affordable, portable RF tools post-2015.^[46]

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OCXO Aging: Causes, Effects, and How to Minimize Frequency Drift
Apr 15, 2025 · Example: An OCXO with a low aging rate of ±0.05 ppm/year may only require recalibration every few years, compared to one with ±0.5 ppm/year, ...
[41]
[PDF] Oven Controlled Crystal Oscillator Operation
If stability requirements are too stringent to be met by a basic crystal oscillator or TCXO, the crystal and critical circuits may be temperature controlled ...Missing: VFO | Show results with:VFO
[42]
N5172B EXG X-Series RF Vector Signal Generator, 9 kHz to 6 GHz
In stock Free deliveryN5172B EXG X-Series RF vector mid-performance signal generators offer 9 kHz to 6 GHz frequency & simulation of real-time signals with Signal Studio software.Missing: VFO | Show results with:VFO
[43]
Vector Signal Analysis Basics - Keysight
Read this primer on the vector signal analyzer. We address vector and digital modulation concepts, vector modulation analysis, and digital modulation ...Missing: VFO | Show results with:VFO
[44]
[PDF] EMC Testing Part 5 – Conducted Immunity
Apr 10, 2017 · It is especially useful to use a signal generator that 'sweeps' or 'steps' automatically over the whole frequency range of interest. When ...
[45]
ADALM-PLUTO Evaluation Board - Analog Devices
The ADALM-PLUTO active learning module is an easy to use tool that can be used to introduce fundamentals of software-defined radio (SDR) or radio frequency ...Missing: variable oscillator