Vickers Medium Mark II

The Vickers Medium Mark II was a British medium tank developed in the interwar period, introduced in 1925 as an evolution of the earlier Vickers Medium Mark I, featuring a fully rotating turret, sprung suspension for improved mobility and crew comfort, and serving as the British Army's primary tank until the mid-1930s.^[1] It measured approximately 5.33 meters in length, 2.78 meters in width, and 2.82 meters in height, with a combat weight of approximately 12 long tons (12.2 t) varying by variant and a crew of five.^[2] Powered by an Armstrong Siddeley V-8 petrol engine producing 90 horsepower, it achieved a top road speed of 15 mph (24 km/h) and had an operational range of about 120 miles.^[2] Designed by Vickers Limited following the 1923 closure of the British Tank Design Department, the Mark II incorporated enhancements such as a higher superstructure, improved suspension, and armor thickness ranging from 6 to 8 mm, making it nearly twice as fast as World War I-era medium tanks like the Medium Mark C it was intended to replace.^[1]^[3] Its primary armament consisted of a QF 3-pounder (47 mm) gun in the turret, supplemented by .303-inch machine guns (either four Hotchkiss in early models or three Vickers in later ones) in hull sponsons and the turret, enabling versatile fire support in experimental and training roles.^[2] Production totaled 91 units between 1925 and 1927, built primarily by Vickers and the Royal Ordnance Factory, with the type equipping units of the Royal Tank Corps for maneuvers and overseas deployments, including to Egypt.^[2]^[3]^[4] By the late 1920s, modifications led to variants such as the Mark II* (with updated machine guns and a flat turret roof) and Mark II** (tropicalized for desert use), alongside experimental forms like the Close Support version with a 94 mm mortar and the Birch Gun self-propelled artillery conversion.^[1] The tank saw limited combat service, primarily in training and rear-echelon duties during the early stages of World War II, with some units retained for driver instruction at Bovington Camp until 1940 and others exported to nations including the Soviet Union (15 units), Australia (four units), and South Africa (two units).^[2]^[3] Obsolete by 1939 due to advancing tank designs, the Vickers Medium Mark II nonetheless represented a key transitional step in British armored vehicle development, influencing later cruiser tanks through its emphasis on speed and mechanical reliability.^[1]

Development and Production

Origins and Design Evolution

Following the end of World War I, British tank doctrine shifted towards developing medium tanks that could provide direct infantry support by suppressing machine-gun nests and facilitating advances through defensive lines, while also enabling reconnaissance roles for cavalry units transitioning to mechanization. This approach, outlined in the 1920 Field Service Regulations, positioned tanks as auxiliary assets to infantry and cavalry rather than independent striking forces, emphasizing coordinated operations where tanks would exploit breakthroughs created by foot soldiers. Influenced by wartime experiences with slower heavy tanks, the doctrine prioritized mobility and reliability for medium designs to achieve speeds of around 15 mph (24 km/h), nearly double that of contemporary infantry tanks, to support fluid battlefield maneuvers.^[5] The Vickers Medium Mark II evolved directly from the Medium Mark I, which was designed in 1923 by Vickers Ltd. as a response to the Royal Tank Corps' demand for a more agile successor to World War I-era mediums like the Whippet. Key improvements in the Mark II, introduced in 1925, included a raised superstructure that relocated the driver's visor to the top, enhancing internal space, visibility, and crew comfort during operations. The suspension was revised to incorporate a sprung system using leaf springs on bogie units, improving ride quality, stability, and the ability to fire accurately while moving over rough terrain compared to the rigid setup of the Mark I. These changes addressed limitations in the predecessor, such as cramped crew compartments and vulnerability to ground undulations, while maintaining the overall hull layout and Armstrong Siddeley engine for continuity in production.^[3]^[2] Design trials and prototypes for the Medium Mark II took place between 1924 and 1925, involving experimental units tested within the newly formed Experimental Mechanised Force to evaluate mobility and tactical integration. A significant innovation adopted during these trials was the Rackham clutch system, a double-clutch mechanism developed by Lieutenant G.R. Rackham, which provided primitive mechanical servo-assistance for steering by differentially engaging the tracks, reducing driver effort and improving control at higher speeds. This addressed steering fatigue issues in earlier British tanks and was integrated into the transmission for better mechanical efficiency. The prototypes, built at the Royal Ordnance Factory Woolwich and Vickers facilities, underwent field evaluations that confirmed the design's suitability for medium tank roles.^[6] By late 1925, initial specifications for the Medium Mark II were finalized, with a strong emphasis on turret innovations that marked a departure from fixed or limited-traverse designs in prior British tanks. The cylindrical turret allowed for 360-degree all-round traverse, enabling rapid target engagement in any direction, and accommodated a three-man crew—commander, gunner, and loader—for the first time in a British production tank, improving operational efficiency by separating command duties from gunnery. This configuration, weighing 12 long tons (12 t) with armor 6-8 mm thick, balanced protection, firepower support, and reconnaissance capabilities, setting the standard for interwar medium tanks until the rise of cruiser designs in the late 1920s.^[3]

Manufacturing and Procurement

The Vickers Medium Mark II entered production in 1925, with manufacturing handled primarily by Vickers Limited and the Royal Ordnance Factory at Woolwich, continuing until around 1934 to include rebuilds and upgrades.^[7] This effort resulted in a total of approximately 130 units across the main production and variants, serving as the backbone for British armored forces in the interwar period.^[1] Orders began with an initial batch of 58 tanks placed in 1924, delivered starting the following year, followed by 19 more in 1925 (12 built at Woolwich and 7 by Vickers) and 25 in 1926 (17 at Woolwich and 8 by Vickers).^[7] A smaller run of 10 Mk.IIA tanks was ordered in 1928, with additional procurement including 4 units for Australia in 1927 and 15 for the Soviet Union in 1931.^[2] These allocations reflected a deliberate shift to standardize medium tank capabilities beyond World War I-era designs. Procurement decisions were driven by a 1924 Treasury allocation of £220,000 to re-equip the Royal Tank Corps, positioning the Mark II as the primary replacement for the earlier Medium Mark I.^[2] By 1925, it was formally adopted as the British Army's standard medium tank, with initial deliveries enabling the formation of experimental armored brigades and the expansion of training units by 1927.^[2] This process prioritized reliability for peacetime exercises over mass mobilization, given the era's fiscal constraints and focus on doctrinal development.

Design Features

Armament and Protection

The primary armament of the Vickers Medium Mark II was the Ordnance QF 47 mm 3-pdr gun mounted in the fully traversing turret, designed to engage armored targets with armor-piercing rounds capable of penetrating 25 mm of armor at 1,000 yards.^[8] This weapon provided the tank's main offensive capability against contemporary threats, with a rate of fire supported by a loader in the turret crew.^[3] Complementing the main gun, the secondary armament consisted of two .303 Vickers machine guns in the hull sponsons to cover the flanks and four .303 Hotchkiss machine guns in the turret, with one mounted coaxially to the 3-pdr for close-range support, one in the rear for defensive fire including anti-aircraft roles, and two in ball mounts.^[1]^[2] The water-cooled Vickers guns and air-cooled Hotchkiss guns offered suppressive fire against infantry, though their placement in sponsons limited flexibility compared to turret-mounted options.^[2] The turret accommodated a three-man crew—commander, gunner, and loader—enabling efficient operation and 360-degree manual traverse for all-around engagement.^[3] It featured an initial Vickers rotating cupola for the commander, providing improved visibility while maintaining protection.^[2] Protection was afforded by riveted steel plates forming the hull and turret, with thicknesses ranging from 4 mm to 6.25 mm, sufficient against small-arms fire and shell splinters but vulnerable to anti-tank weapons of the era.^[8] Later production models incorporated additional skirts along the tracks to guard against damage from rough terrain and low-angle fire.^[1]

Mobility and Internal Layout

The Vickers Medium Mark II was powered by an Armstrong Siddeley V-8 petrol engine producing 90 horsepower at 3,500 rpm, which provided a power-to-weight ratio of approximately 7.5 hp per ton given the vehicle's combat weight of 11.7 long tons.^[2]^[1] This engine was mounted in a dedicated compartment on the left side of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment to reduce noise and fumes for the crew.^[2] The suspension system consisted of bogies with leaf springs, an improvement over the exposed setup of the preceding Mark I by incorporating armored skirts for protection against small-arms fire and debris.^[2]^[9] This design contributed to better cross-country performance, though specific ground clearance figures for the Mark II are not well-documented in surviving records; the system allowed for adequate traversal of rough terrain typical of interwar exercises.^[2] In terms of overall performance, the tank measured 5.33 meters in length, 2.78 meters in width, and 2.82 meters in height, enabling a top road speed of 15 mph (24 km/h) and an operational range of 120 miles (193 km) on internal fuel stores.^[2] Off-road mobility was more limited, reflecting the era's mechanical constraints, but sufficient for the British Army's doctrinal emphasis on mechanized infantry support.^[2] The internal layout accommodated a crew of five: commander, gunner, loader, driver, and hull gunner (who also served as radio operator).^[9] The driver was positioned forward beside the engine compartment under a D-shaped cowl for improved visibility, while the turret housed the commander, gunner, and loader; access was provided via a rear hull door and two front hatches.^[2] Ammunition for the main 3-pounder gun was stored within the fighting compartment, integrated to support the turret's operations without detailed compartmentalization beyond basic crew stations.^[2]

Variants and Exports

Domestic Variants

The Vickers Medium Mark II received several upgrades tailored for British Army requirements, focusing on improved armament, communication, and support capabilities without altering the core chassis significantly. These domestic variants were primarily conversions of existing production tanks, with many units modified between the mid-1920s and 1930s to extend service life and adapt to evolving tactical needs.^[2] The Mark II* was an upgrade of 56 vehicles, involving the replacement of Hotchkiss machine guns in the hull casemates with Vickers models and the addition of an extra Vickers machine gun in the rear of the turret for improved rearward defense. This addressed issues identified in early field trials. The Mark IIA consisted of twenty newly built vehicles in 1930, featuring the removal of the bevel from the rear of the turret and the addition of an armored electrical ventilator fan on the left side of the turret roof.^[2] The Mark II** was a 1932 development of 44 vehicles, which included separate machine gun mounts and a wireless set in an armored container at the back of the turret for better communication.^[1] A specialized derivative, the Mark IIA Close Support (CS), replaced the standard 3-pounder gun with a 3.7-inch (94 mm) howitzer for lobbing smoke and high-explosive shells to support infantry and obscure enemy positions. Limited conversions equipped training and experimental units.^[2] The Medium Mark II Tropical variant, developed in 1928, included modifications such as spaced asbestos plates on upper surfaces for heat insulation. At least five were shipped to Egypt for desert operations.^[2] Several Mark II chassis were converted into the Birch Gun, a self-propelled artillery piece mounting a QF 18-pounder gun. At least three experimental versions were tested in the 1920s and 1930s.^[2]

Foreign Adaptations and Sales

The Vickers Medium Mark II saw limited but notable foreign sales during the interwar period, primarily for evaluation and training purposes, with adaptations made to suit specific buyer requirements. In 1931, the Soviet Union purchased 15 examples, designated "English Workman" by Soviet evaluators, which featured modifications such as the replacement of Hotchkiss machine guns with larger water-cooled Maxim guns and, in one case, retention of the original 3-pounder gun for comparative testing.^[2]^[1] These tanks were used primarily for training and trials against indigenous Soviet designs but were not adopted for mass production; several were later emplaced as fixed bunkers on the Karelian Isthmus, where they were overrun by Finnish forces during the Continuation War.^[2] The Republic of Ireland acquired a single customized variant in 1929, known as the Mark D, which was an adaptation of the Medium Mark II featuring a more powerful rear-mounted Sunbeam 6-cylinder gasoline engine producing 170 horsepower and an upgraded 6-pounder main gun in place of the standard 3-pounder.^[1] This vehicle served as Ireland's first tank, employed for training within the Irish Defence Forces until it was scrapped in 1940, reflecting the limited scale of early Irish armored acquisitions.^[1]^[10] Australia ordered four Medium Mark II* Special variants in 1927, with delivery in 1929, incorporating changes such as the relocation of the coaxial machine gun to the left of the main gun, an additional Vickers machine gun in a turret-side ball mount, and substitution of Hotchkiss guns with British Vickers models to align with local logistics.^[2]^[1] These tanks influenced Australian evaluations of medium tank designs and were used for training by the 1st Tank Section from 1930 to 1937 before being withdrawn.^[2]

Operational History

British Army Service

The Vickers Medium Mark II entered service with the British Army following successful trials in 1925, marking a significant step in the interwar mechanization of armored forces. By 1927, it had fully equipped the Experimental Mechanised Force, a pioneering unit that integrated tanks with motorized infantry, artillery, and reconnaissance elements to test combined arms tactics on Salisbury Plain. This force, comprising several Mark II tanks among other vehicles, conducted exercises that highlighted the tank's role in mobile warfare doctrines.^[2] The tank was assigned to squadrons within the Royal Tank Corps (later redesignated the Royal Tank Regiment), forming the backbone of Britain's armored battalions during the 1920s and 1930s. It served in units such as the 5th Battalion, including deployments to Egypt in 1933, where upgraded Mk.IIA variants provided operational experience in arid conditions. Additionally, the Mark II was extensively employed for officer and crew training at Bovington Camp, Dorset, where it supported instruction in gunnery, driving, and tactical maneuvers until 1938.^[3]^[11] As newer designs emerged, the Mark II began phasing out from frontline roles starting in 1937, with the Cruiser Tank Mk I assuming primary medium tank duties. By 1939, surviving examples were relegated to reserve formations, serving in static defense preparations and continued training capacities. The tank's peacetime utility was demonstrated in large-scale non-combat maneuvers, such as the 1934 Aldershot Command exercises on Salisbury Plain, where over 200 Vickers Medium tanks, including Mark IIs from the 5th Battalion, simulated swarm attacks and coordinated advances to refine medium tank employment in offensive operations.^[2]^[12]

Combat Engagements and Withdrawals

The Vickers Medium Mark II saw only limited combat engagements during its operational life, primarily in defensive roles during the early stages of the Second World War. In Egypt, where a contingent of these tanks had been stationed since the early 1930s as part of the British garrison, several were employed to bolster defenses against the impending Italian invasion. By 1940, at least two Medium Mark IIs were positioned at Mersa Matruh, with one emplaced as a static pillbox—its hull buried in the sand for protection—and the other potentially used in a more mobile configuration to support local forces.^[2] These deployments highlighted the tank's obsolescence, as its thin armor (maximum 6 mm) offered minimal protection against contemporary anti-tank weapons, and its 3-pounder gun was inadequate for engaging modern armored threats.^[2] The Egyptian garrison, which included around 10 Medium Mark IIA variants by the mid-1930s, was withdrawn from forward positions prior to the full-scale Italian offensive in September 1940, with the tanks repurposed for training or scrapped to avoid capture. No Vickers Medium Mark IIs participated in sustained mobile combat during the North African campaign, as they were rapidly overshadowed by newer cruiser and infantry tanks like the A9 and A10.^[2] This brief defensive use marked the type's only verified frontline appearance in World War II abroad. In the United Kingdom, amid the heightened threat of German invasion following the fall of France in June 1940, a small number of surviving Medium Mark IIs were temporarily reactivated from storage or training depots for home defense duties. These outmoded vehicles were assigned to improvised armored units or fixed positions along potential landing zones, serving as a stopgap measure until more capable tanks could be deployed. Their reactivation was short-lived, lasting only through the summer of 1940, as mechanical unreliability and vulnerability to air and anti-tank attacks rendered them ineffective for prolonged operations.^[2] By late 1940, the Vickers Medium Mark II was fully withdrawn from any combat or front-line roles across British forces, deemed completely obsolete due to its outdated design features, including riveted construction prone to spalling, limited mobility in varied terrain (top speed of 24 km/h on roads), and armament insufficient against evolving threats. Most remaining units were either scrapped for metal recovery, converted into armored recovery vehicles by removing turrets and fittings, or used as static targets for anti-tank gunnery practice. This phase-out aligned with the broader modernization of the Royal Armoured Corps, which prioritized faster, better-armored cruisers and infantry tanks entering production.^[2]

Legacy and Preservation

Influence on Successor Designs

The Vickers Medium Mark II played a pivotal role in shaping British tank doctrine during the interwar period, emphasizing speed and mobility over heavy armor protection, which directly influenced the development of the Cruiser tank series in the 1930s. This doctrinal shift, evident in 1927 exercises with the Experimental Mechanised Force, prioritized fast-moving medium tanks for exploitation roles, laying the groundwork for designs like the A9 Cruiser Mark I and A10 Cruiser Mark II. These successors retained the Mark II's focus on rapid maneuverability, arming them with 2-pounder guns while accepting thinner armor to achieve higher speeds, a concept that addressed the limitations of World War I-era heavies.^[11]^[2] Technically, the Mark II's innovations, particularly its three-man turret design allowing for a commander, gunner, and loader, were adopted in the Vickers 6-Ton tank (also known as the Mark E or Light Tank Mk I), which Vickers developed as a lighter export-oriented vehicle in the late 1920s. This turret configuration improved crew efficiency and fire control, becoming a standard feature in subsequent light and medium tanks.^[2]^[13] The tank's influence extended abroad through evaluations and exports. In the Soviet Union, 15 Mark II tanks were purchased in 1931 for testing, contributing to the multi-turreted configuration of the T-28 medium tank, which drew on British medium tank concepts for its infantry support role despite primary inspiration from the larger A1E1 Independent. Australian forces, which acquired four modified Mark II tanks in 1929 as their first armored vehicles, used them extensively for training until 1937; this experience informed the development of the indigenous AC1 Sentinel cruiser tank in 1940, incorporating similar Vickers machine gun armaments and chassis principles adapted for local production.^[2]^[7]^[14] Modern assessments view the Mark II as a reliable interwar training platform that highlighted Vickers' engineering prowess through its production run from 1925 to 1934, yielding approximately 167 units. However, its thin armor (6-8 mm) rendered it vulnerable to emerging anti-tank guns by the late 1930s, underscoring the need for better protection in successors while praising its role in advancing medium tank ergonomics and longevity.^[7]^[2]

Surviving Examples

Three Vickers Medium Mark II tanks are confirmed to survive as of 2025.^[15] The Tank Museum in Bovington, Dorset, United Kingdom, preserves a Mark II* variant (serial T199) in running condition. This vehicle, originally used for driver training by the 5th Battalion Royal Tank Corps, was modified post-service and restored in 1984–1985 by Vickers Defence Systems at Newcastle-upon-Tyne for display and occasional demonstrations.^[3]^[16] An export model designated Mark II (Special) is on static display at the Royal Australian Armoured Corps Tank Museum in Puckapunyal, Victoria, Australia. Acquired in the interwar period for Australian forces, it has been preserved since the mid-20th century without major restoration efforts documented.^[17]^[2] A Mark IIA variant, incomplete and lacking its main gun, is stored at the U.S. Army Center for Military History Storage Facility in Anniston, Alabama, United States. Previously displayed at the Aberdeen Proving Ground Museum, it was relocated for long-term preservation and represents an evaluation example from interwar U.S. Army trials.^[15] None of the surviving examples are operational combat veterans, having primarily served in training roles before preservation; maintenance has relied on components salvaged from scrapped vehicles during the 1940s and 1950s.^[3]^[2]