Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Visual thinking

Visual thinking, also referred to as picture thinking or visual-spatial cognition, is a cognitive process in which individuals primarily reason, problem-solve, and comprehend information through mental imagery, spatial relationships, and visual representations such as diagrams or patterns, rather than predominantly verbal or linguistic means.^[1]^[2] This form of thinking involves creating vivid mental images from memory—often described as "seeing with the mind's eye"—and leverages perceptual mechanisms like attention, eye movements, and pattern recognition to process and manipulate visual information.^[1]^[3] It contrasts with verbal thinking but frequently interacts with it asymmetrically, where visual imagery commonly intrudes upon or supports inner speech, enhancing tasks like episodic memory recall and object simulation.^[1] The concept gained prominence through Rudolf Arnheim's seminal 1969 work Visual Thinking, which posited that visual perception itself constitutes a fundamental mode of cognition, challenging the era's emphasis on language as the primary vehicle for thought by demonstrating how perceptual structuring enables abstract reasoning across arts and sciences.^[4] Arnheim argued that all thinking is inherently perceptual, with visual processes forming the basis for developing concepts and solving problems through gestalt-like organization of forms and relations.^[5] In contemporary psychology, visual thinking is recognized for its role in creativity and innovation, particularly among neurodiverse populations; for instance, autistic individuals like Temple Grandin describe it as associative processing via photo-realistic mental pictures, akin to an image-based search engine, which facilitates detailed conceptualization and practical applications in fields like engineering and design.^[6] Visual thinking's importance extends to education, professional domains, and cognitive science, where it aids in breaking down complex data, fostering serendipitous insights, and improving communication through tools like sketches and infographics, though it is constrained by the limited capacity of visual working memory (typically 3-5 items).^[7] Empirical studies highlight its prevalence in mathematical visualization and artistic interpretation, while interventions such as Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS)—an evidence-based method using open-ended prompts on artworks—cultivate observational skills, critical analysis, and social perspective-taking in diverse learners.^[8] By valuing visual thinkers, society can harness their strengths in pattern detection and holistic problem-solving, addressing gaps in verbal-centric educational systems.^[6]

Definition and Historical Development

Definition and Characteristics

Visual thinking refers to the cognitive process of using mental images, spatial relationships, and visual patterns to understand, reason, and communicate ideas, often in contrast to verbal thinking, which relies on linguistic structures.^[9]^[10] This form of cognition involves generating quasi-perceptual experiences internally, enabling individuals to manipulate visual representations for problem-solving and comprehension.^[9] Pioneering psychologist Rudolf Arnheim emphasized that visual thinking integrates perception and cognition, where visual forms serve as the foundation for intellectual activity.^[5] Key characteristics of visual thinking include a heavy reliance on pictures, diagrams, or spatial visualizations rather than words, allowing for dynamic mental simulations of scenarios.^[10] It encompasses distinct types, such as object visualization, which involves photorealistic mental images of specific items, and pattern thinking, which deals with abstract spatial patterns and relationships.^[10] For instance, object visualizers might mentally rotate a three-dimensional object to assess its fit in a space, while pattern thinkers could envision mathematical or design layouts through interconnected visual arrays.^[10] Visual thinking exists on a spectrum of imagery vividness, distinguished from conditions like aphantasia, the inability to voluntarily form mental images, affecting around 1% of the population, and hyperphantasia, characterized by exceptionally vivid imagery that rivals real perception, seen in about 3% of people.^[11] In everyday cognition, it appears in tasks such as mentally navigating a route through spatial recall or visually reconstructing a friend's face from memory, facilitating practical reasoning without external aids.^[9]

Historical Perspectives

The concept of visual thinking traces its philosophical roots to ancient Greece, where Socrates, in the 5th century BCE, proposed that perception generates mental images as a fundamental process of understanding the world.^[12] This idea positioned sensory experience, particularly visual perception, as the origin of internal imagery that shapes cognition and knowledge.^[12] In the 19th century, Gustav Fechner advanced this lineage through his 1860 phenomenological studies, which systematically examined visual mental imagery by observing after-images and memory images in himself and others, establishing early empirical methods for studying subjective visual experiences.^[13] Fechner's work emphasized individual differences in imagery vividness and laid groundwork for psychophysics in exploring how visual perceptions form mental representations.^[14] The 20th century marked a shift toward integrating visual thinking into cognitive psychology, with Rudolf Arnheim's 1969 book Visual Thinking arguing that perception is inherently cognitive and that all thinking relies on perceptual processes, particularly visual ones, to structure abstract concepts.^[15] Arnheim's framework challenged verbal-dominant models by demonstrating how visual patterns underpin problem-solving and creativity across disciplines.^[16] Building on this, Allan Paivio's dual-coding theory, introduced in 1971, posited that human memory operates through interconnected verbal and visual systems, where visual codes enhance recall and comprehension of concrete information more effectively than verbal alone.^[17] This theory highlighted how visual thinking complements linguistic processing, influencing models of learning and representation. A pivotal debate in the 1970s, known as the imagery controversy, centered on the nature of mental images, with Stephen Kosslyn advocating for a "depictive" view where images function as spatial, picture-like representations that can be mentally scanned and rotated, supported by experimental evidence on reaction times.^[18] In contrast, Zenon Pylyshyn's propositional theory argued that mental representations are abstract, language-like descriptions rather than literal depictions, critiquing depictive models as unnecessary for explaining imagery phenomena.^[19] This exchange spurred decades of research, refining understandings of how visual thinking interfaces with symbolic cognition.^[19] In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Temple Grandin's works popularized visual thinking, particularly in relation to autism; her 1995 book Thinking in Pictures described her own picture-based thought processes as a core feature of autistic cognition, enabling detailed visual simulations for practical problem-solving.^[10] Grandin's 2022 book Visual Thinking expanded this to advocate for recognizing visual strengths in neurodiverse individuals, applying them to innovations in fields like animal science and engineering.^[20] Post-2000, these ideas influenced design and education, with visual thinking integrated into curricula to foster spatial reasoning and creativity, as seen in architectural programs emphasizing perceptual tools for problem-solving.^[21] Similarly, engineering education adopted visual strategies to enhance abstraction and communication skills among students.^[22]

Cognitive and Neurological Basis

Mental Imagery and Non-Verbal Thought

Mental imagery refers to the internal generation and manipulation of sensory-like experiences in the absence of direct external stimuli, often resembling weak forms of perception across modalities such as vision, sound, or touch.^[23] This cognitive process enables individuals to simulate perceptual experiences mentally, playing a crucial role in planning by generating predictions based on past experiences and facilitating action guidance, such as visualizing a sequence of movements to navigate an unfamiliar space.^[24] In understanding complex concepts, mental imagery supports episodic memory reconstruction and emotional processing by recreating sensory details that enhance comprehension and recall.^[9] Visual thinking exemplifies non-verbal thought as a primary mode for spatial and relational reasoning, operating independently of linguistic structures to process configurations, patterns, and transformations.^[1] Evidence for this comes from cognitive experiments where participants mentally assemble or rotate puzzle pieces, demonstrating faster and more accurate performance when relying on visual-spatial simulations rather than verbal descriptions, highlighting imagery's efficiency in handling non-linear relationships.^[25] Such processes underscore visual thinking's autonomy from language, allowing for intuitive grasp of geometric or topological problems without articulation.^[26] Split-brain research in the 1960s and 1970s, pioneered by Roger Sperry, provided key insights into the hemispheric basis of non-verbal visual cognition through studies of commissurotomy patients whose corpus callosum was severed to alleviate epilepsy.^[27] These experiments revealed right-hemisphere dominance for visual-spatial tasks, as the isolated right hemisphere excelled in activities like block design arrangement, cube drawing, and spatial transformations, while struggling with verbal output.^[27] Patients could select matching objects or patterns presented to the left visual field using the left hand, indicating independent, non-verbal processing capabilities in the right hemisphere for holistic and relational visual analysis.^[28] Eidetic imagery, often misconstrued as photographic memory, represents a rare ability to recall detailed visual information with high precision shortly after brief exposure, typically lasting from seconds to minutes.^[29] This phenomenon is more prevalent in children, affecting 2-10% of preadolescents but almost nonexistent in adulthood.^[30] Unlike trained visualization techniques, which involve deliberate, controllable mental reconstructions built through practice and often less detailed, eidetic imagery is involuntary, stable against eye movements, and fades gradually without retrieval, distinguishing it as a distinct, innate perceptual overlay rather than a mnemonic skill.^[29]

Brain Mechanisms and Empirical Research

Visual thinking, or the process of generating and manipulating mental images, primarily engages the occipital lobe's visual cortex for the creation of imagery, akin to perceptual processing. The parietal lobe contributes to spatial manipulation of these images, enabling tasks like rotation and navigation in mental space. Additionally, the prefrontal cortex provides executive control, facilitating the planning and maintenance of visualizations during complex cognitive activities.^[31]^[32]^[33] Empirical evidence from behavioral experiments in the 1970s and 1980s, such as Stephen Kosslyn's mental scanning studies, demonstrated that the time required to scan distances across a mental image correlates linearly with the actual spatial extent, mirroring physical scanning speeds and supporting the functional equivalence of imagery to perception. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies from the 1990s onward further confirmed overlapping activation patterns between visual imagery and perception, with early visual areas in the occipital cortex showing similar responses during both processes, as seen in tasks involving object recognition and shape discrimination.^[34]^[35] In the 2010s, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) revealed key white matter tracts, such as the vertical occipital fasciculus (VOF), that connect visual processing regions in the occipital lobe to spatial areas in the parietal lobe, facilitating integrated visual-spatial thought and explaining variations in imagery efficiency across individuals.^[36] The Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ), developed by David Marks in 1973, has been instrumental in quantifying individual differences in imagery vividness, with recent 2020s neuroimaging applications linking higher VVIQ scores to stronger activations in occipito-parietal networks during voluntary visualization tasks.^[37]^[38] Criticisms of visual thinking models highlight ongoing debates about whether mental images are truly depictive, involving pixel-like spatial representations, or merely symbolic propositional codes, with evidence from reaction time studies favoring the former but lacking conclusive resolution. Cases of aphantasia, where individuals report no visual imagery, provide critical insights, as fMRI shows reduced or absent activation in the primary visual cortex during attempted imagery tasks, underscoring the depictive role of these areas while challenging universal assumptions about imagery reliance.^[32]^[39]

Psychological Theories and Concepts

Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Visual learners are individuals who process and retain information most effectively through visual means, such as images, diagrams, charts, and spatial arrangements, rather than solely through auditory or textual input. This preference aligns with the VARK model of learning styles, developed by Neil Fleming in 1987, which distinguishes four primary modalities: visual (V), aural (A), read/write (R), and kinesthetic (K). In this framework, visual learners benefit from graphical representations to encode and recall concepts, as opposed to those who favor listening, reading/writing, or hands-on experiences.^[40] However, the concept of learning styles, including VARK, remains controversial, with substantial empirical evidence indicating no benefit from tailoring instruction to specific styles; multimedia approaches improve learning for all regardless of preferred modality.^[41] Richard Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning posits that combining words and pictures fosters deeper processing through dual channels (visual and auditory), leading to better retention than text alone; meta-analyses of experimental studies show moderate effect sizes (e.g., d ≈ 0.5) indicating improved recall for multimedia materials.^[42]^[43] Visual strategies, like mind maps or infographics, thus enhance learning outcomes by reducing cognitive load and facilitating pattern recognition. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, introduced in his 1983 book Frames of Mind, posits visual-spatial intelligence as one of seven distinct intelligences, encompassing the capacity to perceive and manipulate visual or spatial information accurately. This intelligence manifests in skills such as reading maps, navigating environments, creating artwork, and envisioning three-dimensional objects from two-dimensional representations. Individuals strong in visual-spatial intelligence often excel in fields requiring graphical design or architectural planning, using mental imagery to solve spatial problems.^[44] Although the theory has faced critiques for insufficient empirical validation—lacking large-scale psychometric evidence to distinguish intelligences as independent factors—it remains influential in promoting tailored educational approaches that accommodate diverse cognitive profiles.^[45] Visual thinkers frequently encounter challenges with verbal abstraction, such as processing purely linguistic concepts without concrete referents, but they thrive in icon-based communication systems that leverage spatial and pictorial elements. For example, sign languages like American Sign Language (ASL) rely on visual-gestural modalities, enhancing mental imagery for spatial narratives, as observed in cognitive studies of deaf signers.^[46] This affinity underscores how visual thinking complements non-verbal languages by transforming abstract notions into tangible, image-driven forms.

Spatial Reasoning and Problem Solving

Spatial-temporal reasoning represents a key facet of visual thinking, enabling individuals to mentally simulate changes in objects or environments over time and space. This ability allows for the visualization of dynamic processes, such as predicting the trajectory of moving parts in a mechanism or anticipating spatial rearrangements. A seminal demonstration of this skill comes from mental rotation tasks, where participants determine whether two three-dimensional figures are identical or mirror images by mentally rotating one to match the other; response times increase linearly with the angle of rotation, indicating an analog process akin to physical rotation.^[47] These tasks, originally developed by Shepard and Metzler, measure the speed and accuracy of visualization, highlighting how visual thinking facilitates rapid comprehension of temporal-spatial transformations.^[47] Spatial visualization, closely related yet distinct, involves the mental manipulation of two- and three-dimensional forms without time-dependent motion. Defined as the capacity to transform spatial patterns into alternative arrangements, this skill supports tasks requiring the assembly or disassembly of complex structures in the mind's eye. For instance, in puzzles like Tetris, players mentally rotate and position falling blocks to form complete lines, enhancing proficiency through repeated visualization of spatial fits.^[48] Similarly, architects often rely on quick sketches to externalize mental manipulations of building forms, though the core process begins with internal visualization of 2D plans evolving into 3D models. Such abilities underscore visual thinking's role in handling static yet intricate spatial configurations. In problem solving, visual thinking promotes divergent thinking by generating multiple solutions through graphical representations like mind maps, which radiate ideas from a central concept to reveal interconnections.^[49] This approach fosters creativity by allowing non-linear exploration of possibilities, as opposed to sequential verbal listing. For example, engineers frequently visualize prototypes mentally before physical construction, simulating functionality and identifying flaws through imagined iterations, as exemplified in the design of livestock systems where complete mental models precede building.^[10] Vivid visual mental imagery correlates with higher divergent thinking scores, particularly in tasks requiring novel idea generation.^[50] Eidetic recall, a rare form of visual memory primarily observed in children, can enable brief retention and replay of detailed images after exposure, potentially aiding pattern recognition in some cases. In intricate environments, such as diagnostic puzzles or strategic planning, strong visual memory allows for rapid comparison of mental images to real-time observations, accelerating insight into underlying patterns.^[51]^[52] This capability aligns with visual-spatial intelligence in Gardner's multiple intelligences framework, where mental manipulation of images supports analytical depth.^[53]

Applications in Education

Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS)

Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) is an inquiry-based educational method based on research from the late 1970s and 1980s by cognitive psychologist Abigail Housen into aesthetic development stages, with the method itself developed in the 1990s through collaboration with museum educator Philip Yenawine. Housen's foundational work, including her 1983 Harvard dissertation, analyzed thousands of viewer responses to art to identify five stages of aesthetic understanding, which informed VTS's emphasis on guided, non-judgmental discussions to foster visual literacy and cognitive growth.^[54] Yenawine, then director of education at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, collaborated with Housen in the 1990s to adapt this research into a practical protocol, initially piloted in museum settings during the 1990s to encourage open-ended observation and interpretation of artworks.^[55] The core of VTS involves facilitated group discussions centered on three open-ended questions posed to participants viewing an image or artwork: "What's going on in this picture?", "What do you see that makes you say that?", and "What more can we find?".^[56] These questions promote initial descriptive observations, evidence-based reasoning, and iterative exploration, respectively, allowing participants to build on each other's ideas without seeking "correct" answers.^[56] Over multiple sessions, typically 10 to 20, VTS facilitates a progression from literal, perceptual responses to more abstract, interpretive, and empathetic understandings, as facilitators paraphrase responses to validate diverse viewpoints and encourage deeper inquiry.^[54] Early evaluations of VTS in 1990s museum programs demonstrated its efficacy in enhancing critical thinking and empathy among participants, with studies showing improved abilities to articulate observations, tolerate ambiguity, and consider multiple perspectives in art discussions.^[54] For instance, research from 1998 to 2003 across various U.S. museums linked sustained VTS implementation to measurable gains in language arts, math, and science achievement for K-12 students, attributing these outcomes to strengthened visual analysis and communication skills. A 2023 systematic review of VTS applications in medical education confirmed its positive impact on critical thinking and visual literacy, while a 2025 systematic review reported enhancements in empathy, communication, and observational skills among healthcare professionals, underscoring VTS's role in building interpersonal and analytical competencies.^[57]^[58] Originally designed for museum environments, VTS has been adapted for widespread use in K-12 classrooms since the early 2000s, where it integrates into curricula to support visual learning styles through image-based prompts that encourage evidence-based discourse.^[54] Post-2020, adaptations extended to online formats, such as virtual discussion platforms and remote professional development sessions, enabling continued implementation during school closures while maintaining the method's interactive, group-oriented structure.^[59] These expansions have sustained VTS's application in both formal school settings and informal museum programs, promoting equitable access to visual thinking exercises across diverse educational landscapes, including recent integrations in STEM subjects as of 2025.^[54]

Integration in Art and Design Education

In art education, sketching and visualization serve as fundamental tools for conceptualizing ideas, enabling students to translate abstract thoughts into tangible forms that enhance perceptual awareness and creative expression. Rudolf Arnheim's seminal work, Visual Thinking (1969), profoundly influenced this approach by arguing that visual perception is a primary mode of cognition, advocating for drawing exercises to train students in recognizing patterns, balance, and gestalt principles in everyday observation.^[60] Educators inspired by Arnheim incorporate such exercises to develop perceptual skills, fostering deeper engagement with artistic processes beyond mere technical replication.^[61] For instance, programs often use open-ended sketching prompts to encourage iterative idea generation. In design education, visual thinking is embedded through practices like storyboarding, prototyping, and computer-aided design (CAD) software, which allow students to externalize and refine mental images iteratively. Industrial design programs emphasize these methods to bridge conceptual ideation with practical application; for example, courses in sketching and storyboarding enable rapid visualization of user interactions, while prototyping—both physical and digital—facilitates testing and refinement of designs.^[62] CAD tools, such as Rhinoceros and Adobe Illustrator, further support precise rendering of three-dimensional concepts, promoting a workflow that integrates visual intuition with technical accuracy in programs like those at Georgia Tech's School of Industrial Design.^[63] This iterative visualization process is central to curricula, where students document evolving ideas in notebooks or digital boards to simulate real-world design challenges.^[22] The integration of visual thinking in these disciplines yields benefits such as enhanced innovation through divergent ideation and improved communication via shared visual languages that transcend verbal limitations. Students gain skills in translating complex concepts into accessible visuals, boosting collaborative problem-solving and creative output in multidisciplinary settings.^[22] A notable case study is the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), where visual thinking workshops embedded in courses like those in the Design Science Studio encourage hands-on prototyping and sketching to explore material and conceptual intersections, resulting in innovative student projects that demonstrate heightened perceptual and communicative abilities.^[64] These workshops, part of RISD's emphasis on critical making, have been shown to foster self-reflective practices that amplify design innovation.^[65] Despite these advantages, challenges arise in assessment, particularly in balancing visual outputs with verbal critiques to holistically evaluate student growth. Visual assessments often prioritize final products, potentially overlooking the cognitive processes involved in ideation, while verbal components—like artist statements—struggle to capture nuanced perceptual insights without biasing toward articulate expression.^[66] In art and design programs, this tension can lead to subjective evaluations that undervalue iterative visual exploration, prompting educators to develop hybrid rubrics that integrate peer critiques and process documentation for fairer outcomes.^[67] Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) may serve briefly as a discussion tool in art classes to bridge these elements by prompting verbal responses to visuals.^[68]

Links to Neurodiversity

Visual Thinking in Dyslexia

Individuals with dyslexia often exhibit enhanced visual-spatial abilities that enable them to compensate for phonological and reading challenges through visual strategies. Research indicates that many dyslexics demonstrate superior performance in holistic visual processing tasks compared to typical readers. This compensation is linked to theories such as the magnocellular deficit hypothesis, proposed in the 1990s, which posits that anomalies in the magnocellular visual pathway—responsible for fast, low-contrast motion processing—may disrupt sequential verbal processing while preserving or enhancing global visual perception.^[69] Key strengths include superior holistic pattern recognition and three-dimensional visualization, allowing dyslexics to excel in tasks requiring integration of complex visual elements. For instance, studies have shown dyslexics perform faster and with equivalent accuracy on impossible figures tasks, which assess global visuospatial processing, outperforming controls in speed without sacrificing precision.^[70] Prominent examples include dyslexic entrepreneurs like Richard Branson, who attributes his success in business planning to visual and imaginative thinking rather than traditional textual analysis, leveraging mental imagery to conceptualize ventures holistically.^[71] However, an over-reliance on visual strategies can sometimes hinder performance in verbal or sequential tasks, exacerbating difficulties in areas like rote memorization or linear text processing. Educational supports, such as mind mapping, address this by aligning with visual strengths to bolster literacy; research demonstrates that mind mapping improves reading comprehension and organizational skills by facilitating non-linear, visual structuring of information, with benefits suggested for neurodivergent learners including those with dyslexia.^[72]^[73] Empirical research from the 2010s further highlights these advantages, particularly in visuospatial domains. A Haskins Laboratories study using fMRI found that adolescents with dyslexia showed "expert-like" neural activation in frontal-striatal networks during figure processing, indicating a neural tradeoff that supports superior visual navigation and pattern integration over print-based tasks.^[70] Additional investigations confirmed dyslexics' advantages in dynamic spatial reasoning, particularly in environmental navigation simulations, with comparable performance in 3D mental rotation tasks. However, recent meta-analyses (as of 2025) have shown mixed results, with some indicating relative weaknesses in visuospatial processing for dyslexic groups.^[74]^[75]

Visual Thinking in Autism

Visual thinking is prominently associated with autism spectrum conditions, where individuals often process information through vivid mental images rather than verbal language, as theorized by Temple Grandin in her seminal work. Grandin, an autistic professor of animal science, described her own cognition as replaying "movies" in her mind, which she argued contributes to delays in verbal speech development because the brain prioritizes visual associations over linguistic ones. This picture-based thinking style, detailed in her 1995 book Thinking in Pictures, allows for concrete conceptualization but can hinder abstract verbal expression during early childhood.^[10] Within autism, visual thinking manifests in distinct subtypes, as further elaborated by Grandin. Object visualizers, like Grandin herself, construct highly detailed, photorealistic images of specific items or scenes, enabling precise replication and innovation in practical fields. In contrast, spatial or pattern thinkers perceive the world through abstract designs, mathematical relationships, and holistic patterns, often excelling in areas requiring systemic analysis rather than isolated details. These variations, outlined in Grandin's 2022 book Visual Thinking, highlight how autistic cognition diversifies beyond a singular visual mode, influencing problem-solving approaches uniquely.^[20] The strengths of visual thinking in autism include enhanced detail-oriented visualization, which provides advantages in technical and creative domains. For instance, this cognitive style aids engineering by allowing autistic individuals to mentally simulate complex structures, as Grandin demonstrated in designing humane livestock handling systems through visualized prototypes. Autistic artist Stephen Wiltshire exemplifies this talent, producing intricate panoramic drawings of cityscapes from memory after brief aerial observations, capturing architectural minutiae with photographic accuracy. Such abilities underscore the potential for visual thinkers to contribute exceptionally to fields demanding precision and recall.^[10]^[76] Despite these strengths, visual thinking in autism presents challenges, particularly in social interactions due to a literal interpretation of visual information. Autistic individuals may process facial expressions or gestures as isolated images without inferring nuanced emotional contexts, leading to difficulties in reading social cues. Additionally, in cases of savant syndrome, visual pattern recognition can manifest as extraordinary abilities, such as calendar calculation, where dates are computed through mentally visualized cyclical patterns rather than arithmetic. These traits, while remarkable, can isolate individuals if not supported.^[77]^[78] Research on visual thinking in autism emphasizes enhanced perceptual functioning, as proposed in studies from the 2000s. Laurent Mottron and colleagues' model posits that autistic perception involves superior low-level sensory processing and reduced top-down modulation, resulting in heightened sensitivity to visual details over global context. This framework, updated in 2006, explains both the perceptual strengths and social challenges observed in autism. Grandin's 2022 work builds on this by framing visual thinking as a societal gift, advocating for environments that leverage these cognitive styles for innovation.^[79]^[20]

Broader Applications and Implications

Professional and Creative Fields

Visual thinking plays a pivotal role in design and engineering, enabling professionals to prototype and iterate concepts mentally or through sketches before physical implementation. Temple Grandin, a prominent designer in animal science, utilized her visual thinking abilities to mentally construct and refine livestock handling systems in the 1970s, revolutionizing humane facility designs by simulating animal movements and facility layouts in her mind.^[80] In user experience (UX) and user interface (UI) design, sketching serves as a core visual thinking tool, allowing designers to rapidly generate and communicate ideas, explore user interactions, and resolve design challenges without committing to high-fidelity prototypes.^[81] In science and mathematics, visual thinking facilitates the construction of mental models that abstract complex structures and processes. Chemists often rely on visualizations to form mental models of molecular geometries and reactions, such as predicting bond angles or reaction pathways through spatial representations that bridge abstract symbols and physical realities.^[82] Mathematicians employ visual thinking to manipulate graphs and diagrams, enhancing comprehension of abstract relationships and aiding in proof development or theorem visualization.^[83] A historical exemplar is Albert Einstein, whose thought experiments—such as imagining riding alongside a beam of light or observing events in a falling elevator—relied on vivid mental imagery to conceptualize and derive the principles of special and general relativity. Creative fields leverage visual thinking to translate narratives and concepts into tangible forms, fostering innovation through sequential imagery. In filmmaking, storyboards function as visual blueprints, sequencing shots and camera angles to pre-visualize the narrative flow, enabling directors and teams to align on pacing, composition, and emotional impact before production.^[84] Similarly, architects use storyboards to depict spatial sequences and experiential journeys through buildings or urban environments, simulating user movement and environmental interactions to refine designs iteratively. In advertising, infographics harness visual thinking to distill complex data into compelling visuals, driving innovation by simplifying messages, enhancing audience engagement, and strengthening brand communication in campaigns.^[85] In professional workplaces, visual thinking enhances collaboration by providing shared aids like diagrams and flowcharts that clarify ideas and accelerate decision-making. Studies from the 2010s demonstrate that integrating visual tools, such as diagrams in problem-solving processes, improves efficiency by aiding information extraction and reducing cognitive load, leading to faster resolution of complex issues compared to text-based approaches alone.^[86] These aids promote better team alignment, minimize misunderstandings, and support innovative outcomes across disciplines.^[87]

Current Research and Debates

Recent studies have explored adaptations of visual thinking strategies for diverse learner populations. A 2025 study in Frontiers in Psychology examined tactile-based activities to enhance historical thinking skills and creativity among visually impaired middle school students, finding significant improvements in their ability to interpret historical contexts through touch-mediated visualizations, such as 3D models of artifacts.^[88] Similarly, research published in 2025 on ResearchGate investigated the impact of visual thinking strategies on history department students, demonstrating positive effects on academic achievement and self-efficacy.^[89] Emerging research highlights the integration of technology in visual thinking. AI-assisted visualization tools, such as generative AI for image creation, have been shown to support creative processes by automating visual ideation, particularly in design fields where professionals report preferring visual over verbal inputs for complex problem-solving.^[90] Longitudinal studies post-2020 pandemic have also addressed neurodiverse populations, revealing mixed experiences with remote learning; for instance, a 2024 analysis of video-recorded sessions indicated that neurodivergent youth, including those with autism, benefited from visual aids in online environments but faced challenges in sustaining attention without structured visual cues.^[91] Debates persist regarding the dominance of visual versus verbal thinking modes. A 2017 Harvard study using fMRI demonstrated that visual imagery frequently intrudes on verbal thought processes, suggesting an asymmetrical relationship where inner speech activates visual areas more than vice versa, challenging claims of independent cognitive modes.^[92] Critics argue that overemphasizing visual strategies may overlook diverse cognitive profiles, as evidenced in 2024 thematic analyses of designer workflows, which highlight how verbal-dominant thinkers in multicultural teams experience exclusion when visuals are prioritized without hybrid approaches.^[90] Future directions emphasize technological and inclusive advancements. Integration of virtual reality (VR) for visual thinking training has shown promise, with a 2025 study reporting significant improvements in creativity through immersive VR environments in educational settings, including up to 36% in fluency on creativity tests.^[93] Additionally, there are growing calls for inclusive research targeting underrepresented visual thinkers, such as those from neurodiverse or low-resource backgrounds, to address gaps in post-pandemic longitudinal data and ensure equitable cognitive support frameworks.^[94]

References

[1]
An asymmetrical relationship between verbal and visual thinking
Mar 18, 2017 · In summary, visual imagery appears to engage visual cortical regions, and inner speech (covert production) appears to engage the brain regions ...
[2]
Visual Thinking - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Visual thinking is defined as a process involving acts of attention, eye movements, and pattern perception that drive our ability to understand and interact ...
[3]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012823567600001X
[4]
ED050556 - Visual Thinking., 1971-Jul-26 - ERIC
Visual Thinking. Arnheim, Rudolf. Based on the more general principle that all thinking (including reasoning) is basically perceptual in nature, the author ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[5]
The Intelligence of Vision: An Interview with Rudolf Arnheim
In my opinion, “visual thinking” means that visual perception consists above all in the development of forms, of “perceptual terms,” and thereby fulfills ...
[6]
How does visual thinking work in the mind of a person with autism ...
Drawings of livestock handling facilities by Temple Grandin dated 02 November 1987. 10. Different kinds of brains. Recent research on the white matter in the ...
[7]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128235676000094
[8]
Thinking eyes: visual thinking strategies and the social brain - Frontiers
Sep 26, 2023 · Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) is an art-based facilitated conversation method that engages people with visual artworks from their personal ...
[9]
Mental Imagery - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 8, 2021 · In short, according to the psychological definition, mental imagery is perceptual representation not triggered directly by sensory input (or ...
[10]
THINKING IN PICTURES: Autism and Visual Thought - Grandin.com
The one common denominator of all autistic and Asperger thinking is that details are associated into categories to form a concept.
[11]
Behavioral and Neural Signatures of Visual Imagery Vividness ... - NIH
We recently coined the terms “aphantasia” and “hyperphantasia” to describe visual imagery vividness extremes, unlocking a sustained surge of public interest.
[12]
8.1: Introduction and History - Social Sci LibreTexts
Apr 10, 2022 · Socrates sketched a relation between perception and imagery by assuming that visual sensory experience creates images in the human's mind.
[13]
Phenomenological Studies of Visual Mental Imagery: A Review and ...
Oct 20, 2023 · This article reviews historically significant phenomenological studies of visual mental imagery (VMI), starting with Fechner in 1860 and continuing to the ...
[14]
Gustav Fechners Observations on his Own and Others Visual Mental ...
In 1860, Fechner published a two-volume work ... phenomenology of mental imagery, individual differences, consciousness, psychology and philosophy.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[15]
Visual Thinking - Rudolf Arnheim - Google Books
He asserts that all thinking (not just thinking related to art or other visual experiences) is basically perceptual in nature.
[16]
Visual thinking. - Rudolf Arnheim - PhilPapers
"Groundbreaking when first published in 1969, this book is now of even greater relevance to make the reader aware of the need to educate the visual sense, ...
[17]
Dual Coding Theory (Allan Paivio) - InstructionalDesign.org
Nov 30, 2018 · The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing.
[18]
[PDF] Image and Brain - The Resolution of the Imagery Debate
It became clear that the "propositional theory" of imagery was a moving target, and the debate was not going to be settled by any single type of experiment.
[19]
[PDF] Is the "imagery debate" over? If so, what was it about?
Oct 26, 2000 · Led by the influential work of Stephen Kosslyn, researchers investigated the structure of mental images, ... pictures or depictions does.
[20]
Full article: The role of visual thinking in educational development
May 3, 2023 · ABSTRACT. Artistic media and techniques should be viewed as tools for solving problems in the field of architectural design.
[21]
[PDF] Integrating Visual Thinking into Design Education - ASEE PEER
Students learn how visual thinking integrates with other cognitive processes, such as interpretation, communication, and abstraction, and practice key ...
[22]
Mental Imagery: Functional Mechanisms and Clinical Applications
Mental imagery is a representation of sensory information without a direct external stimulus, functioning as a weak form of perception, and is a key mental ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[23]
Imagining predictions: mental imagery as mental emulation - Journals
May 12, 2009 · We argue that the primary function of mental imagery is to allow us to generate specific predictions based upon past experience.
[24]
Visual-object ability: A new dimension of non-verbal intelligence
Visual-object intelligence, that reflects one's ability to process information about visual appearances of objects and their pictorial properties.Missing: reasoning | Show results with:reasoning
[25]
Evidence for a unitary structure of spatial cognition beyond general ...
Jul 2, 2020 · Thinking about spatial thinking: new typology, new assessments. In Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (ed. Gero ...
[26]
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981
### Summary of Split-Brain Research and Right-Hemisphere Dominance for Visual-Spatial Tasks (1960s-1970s)
[27]
Split-brain, the right hemisphere, and art: fact and fiction - PubMed
Sperry's psychobiology laboratory at Caltech, Pasadena, galvanized the scientific and intellectual world in the 1960s and 1970s. The findings had an important ...Missing: tasks | Show results with:tasks
[28]
Is there such a thing as a photographic memory? And if so, can it be ...
Mar 12, 2007 · Eidetic images differ from other forms of visual imagery in several important ways. First, an eidetic image is not simply a long afterimage, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
The incidence of eidetic imagery as a function of age - PubMed
The results are interpreted as indicating the plausibility of a theory which affords eidetic imagery a role in the early cognitive development of the child.Missing: studies prodigies
[30]
Neural foundations of imagery - PubMed
Neural foundations of imagery. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 Sep;2(9):635-42. doi: 10.1038/35090055. Authors. S M Kosslyn , G Ganis, W L Thompson. Affiliation. 1 ...
[31]
The neural basis of mental imagery - ScienceDirect.com
Mental imagery involves the efferent activation of visual areas in prestriate occipital cortex, parietal and temporal cortex.
[32]
Cortical excitability controls the strength of mental imagery | eLife
May 5, 2020 · Research suggests that neural activity spanning prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and visual areas supports the generation of mental images.
[33]
Visual images preserve metric spatial information: Evidence from ...
Visual images preserve metric spatial information: Evidence from studies of image scanning. Citation. Kosslyn, S. M., Ball, T. M., & Reiser, B. J. (1978).
[34]
Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception
We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess the maximal degree of shared neural processing in visual mental imagery and visual perception.
[35]
Dissociating the white matter tracts connecting the temporo-parietal ...
May 18, 2020 · Three major white matter pathways connect the posterior temporal region and the adjacent inferior parietal lobule with the lateral frontal cortex.
[36]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4260539/
[37]
Mental imagery: The role of primary visual cortex in aphantasia
Nov 4, 2024 · Two recent studies provide the first direct evidence linking brain activation in primary visual cortex to the imagery deficits in aphantasia.Missing: neuroimaging | Show results with:neuroimaging
[38]
Introduction to VARK®:for better learning - VARK Learn
Although we have known for centuries about the different modes, this inventory, initially developed in 1987 by Neil Fleming, Christchurch, New Zealand, was the ...The VARK Modalities · Neil Fleming · Understanding your resultsMissing: source | Show results with:source
[39]
The Promise of Multimedia Learning (Chapter 1)
Three possible learning outcomes are no learning (as indicated by poor retention and poor transfer performance), rote learning (as indicated by good retention ...Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
[40]
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly); Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to ...
[41]
Why multiple intelligences theory is a neuromyth - Frontiers
Aug 27, 2023 · Many researchers have claimed Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences (MI) theory is a neuromyth because they have seen no evidence supporting his proposal.Abstract · Introduction · Evidence for the... · There are no empirical studies...
[42]
Evidence from an emerging sign language reveals that ... - PNAS
Here we show that mature human spatial cognition depends on the acquisition of specific aspects of spatial language.
[43]
Enhanced imagery abilities in deaf and hearing ASL signers
The ability to generate visual mental images, to maintain them, and to rotate them was studied in deaf signers of American Sign Language (ASL), ...Missing: thinking | Show results with:thinking
[44]
Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects - Science
Shepard and Jacqueline MetzlerAuthors Info & Affiliations. Science. 19 Feb 1971. Vol 171, Issue 3972. pp. 701-703. DOI: 10.1126/science.171.3972.701 · PREVIOUS ...
[45]
Selective Association Between Tetris Game Play and Visuospatial ...
Tetris is a highly visuospatial game that involves the rotation and fitting together of visually presented blocks that differ in shape and colour. Evidence ...
[46]
Mind Mapping Training's Effects on Divergent Thinking Skills - MDPI
The empirical results indicate that mind mapping training is an effective method for enhancing students' divergent thinking skills.
[47]
(PDF) The Role of Vividness of Visual Mental Imagery on Different ...
Nov 9, 2011 · PDF | This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, ...
[48]
Eidetic Memory: The Reality Behind the 'Photographic' Mind
Jan 8, 2024 · Eidetic memory is a rare form of memory usually seen in children where they are exposed to an image for 30 seconds or less and are able to recall this object ...
[49]
Mental Imagery and Problem Solving | SpringerLink
The question of the functional role of imagery in problem solving is examined. A theory is presented which rests on the premise that translating a problem from ...Missing: pattern recognition
[50]
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences - Verywell Mind
Jan 29, 2025 · Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, where he suggested that all people ...Howard Gardner · Visual-Spatial Intelligence · What Kind of Intelligence Do...
[51]
Research and Resources - Visual Thinking Strategies
Books and chapters precede published writings by both VTS Co-Founders Abigail Housen and Philip Yenawine, followed by articles written by others in our ...Publications By Vts Founders · Philip Yenawine · Abigail Housen
[52]
About Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS)
Founded on the work of Dr. Abigail Housen, Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) recognizes that visual understanding develops through guided practice. Her studies ...
[53]
VTS Training: facilitate Visual Learning & Critical Thinking
Participants learn to look closely, support their ideas with evidence, and build understanding together—through three questions: What's going on here?Research and Resources · About Us · Training · What We Offer
[54]
Visual Thinking Strategies in medical education: a systematic review
Jul 27, 2023 · Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) is a research-based, constructivist teaching methodology that aims to improve visual literacy, critical thinking, and ...
[55]
Learning Outcomes of Education on Visual Thinking Strategies for ...
Sep 13, 2025 · VTS was found to improve multiple educational outcomes, including clinical observation skills, critical thinking, communication, empathy and ...
[56]
VTS Look Club Online - Visual Thinking Strategies
VTS Look Club Online is an opportunity to come together as a community, to practice looking, talking, listening, and engaging with art and each other.
[57]
[PDF] Visual Thinking - Gwern
a broader concern with visual perception as a cognitive activity-a reversal, one might say, of the historical development that led in the.
[58]
Visual Thinking in Arts Education: Homage to Rudolf Arnheim
Oct 9, 2025 · The influence of Arnheim's work on the author's research began with an experiment on the perception of visual balance.Missing: exercises | Show results with:exercises
[59]
Visual thinking in arts education: Homage to Rudolf Arnheim.
This study demonstrates that the visual arts inculcate basic skills in perception and cognition that exist both in the arts and sciences.
[60]
None
### Summary of Visual Thinking in Industrial Design Education
[61]
School of Industrial Design | Georgia Tech Catalog
Visual Design Thinking. 3 Credit Hours. Introduction to techniques to help designers build a vocabulary to support effective visual communication including ...
[62]
The Art of Critical Making: Rhode Island School of Design on ...
The Art of Critical Making presents ways that context, materials, thought processes, and self-evaluation are applied in the educational environment.
[63]
Inside the Design Science Studio: Selections from the Arthur Loeb ...
Aug 18, 2025 · Inside the Design Science Studio examines Loeb's approach to teaching and learning through the objects and documents that surrounded him.
[64]
[PDF] Assessment in the Visual Arts: Challenges and Possibilities
Mar 26, 2019 · Assessment in art is notoriously difficult and is probably best approached with skepticism. Artistry is notoriously difficult to assess.
[65]
Assessment in the visual arts: Challenges and possibilities
This article explores some of the challenges of assessment in the visual arts and critically examines the Advanced Placement Studio Art Portfolio.
[66]
https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8424&context=facpub
[67]
Dyslexia linked to talent: Global visual-spatial ability - ScienceDirect
This finding suggests that dyslexia is associated with a particular type of visual-spatial talent—enhanced ability to process visual-spatial information ...
[68]
The magnocellular deficit hypothesis in dyslexia: a review ... - PubMed
Many reports suggest that the majority of dyslexic children have a measurable disorder of the fast processing pathway of the visual system.
[69]
Dyslexia and Visuospatial Processing Strengths: New Research ...
A new study conducted by Haskins researchers examined the cognitive and neural bases of visuospatial processing abilities for different kinds of materials in ...
[70]
Richard Branson Credits Dyslexia For His Success. Here Are 2 ...
Oct 2, 2024 · Dyslexic individuals often excel at mental imagery and abstract thinking, skills that will only grow in demand as AI takes over repetitive tasks ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
[PDF] Impact of Using Mind Maps to Improve Reading Comprehension ...
Mind maps are effective for improving reading comprehension. A study showed the experimental group using mind maps had significantly better scores than the ...
[72]
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1475109.pdf
[73]
Visual Thinking by Temple Grandin, Ph.D.: 9780593418376
In stock Free delivery over $20A landmark book that reveals, celebrates, and advocates for the special minds and contributions of visual thinkers.
[74]
'This was my form of language': the artist who draws cities from ...
May 4, 2017 · British artist Stephen Wiltshire draws detailed panoramas from memory after just a brief gaze at the cityscapes. Wiltshire is autistic.
[75]
Visual thinking and autism: Understanding cognitive styles - Tiimo
Apr 28, 2022 · Explore how your Autistic brain processes information, from visual thinking to seven other cognitive styles. Learn to identify your natural thinking patterns.
[76]
Calendar calculating in savants with autism and healthy calendar ...
Oct 22, 2008 · The objective of this study was to identify the cognitive processes that distinguish calendar calculation in savant individuals from healthy calendar ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[77]
an update, and eight principles of autistic perception - PubMed
We propose an "Enhanced Perceptual Functioning" model encompassing the main differences between autistic and non-autistic social and non-social perceptual ...Missing: Frith 2000s
[78]
Temple Grandin: Why Visual Thinking Is A Different Approach To ...
Oct 7, 2019 · Mathematically inclined engineers calculate risk and visual thinkers can see risks. That means visual thinkers can even see the solutions to problems.Missing: prototypes | Show results with:prototypes
[79]
Sketching: the Visual Thinking Power Tool - A List Apart
Jan 25, 2011 · Sketching is a visual thinking tool for generating ideas, solving problems, and amplifying software, allowing for rapid idea generation and ...Why Bother Sketching? · Real-World Sketching · A Collection Of Tools
[80]
The role of visuospatial thinking in students' predictions of molecular ...
Feb 27, 2021 · This study explores visuospatial thinking through students' use of imagistic, analytical, and diagrammatic reasoning when predicting molecular geometry.Analytical Thinking · Research Methodology And... · Data AnalysisMissing: graphs | Show results with:graphs<|separator|>
[81]
The Epistemology of Visual Thinking in Mathematics
Oct 2, 2015 · Visual thinking includes thinking with external visual representations (e.g., diagrams, symbol arrays, kinematic computer images) and thinking ...Missing: molecules | Show results with:molecules
[82]
46 Best Movie Storyboard Examples (Updated 2025) - StudioBinder
Oct 12, 2025 · A storyboard is a graphic layout that sequences illustrations and images to tell a story visually. It is the backbone of visual storytelling, ...
[83]
(PDF) The Impact Of Infographics On Digital Marketing Campaigns
Jul 8, 2023 · By leveraging infographics, businesses can effectively convey their marketing messages, enhance brand reputation, and influence consumer ...
[84]
Role of diagrams in problem solving: An evaluation of eye-tracking ...
Jan 3, 2019 · More research is needed to determine the role of diagrams in problem solving. ... efficiency in problem solving. Further studies are needed ...
[85]
Visual workplace practices positively impact business processes
Aug 6, 2025 · The tools include, for example, tracking charts, colour coding, priority charts, Heijunka (completion) charts, Kanban, Andon lights, call lights ...
[86]
Developing historical thinking skills and creativity of visually ...
Jun 17, 2025 · The aim of the study is to develop the historical thinking skills and creativity of a group of visually impaired middle school students.
[87]
The effect of visual thinking strategy on the achievement of history ...
Aug 26, 2025 · The current research aims to identify the effect of the visual thinking strategy on the achievement and academic self-efficacy of history ...
[88]
A Thematic Analysis of How Professional Designers Use Generative ...
Oct 13, 2024 · "We Are Visual Thinkers, Not Verbal Thinkers!": A Thematic Analysis of How Professional Designers Use Generative AI Image Generation Tools.
[89]
Mixed experiences with online learning among neurodiverse youth
Oct 24, 2024 · We present findings from a longitudinal study in which we qualitatively analyzed using an idiographic approach the nearly 2,000 minutes of video ...
[90]
Visual images often intrude on verbal thinking, study says
May 11, 2017 · A new Harvard study shows that people create visual images to accompany their inner speech even when they are prompted to use verbal ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[91]
(PDF) Fostering Creative Thinking Using Immersive Virtual Reality in ...
Jan 27, 2025 · This study aims to explore how immersive VR can enhance creativity, focusing on key aspects such as sensory engagement, interactivity, and ...
[92]
Neurodiversity and cognitive load in online learning: A systematic ...
This systematic review with narrative synthesis aimed to examine the available evidence on the relationship between neurodiversity and cognitive load in online ...