Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

2023 Hamas attack on Israel

The 2023 attack on Israel was a surprise multi-front assault launched by and allied Palestinian armed groups from the against Israeli border communities, military outposts, and a civilian on , 2023. Attackers employed thousands of rockets to overwhelm air defenses, breached the fortified border fence with explosives and heavy machinery, and infiltrated via motorized paragliders, trucks, and on foot in coordinated waves numbering over 3,000 militants, enabling the deliberate targeting and slaughter of civilians in their homes, kibbutzim, and at the Nova festival site. The operation resulted in 1,195 deaths—primarily Israeli civilians (about 815, including 36 children) and security personnel, plus 71 foreigners—and the abduction of 251 hostages into , many of whom remain captive or deceased. Documented tactics included summary executions, of homes with occupants inside, mutilations, and against women and girls, actions that independent analyses classify as premeditated and war crimes central to the assault's objectives rather than incidental chaos. This event stands as the deadliest assault on Jews since the Holocaust, shattering Israel's sense of security and exposing systemic intelligence and preparedness failures that allowed Hamas to execute a meticulously planned operation despite prior warnings of unusual activity. In immediate response, Israel mobilized over 300,000 reservists, declared war on Hamas, and initiated "Operation Swords of Iron" with airstrikes and a ground invasion of Gaza to neutralize the group's military capabilities, rescue hostages, and prevent recurrence, escalating into a protracted conflict with heavy casualties on both sides. The attack's strategic intent—disrupting Israel's normalization with Arab states, derailing Palestinian Authority diplomacy, and reasserting Hamas's dominance among Palestinians—has fueled debates over root causes, including Gaza's governance under Hamas since 2007 and cycles of blockade and militancy, though empirical assessments emphasize the group's ideological commitment to Israel's destruction as the primary driver. Controversies persist around the veracity of initial atrocity reports amid disinformation campaigns, but forensic evidence from survivor testimonies, Hamas bodycam footage, and recovered documents corroborates the scale of civilian targeting.

Historical and Ideological Context

Origins of Hamas and Jihadist Ideology

, formally the Islamic Resistance Movement (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya), was established in December 1987 during the as the Palestinian branch of the , an Islamist organization founded in in that promotes the implementation of law and rejects secular governance. Its founder, Yassin, adapted the Brotherhood's ideology to the Palestinian context, framing resistance against as a religious duty rooted in rather than mere nationalism. The group's foundational document, the 1988 Covenant, explicitly denies 's right to exist, declaring that "the land of is an Islamic consecrated for future Moslem generations until Judgement Day" and calling for the obliteration of through armed against , whom it portrays as conspiratorial enemies allied with global forces. This charter incorporates antisemitic tropes, citing fabricated protocols and viewing as a satanic plot, positioning Hamas's struggle as a cosmic rather than a . In 2017, Hamas issued a revised policy document that omitted some overt antisemitic references from the 1988 and distinguished between and , but it maintained the core objective of liberating all of historic "from the river to the sea" through armed resistance, rejecting any recognition of and endorsing tactics like suicide bombings and the use of civilian areas for military purposes. Analysts note that these changes served primarily as a adjustment to appeal to international audiences and Palestinian nationalists, without altering the group's operational commitment to Israel's destruction or its doctrinal reliance on jihadist violence. Since seizing control of in June 2007 after ousting forces, has governed the territory by prioritizing military buildup over civilian welfare, diverting billions in international aid and construction materials intended for humanitarian use toward an extensive network of underground tunnels for weapons and launching attacks, as well as producing thousands of rockets targeting civilians. This misallocation has entrenched and dependency, while enforces ideological conformity through suppression of dissent, including executions of political rivals, and systematic via state-controlled and media that glorify martyrdom () and as paths to paradise, fostering a culture where children are encouraged to aspire to suicide operations against .

Key Prior Conflicts and Failed Peace Efforts

In July 2000, Prime Minister offered Palestinian leader a proposal at the summit that included Palestinian sovereignty over approximately 91-95% of the and , with land swaps to compensate for retained blocs, shared control of , and resolution of refugee claims through compensation rather than return. the offer without presenting a counterproposal, a decision U.S. President attributed to 's unwillingness to conclude a deal, contributing to the outbreak of the Second shortly thereafter. In 2008, Prime Minister extended an even more comprehensive proposal to Palestinian Authority President , encompassing over 94% of the with territorial swaps for the remainder, international administration of 's holy sites, and limited symbolic refugee returns, which effectively by failing to respond despite reviewing maps and details. , rejecting the peace framework from its inception, actively undermined negotiations through violence, viewing compromise as betrayal of jihadist goals and glorifying attacks on civilians as . The Second Intifada (2000-2005), initiated after Arafat's rejection at , featured extensive suicide bombings orchestrated by and allied groups like , resulting in over 1,000 Israeli deaths, predominantly civilians targeted in urban buses, cafes, and markets. leaders, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, publicly praised these operations as martyrdom operations advancing the cause of liberating all of historic , rejecting any territorial concessions. This wave of , which included more than 130 suicide attacks, demonstrated Palestinian rejectionism's prioritization of maximalist demands over state-building, as 's charter explicitly opposed Israel's existence and framed violence as a religious duty. Israel's unilateral disengagement from in August-September 2005, evacuating all settlements and military bases in a bid to reduce and enable Palestinian , initially raised hopes for but was met with intensified barrages targeting Israeli communities near the border. Post-disengagement, annual and launches surged from dozens to thousands, with over 4,000 projectiles fired by 2007, empowering 's military wing. 's victory in the January 2006 Palestinian legislative elections, followed by its violent coup against forces in June 2007 to seize full control of , eliminated moderate governance and escalated attacks, prompting and to impose tightened border restrictions in response to the takeover and ongoing fire. Subsequent Israeli operations responded to this escalation. Operation Cast Lead (December 2008-January 2009) was launched after ended a ceasefire and fired hundreds of rockets monthly, with over 2,000 projectiles launched from in the preceding year alone, often from densely populated areas where embedded launch sites, weapons caches, and command centers among civilians to deter strikes and inflate casualty figures for . Similarly, Operation Protective Edge (July-August 2014) followed a surge of over 450 rockets fired from in June-July 2014 amid kidnapping incidents and border clashes, with rejecting Egyptian-brokered truces to prolong barrages, again utilizing civilian infrastructure as shields, as documented in multiple investigations. These patterns underscored 's strategy of perpetuating conflict to derail peace, prioritizing ideological rejection of over governance or negotiation.

Immediate Precursors to the Attack

Following the 2021 ceasefire after of the Walls, pursued intensive rearmament, and locally producing advanced weaponry with Iranian technical assistance, including guidance kits for precision rockets and components for explosive drones capable of disabling surveillance systems. Iranian funding, channeled through networks and estimated in the hundreds of millions annually, facilitated the import of raw materials and expertise for underground manufacturing tunnels in , enabling to amass rocket arsenals exceeding 10,000 projectiles and train its Qassam Brigades for synchronized ground, air, and sea assaults. This escalation reversed much of the degradation from prior operations, positioning for offensive operations rather than defensive deterrence. Egyptian intelligence conveyed multiple warnings to between and early 2023 about preparations for a significant escalation from , describing an imminent "something big" based on intercepted communications and border observations. A specific three days prior highlighted troop concentrations and unusual activity, though without detailed tactical intelligence on the assault's scope. These notices coincided with Israeli domestic unrest over proposed judicial changes, which strained military and intelligence resource allocation toward internal stability. In the hours before the incursion, finalized staging along the border, leveraging joint faction exercises conducted since 2020 that rehearsed fence breaches, paraglider insertions, and rapid vehicular advances using motorcycles and bulldozers to neutralize barriers and outposts. Iranian-backed planning emphasized deception through low-profile movements disguised as routine drills, allowing elite Nukhba units to position undetected for the multi-axis while minimizing electronic signatures that could trigger alerts.

Planning and Intelligence Aspects

Hamas Preparation and Deception Tactics

developed a detailed operational blueprint for the attack, codenamed "Jericho Wall" by Israeli intelligence analysts, which outlined breaching the border fence through combined ground, air, and sea incursions, followed by rapid seizure of military outposts and civilian communities. The 40-page document, obtained by in 2022, described a multi-phase assault involving thousands of fighters to overwhelm defenses, including to initiate a "large-scale maneuver." This plan reflected years of preparation, with conducting joint military drills among Palestinian factions starting in 2020, including simulated incursions that mirrored the document's tactics. Hamas augmented its preparations through extensive underground infrastructure and armament stockpiles, constructing an estimated 350 to 450 miles of tunnels beneath Gaza—far exceeding earlier assessments—to facilitate movement, storage, and command operations. These efforts, alongside amassing thousands of rockets, relied heavily on diverting international humanitarian aid, including cement and funds intended for civilian use, to build tunnels and procure weapons. Reports indicate Hamas siphoned over $1 billion from UN aid programs since 2014 for military purposes, such as explosives and tunnel reinforcement, sustaining an annual military budget estimated at up to $350 million amid Gaza's economic constraints. To conceal these activities, employed denial and deception strategies, including controlled communications to minimize detectable signals and project intentions of restraint, thereby reducing Israeli alertness. Operatives avoided patterns that could trigger intelligence intercepts, while public messaging and lower-level interactions suggested a focus on rather than . This tactical restraint, combined with compartmentalized planning, enabled to maintain operational despite external indicators of .

Israeli Intelligence Warnings and Failures

Israeli military intelligence possessed a detailed blueprint for the October 7 attack, code-named "" by , more than a year prior to the assault, outlining incursions by sea, land, and air, hostage-taking, and attacks on military bases, yet analysts dismissed it as merely aspirational rather than actionable due to prevailing assessments of 's limited capabilities and deterrence. In July 2023, a in , 's unit, intercepted conducting large-scale exercises simulating raids on mock Israeli communities, including kibbutzim takeovers and declarations of completed killings, which mirrored elements of the actual attack but were downplayed as routine training or bluffs by superiors. This reflected a broader analytical where 's operational discipline—maintaining surface-level calm through economic gestures and avoiding overt provocations—reinforced Israeli conceptions of threats as contained, overshadowing tactical indicators. The (IDF) identified five specific warning signs on the eve of , including unusual activity, but these were not escalated due to chain-of-command breakdowns and misprioritization, while border observation posts reported anomalies like fighters mapping fences that went unheeded amid resource strains. , Israel's domestic security agency, similarly held 's battle plans but underestimated their intent, partly because of a focus on threats where resources and elite units, including commando companies, were redirected days before the attack, leaving border defenses underprepared. Overreliance on technological barriers, such as sensors and the border fence, proved vulnerable to 's low-tech overrides like bulldozers and paragliders, compounded by Unit 8200's reduced operational capacity near from prior personnel decisions prioritizing other theaters. Post-attack probes, including and internal reviews, confirmed these lapses stemmed from cognitive biases assuming Hamas's rational deterrence and inadequate integration of HUMINT with SIGINT, rather than deliberate policy restraint or external political distractions like protests, which inquiries found did not directly cause resource diversion but highlighted broader societal divisions affecting vigilance. No state commission has been established as of late 2025, with findings emphasizing systemic underestimation of Hamas's intent over individual blame, while crediting the group's deception tactics for masking preparations.

The Attack on October 7, 2023

Timeline of Incursions and Assaults

The assault commenced shortly after 6:30 a.m. on October 7, 2023, with launching a massive and barrage from , firing several thousand projectiles toward population centers and military sites in southern and central within the initial hours. Simultaneously, approximately 3,000 and allied militants breached the Gaza-Israel border fence—spanning about 40 miles—at numerous points using bulldozers to ram gates, explosives to blast sections, and vehicles including motorcycles for rapid incursion. These ground forces, supplemented by airborne paragliders and amphibious incursions via motorized paragliders and speedboats, penetrated up to 24 miles into Israeli territory, targeting 21 communities, military outposts, and roadside gatherings. By around 7:00 a.m., militants reached the Nova music festival near Re'im, where they opened fire on attendees, resulting in over 360 deaths amid chaotic flight and hiding attempts documented through survivor accounts and forensic evidence. Concurrently, incursions into border communities escalated into systematic house-to-house assaults; at Be'eri, for instance, gunmen killed more than 100 residents, with autopsies and eyewitness reports confirming executions and in homes. Similar patterns unfolded across sites like Nir Oz and , where militants used grenades, gunfire, and incendiary devices, corroborated by security camera footage and ballistic analysis. In urban areas such as and , militants engaged in street battles starting mid-morning, seizing police stations and firing on civilians and first responders; in , vehicle-mounted attacks and ambushes left dozens dead before mounted defenses. By late afternoon, Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) units, initially overwhelmed, began organized counterassaults, regaining control of key roads and towns like by evening through armored incursions and air support, though isolated pockets of fighting persisted in remote kibbutzim. The day's events resulted in approximately 1,200 Israeli deaths, primarily civilians, as verified by official tallies from and hospital records.

Specific Incidents at Key Locations

At the Nova music festival near Re'im, militants breached the perimeter around 7:00 a.m. on October 7, 2023, and pursued fleeing civilians across open fields, firing indiscriminately and using vehicles to run down attendees attempting to escape in cars or on foot. and body-camera footage recovered from the attackers documented deliberate executions of civilians at close range, including shootings of individuals hiding in bomb shelters and ditches. Forensic examinations and eyewitness accounts from survivors confirmed instances of and sexual at the site, with at least seven women subjected to post-mortem genital as part of patterned . In kibbutz communities such as Be'eri and Kfar Aza, Hamas fighters conducted systematic house-to-house raids starting in the early morning hours, breaching homes with gunfire, grenades, and arson to trap and kill residents. In Be'eri, attackers threw grenades into safe rooms, igniting fires that burned families alive, as evidenced by charred remains and explosive residue in autopsies from Israel's National Center of Forensic Medicine. Forensic pathology reports detailed mutilations including severed genitals, bound limbs, and gunshot wounds to genitals on both male and female victims, indicating deliberate infliction beyond combat necessities. Eyewitnesses and recovered militant communications described searches for hiding families, with children and parents executed in bedrooms or dragged outside for summary killings. Israeli military outposts, including the Nahal Oz base approximately 850 meters from the Gaza border, were overrun in coordinated surprise assaults beginning at 6:29 a.m., with Hamas forces exploiting breached fences and limited armed personnel to infiltrate command centers and barracks. At , 53 soldiers were killed and 10 abducted after militants engaged in , overpowering guards and observation posts; of 162 stationed personnel, only 90 were armed, contributing to the rapid collapse. Autopsies on recovered bodies showed executions at , but no forensic or video evidence supports claims of Israeli self-orchestration, with the attack's success attributed to 's pre-planned deception and the element of surprise. Similar overruns at bases like and resulted in dozens of additional security personnel deaths from ambushes and attacks during the initial breach phase.

Methods of Violence and Atrocities

militants employed a range of violent methods during the , 2023, attack, including mass shootings with automatic weapons, attacks on homes and shelters, via incendiary devices and RPGs, and knife-based executions, deliberately targeting non-combatants in border communities and at the Nova music festival. Eyewitness testimonies and video footage from attackers' body cameras captured fighters firing indiscriminately into crowds and residences, with over 1,200 civilians and soldiers killed in total, many in their homes or vehicles set alight. Sexual violence, including and , was perpetrated as a tool of , with the ' Office of the Special Representative on in Conflict documenting reasonable grounds for such acts at sites like the Nova festival, Road 232, and Kibbutz Re'im, based on survivor interviews, first-responder accounts, and limited forensic traces on remains despite challenges from rapid burials. Israeli medical examinations of survivors and bodies revealed genital mutilations and signs of in multiple cases, corroborated by Hamas-released videos showing fighters boasting of violations. These acts align with patterns observed in prior jihadist conflicts, prioritizing terror over tactical gain, rather than cultural aberrations. Executions involved close-quarters stabbings, shootings of bound or hiding victims, and immolation, with forensic analyses confirming burned remains in over 100 homes and cars, including families trapped in safe rooms. Children and infants—approximately 36 minors under 18—suffered particularly gruesome fates, such as being shot at point-blank range or incinerated alive, as identified through DNA matching and scene documentation by Israeli responders, countering attempts to minimize via selective retractions of exaggerated initial claims while affirming the deliberate brutality against the vulnerable. Holocaust survivors were among those executed, underscoring the indiscriminate policy evident in Hamas's operational directives. Post-attack statements by leaders, including senior official Ghazi Hamad's endorsement of repeating the operation and the group's commemoration of as a "glorious day of success," explicitly celebrated civilian targeting as legitimate resistance, rejecting distinctions between combatants and non-combatants in line with jihadist doctrine that views Jewish civilians in as permissible targets. This contrasts with initial claims of focusing on military sites, revealing intent through celebratory rhetoric and captured documents outlining civilian-inclusive assault plans.

Casualties and Human Cost

Israeli Civilian and Military Deaths

The Hamas-led attack on Israel on October 7, 2023, killed 1,195 people, comprising 815 civilians and 373 members of the security forces, including Israel Defense Forces (IDF) personnel, police officers, and border guards. Among the civilians, over 800 were confirmed murdered in their homes, communities, or at sites like the Nova music festival, where 364 were killed. The security forces casualties included at least 44 IDF soldiers and 30 police officers directly during the incursion, with the higher total reflecting off-duty personnel, reservists, and rapid-response teams overwhelmed at border sites. Civilian deaths disproportionately affected non-combatants, with 36 children among the victims, including infants like 9-month-old Kfir Bibas killed in Nir Oz. In affected kibbutzim such as and , over 70% of fatalities in some locations were women and children, underscoring the targeting of residential areas during the holiday morning assault. The attack also injured more than 5,000 Israelis, many with severe physical trauma from gunfire, grenades, and , alongside widespread psychological impacts reported in survivor communities. The October 7 attack marked the deadliest single day for Jews since , surpassing prior terrorist incidents in scale and civilian focus. U.S. President described it as such, noting the combination of mass killings, abductions, and atrocities against families. This exceeded the toll of previous attacks, like the 2000-2005 , where annual Jewish fatalities peaked below 100.

Hostage Takings and Captivity

During the October 7, 2023, attack, militants and allied groups abducted 251 individuals from Israeli communities and a , including approximately 240 civilians (such as women, children, elderly, and foreign nationals from , , and elsewhere) and 11 soldiers or security personnel. Many were seized violently from homes, roadsides, or safe rooms, dragged across the border into under gunfire and amid executions of those who resisted or nearby civilians, with captors using motorcycles, vehicles, and foot marches to transport them through active combat zones. By the end of 2023, 105 living hostages had been released through a temporary exchange, primarily civilians including children and women, leaving over 140 still in (some later confirmed dead). Those held endured prolonged abuse over more than 1.5 years in many cases, including systematic such as beatings, burns, and ; deliberate with rations limited to bread, rice, or contaminated water; and medical neglect leading to untreated wounds, infections, and deaths. Released hostages, including soldiers and civilians, reported isolation in dark cells, psychological torment through threats of execution, and chaining; medical examinations post-release documented , , and consistent with war crimes under . Captives were frequently confined in Hamas's extensive tunnel network beneath , repurposed civilian homes, and sites near military command centers, effectively using them as shields to deter strikes while advancing Hamas's operational security. At least 38 hostages died in captivity from neglect, execution, or by October 2025, with bodies often withheld or desecrated, exacerbating family anguish and aligning with Hamas's strategy of leveraging suffering for political and military advantage. Hamas instrumentalized hostages for propaganda by filming and disseminating videos of their captivity, pleas for release, and coerced statements criticizing , broadcast via Telegram and to demoralize the public, pressure its , and garner sympathy. This psychological warfare echoed Hamas's historical tactics, such as the 2006 abduction and five-year detention of soldier to extract over 1,000 Palestinian prisoners in exchange, demonstrating a pattern of treating civilians as bargaining assets rather than protected persons under conflict norms.

Hamas Combatant Losses

The (IDF) estimated that approximately 3,000 and allied Palestinian militants, including members of , crossed the Gaza-Israel border into Israeli territory during the October 7, 2023, incursion. This figure represented a coordinated assault wave involving paragliders, motorized vehicles, and breaches at multiple points along the 40-mile barrier, but excluded subsequent opportunistic crossings by unaffiliated Gazans. IDF assessments indicated that around 1,500 of these combatants were killed within in the immediate aftermath, with their bodies recovered from attack sites, kibbutzim, military outposts, and routes back toward . Approximately 200 were captured alive, often wounded or disoriented during retreats. A significant portion of fatalities occurred not during offensive actions but amid disorganized withdrawals, vehicular ambushes, or exposure to aerial and ground counterstrikes, as militants lacked resupply lines or defensive positions beyond 's perimeter. These losses, representing roughly half of the invading force, underscored the operation's tactical overextension: prioritized mass infiltration and ad hoc atrocities over sustained combat capability, leading to high casualties once initial surprise waned. The attackers drew from 's broader estimated force of fighters, yet the incursion's structure—emphasizing suicide-style probes and hostage seizures—aligned with the group's doctrine of martyrdom (istishhad), wherein participant deaths were framed as deliberate sacrifices to inflict psychological and strategic damage on .

Immediate Israeli Response

Border Defense and Evacuations

The ' initial border defense efforts were hampered by the unprecedented scale of the incursion, which involved breaches at over 100 points along the Gaza-Israel barrier starting around 6:30 a.m. on , 2023, overwhelming forward positions and creating gaps in organized response that lasted up to 6-8 hours in some sectors as units mobilized from distant locations. battalions, including the 51st and 13th, engaged fighters at multiple sites along the border, such as and , but faced numerical disadvantages and communication breakdowns amid the surprise assault. and rapid-response teams also mobilized, though their arrival was delayed in several communities due to the diversion of resources to counter simultaneous rocket barrages that saturated air defenses. In several kibbutzim, armed civilian security teams and off-duty personnel mounted improvised defenses, holding off attackers for hours until reinforcements arrived; for instance, at Kibbutz Nir Am, a combined force of troops, police, and local guards repelled a large contingent by late morning, preventing a full overrun. Similar actions occurred at Kibbutz Magen, where residents used personal weapons to confront intruders while awaiting support, which lagged due to the broader chaos. These efforts bought critical time amid the systemic shock, as 's ground incursions—coupled with over 3,000 rockets fired in the first hours—strained response coordination, with intercepting only about half of incoming projectiles due to overload. Israeli Air Force AH-64 helicopter gunships were scrambled shortly after the incursion began, providing by midday against terrorist concentrations near border communities and military outposts, though pilots operated in a with limited ground intelligence. These missions targeted advancing forces, contributing to the containment of some breaches despite the absence of a pre-existing plan for such a multi-front . As fighting persisted into the afternoon, Israeli authorities initiated mass evacuations from border-area communities, displacing over 100,000 residents from the in the immediate aftermath, with many bused or driven northward under military escort amid ongoing threats. This included rapid relocation from towns like and kibbutzim such as those in the Sha'ar HaNegev region, where heroism by local defenders had mitigated total collapse but left populations vulnerable to stray fire and infiltrators.

Initial Counteroffensives

Following the incursion on October 7, 2023, () ground units rapidly mobilized to reclaim breached border areas in southern , prioritizing the neutralization of infiltrators while facilitating civilian evacuations to minimize risks to non-combatants. By October 8, forces were actively battling remaining militants within Israeli communities near the border, conducting sweeps to eliminate threats and restore territorial control. These operations involved infantry and armored units pursuing terrorist cells that had penetrated as deep as 22 locations, including kibbutzim and military outposts, with reports indicating ongoing clashes in areas like the region. Complementing ground efforts, the executed immediate airstrikes on command centers, rocket launch sites, and other military infrastructure in , aiming to disrupt ongoing barrages that exceeded 3,000 projectiles in the first day. These precision strikes targeted active launchers and production facilities, significantly curtailing 's short-term firing capabilities and preventing further mass volleys during the critical initial hours. Coordination between the and intelligence agencies, including , facilitated real-time targeting of high-value operatives involved in the attack's planning, setting the stage for subsequent eliminations of key figures such as in October 2024. By October 9, the reported having largely regained sovereignty over the affected border zones, with systematic destruction of fence breaches and the elimination of most infiltrators, though isolated pockets of resistance persisted. This phase emphasized rapid restoration of security perimeters, with engineering units repairing border fortifications amid heightened alerts for secondary threats. The combined ground-air approach reflected a focused on decisive reclamation while avoiding escalation into broader penetration at that stage.

The Broader Israel-Hamas War

Gaza Military Campaign Phases

The Gaza military campaign initiated by Israel following the , 2023, attack proceeded in distinct phases, with operational intensity calibrated to 's extensive use of subterranean networks and embedding within civilian infrastructure, which prolonged engagements and required targeted degradation of command-and-control nodes to neutralize rocket fire and infiltration threats. Phase 1, from to mid-November 2023, emphasized an air campaign to dismantle 's surface-level assets, including over 12,000 targets struck by November 1, escalating to approximately 31,000 targets across by February 2024, encompassing rocket launchers, weapons caches, and training sites. The (IDF) employed precision-guided munitions and real-time intelligence to prioritize high-value military objectives, issuing evacuation warnings via leaflets, calls, and digital alerts to displace non-combatants from anticipated strike zones, a tactic informed by prior operations demonstrating reduced collateral through preemptive civilian movement. Phase 2 commenced with limited ground incursions on October 27, 2023, transitioning to broader maneuvers in northern by early , aimed at uprooting tunnel systems estimated at 350-450 miles in length, integrated beneath residential areas, hospitals, and schools to facilitate ambushes and resupply. engineering units demolished over 800 tunnels by mid-2024 through controlled explosives, flooding, and direct assaults, disrupting 's mobility and logistics in densely urbanized and [Beit Hanoun](/page/Beit Hanoun). Operations methodically cleared multi-story buildings rigged as booby traps, with armored divisions advancing under air and cover to expose and neutralize hidden fighters, reflecting causal necessities of 's fortified defenses that precluded standoff solutions without risking troop exposure. Subsequent phases shifted southward, encircling Khan Younis in December 2023 and culminating in the offensive by May 2024, where forces isolated remaining battalions, destroying additional tunnel shafts and command bunkers amid reports of fighters fleeing northward. By January 2025, assessments credited the campaign with eliminating nearly 20,000 combatants, corroborated by battlefield forensics including identified bodies, weapons recoveries, and intercepted communications, though replenishment efforts sustained residual forces estimated at 20,000. Precision targeting protocols, including AI-assisted aim point selection and secondary reviews, yielded -evaluated combatant-to-civilian fatality ratios around 1:1 to 1:1.5—far below norms—contrasting 's unsubstantiated assertions of near-total civilian tolls, which disregarded verified militant casualties and human shielding practices.

Hamas Military Tactics and Infrastructure

Hamas employed a strategy of embedding its military operations within densely populated civilian areas in , utilizing hospitals, schools, and residential zones as shields for command centers, weapon storage, and launch sites to complicate Israeli responses and exploit international norms against targeting civilian infrastructure. This approach, evidenced by raids and intelligence, included the discovery of tunnels, weapons caches, and operational headquarters beneath facilities like , where a subterranean complex served as a command node with electrical infrastructure linking to the hospital's power supply. Similar findings emerged from other sites, such as the European Hospital in Khan Younis, revealing underground bunkers and arms, confirming a pattern of over 300 civilian structures repurposed for military use across . UNRWA-operated schools and compounds were also integrated into this infrastructure, with seizures uncovering documents and physical evidence of operatives using them for planning and storage, including parts and explosives hidden in vacant facilities. Israeli assessments, corroborated by intercepted records, indicate systematically exploited such sites to store munitions and stage operations, diverting resources meant for . Complementing surface embeddings, maintained an extensive subterranean tunnel network, dubbed the "Gaza Metro," spanning 350 to 450 miles beneath civilian areas, including under hospitals and schools, to facilitate ambushes, weapons and fighters, and concealing hostages taken during the attack. of this system, estimated to cost up to $1 billion, relied on diverted international aid, including millions in funds and thousands of tons of and steel intended for civilian development, enabling prolonged by shielding fighters from aerial detection. Post-attack, sustained rocket barrages from , launching over 5,000 projectiles in the initial phase alone and continuing with thousands more through 2024, often from urban neighborhoods to maximize risk on . These unguided munitions targeted Israeli population centers indiscriminately, with Israel's system intercepting over 90% of those threatening populated areas, though saturation tactics occasionally overwhelmed defenses. This persistent fire, integrated with tunnel-based resupply, underscored 's reliance on volume over precision to maintain pressure amid ground operations.

2025 Ceasefire and Hostage Resolutions

In October 2025, and agreed to a U.S.-brokered following two years of conflict initiated by the October 7, 2023, attack, marking the culmination of phased negotiations that included hostage exchanges and partial demilitarization measures. The deal, ratified by 's government on October 11, 2025, required to release all remaining living hostages within 72 hours of troop withdrawals from key areas, in exchange for the release of Palestinian prisoners held by . Under the agreement's first phase, Hamas released the final 20 living hostages on October 13, 2025, including individuals like Alon Ohel and Ariel Cunio, who had been held since the initial abduction. This followed earlier partial releases, such as those in January and February 2025, where at least six hostages were freed amid interim truces, bringing the total number of living hostages returned to approximately 59 out of the 251 originally taken. However, has withheld the bodies of at least 13 deceased hostages, citing difficulties in retrieval due to Gaza's destruction, a claim disputes as evidence of , with hostage families publicly accusing the group of using remains for leverage. Israel declared an operational victory in the ceasefire announcement, citing the elimination of key Hamas leaders, including in October 2024, in July 2024, and Mohammed Sinwar in May 2025, which decimated the group's military command structure. Gaza demilitarization remains partial, with Israeli Defense Minister emphasizing ongoing tunnel destruction—though approximately 60% of 's underground network persists—as a core objective to prevent rearmament. The ceasefire has faced immediate tests, including alleged violations such as restricted aid flows and the closure of the crossing, which attributes to non-compliance, underscoring the group's history of leveraging humanitarian pretexts for tactical gains. Despite these setbacks, the hostage resolutions represent a tangible outcome of 's sustained military pressure, though full implementation hinges on verifiable disarmament and body returns, areas where progress has stalled per Israeli assessments.

International Reactions and Involvement

Allied Support for Israel's Self-Defense

The provided substantial military assistance to following the October 7, 2023, attack, including over $17.9 billion in aid by October 2025, encompassing munitions, interceptors for air defense systems, and other weaponry to bolster 's defensive capabilities. This support included rapid delivery of precision-guided munitions and enhancements to systems like , enabling to counter ongoing rocket barrages and ground threats from . Abraham Accords signatories, including the , , and , issued statements condemning the attacks as and affirmed 's right to defend itself, maintaining diplomatic and economic ties rather than suspending them amid the conflict. These nations coordinated with on and humanitarian channels, countering Iranian proxy activities without formal alliance breaks, which underscored the accords' resilience against 's aim to derail regional normalization. The issued multiple joint statements unequivocally recognizing the October 7 Hamas assault as , with the December 6, 2023, leaders' declaration condemning the "horrific terror attacks" and emphasizing Israel's right to while calling for hostage release. Subsequent communiqués in 2024 and 2025 reiterated this stance, linking Hamas's actions to broader threats from Iran-backed groups and committing to measures against terrorist financing. The and imposed targeted sanctions on leaders and financiers post-attack, including asset freezes and travel bans announced in November 2023 by the in coordination with the , aimed at disrupting the group's international funding networks. The extended its terrorism sanctions regime to additional -linked entities in early 2024, focusing on operatives involved in attack planning and logistics. Allied intelligence cooperation, particularly from the , , and , facilitated the interception of nearly 99% of over 300 Iranian drones and missiles launched at in 2024, preventing escalation and demonstrating coordinated early-warning systems against Tehran-backed threats. Similar sharing thwarted potential follow-on attacks, including shared alerts on regrouping efforts tied to Iranian directives.

Criticisms and Anti-Israel Movements

Following the , 2023, attack, various bodies and non-governmental organizations leveled accusations against of committing in during its response. A September 2025 UN Independent International Commission of Inquiry report claimed met the criteria of the through acts intended to destroy in , citing patterns of destruction and displacement. Similarly, Human Rights Watch's December 2024 report alleged acts of via deliberate deprivation of water, framing 's restrictions as extermination. echoed this in December 2024, declaring 's actions constituted against . These claims, often amplified by institutions with documented histories of disproportionate scrutiny toward amid broader anti-Western biases in international frameworks, overlooked the context of 's assault, which killed over 1,200 and involved systematic atrocities including and hostage-taking. In the case brought by alleging , provisional rulings in January and May 2024 ordered to prevent genocidal acts, ensure aid delivery, and halt operations in that risked substantial Palestinian harm, without mandating a full . 's submissions highlighted the rulings' failure to fully account for existential threats from , including its use of human shields and rocket barrages, as well as the group's 1988 charter explicitly calling for 's destruction and the killing of as religious imperatives. Despite these orders, empirical data contradicted blockade-induced narratives central to claims: 's Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories (COGAT) facilitated over 100,000 aid trucks into by August 2025, delivering millions of tons of food, medical supplies, and fuel, with daily averages exceeding pre-war levels at times, though distribution challenges arose from diversion and internal chaos. Anti-Israel movements intensified post-attack, with the Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions (BDS) campaign framing Hamas's October 7 operations as legitimate "resistance" against occupation, despite the group's foundational documents rejecting Israel's existence and endorsing jihadist violence. BDS-affiliated groups, including Students for Justice in Palestine chapters, circulated toolkits post-attack portraying the assault— which targeted civilians at a music festival and kibbutzim—as justified Palestinian self-defense, aligning with narratives that romanticize armed struggle while downplaying Hamas's antisemitic ideology. On U.S. campuses, protests surged, featuring chants glorifying "intifada" and "globalize the intifada," evoking the second intifada's suicide bombings that killed over 1,000 Israelis; these events, documented in over 1,000 incidents by mid-2024, often disrupted Jewish students' access and included endorsements of Hamas tactics, amid a reported 400% rise in campus antisemitism. Such movements, rooted in academic and activist circles prone to selective outrage—evident in minimal condemnation of Hamas's charter-mandated goals—prioritized with Palestinian militants over empirical scrutiny of the attack's barbarity or Israel's defensive imperatives. Critics noted these framings echoed historical patterns of excusing as "" while ignoring causal factors like Hamas's failures and use of Gaza's infrastructure for military ends, sustaining cycles of violence rather than pursuing negotiated peace.

Iranian and Proxy Roles

Iran has provided extensive financial, material, and operational support to , enabling the group's military capabilities leading up to the October 7, 2023, attack on . U.S. officials estimate that supplied with approximately $100 million annually prior to the assault, including funds channeled through mechanisms such as the Iranian Intelligence Service for terrorist activities. This support encompassed weapons like Iranian-produced rockets and drones recovered by Israeli forces during the incursion, as well as training for militants conducted by 's (IRGC). Captured documents and intelligence assessments indicate Iranian involvement in pre-attack planning discussions, with leaders seeking Tehran's endorsement and coordination for a multi-front offensive, though direct operational command remains attributed to . Iran's "axis of resistance" proxies, including in and the in , contributed to the broader aggression by launching diversionary attacks synchronized with Hamas's assault. initiated cross-border rocket and drone strikes on northern shortly after , aiming to divide Israeli defenses and escalate to a multi-front war, as evidenced by intercepted communications and long-term Iranian planning for simultaneous invasions. The fired ballistic missiles and drones toward starting in October 2023, framing their actions as solidarity with Hamas and coordinated under Iranian directives to pressure economically through Red Sea shipping disruptions. This proxy coordination reflects Iran's strategy of deniable escalation, with IRGC advisors facilitating technology transfers and joint exercises among these groups. In retaliation for Israeli strikes killing Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah on September 27, 2024, Iran launched a direct ballistic missile barrage against on October 1, 2024, firing approximately 180-200 missiles in two waves from Iranian territory. The attack targeted military sites, including airbases, but resulted in minimal damage due to air defenses intercepting most projectiles, with only around 30 missiles impacting near facilities like . No fatalities were reported from the barrage itself, though it underscored 's willingness to escalate beyond proxies in support of its Hamas- axis.

Controversies, Misinformation, and Debates

Debunked Anti-Israel Narratives

One prominent narrative alleged that an on October 17, , targeted in , killing approximately 500 civilians, as initially claimed by the Hamas-controlled . Forensic analysis of the blast site, including crater size, shrapnel patterns, and video evidence of incoming trajectories, indicated the explosion resulted from a misfired launched by from within . U.S. intelligence assessed with high confidence that the projectile was a Palestinian that malfunctioned shortly after launch, consistent with the limited damage and lack of precision munitions signatures typical of strikes. Subsequent estimates revised the death toll to between 100 and 300, far below initial reports, highlighting discrepancies in casualty figures propagated without verification. Another widespread claim portrayed reports of Hamas militants beheading infants during the as fabricated , with the specific assertion of "40 decapitated babies" cited as evidence of systematic exaggeration. While officials later clarified they could not confirm the exact number of 40 decapitations among , forensic examinations of from sites like revealed documented cases of mutilation, including severed heads on children and signs of such as bound limbs and burns on over 100 bodies. Autopsies conducted by pathologists confirmed with fatal injuries consistent with close-range violence, including gunshot wounds to the head and evidence of on young females, corroborating eyewitness accounts from at sites where entire families, including children, were slaughtered. These findings refute blanket dismissals of atrocities, as the initial reports stemmed from chaotic on-scene observations later refined by medical evidence, rather than wholesale invention.

Media Distortions and Bias

Following the October 7, 2023, attack, numerous outlets initially attributed the in on October 17 to an Israeli airstrike, citing unverified claims from Hamas-controlled sources that resulted in hundreds of deaths. Subsequent forensic analysis, U.S. intelligence assessments, and video evidence indicated a misfired rocket as the cause, prompting retractions from outlets including and the , which acknowledged errors in speculating Israeli responsibility without sufficient verification. This pattern reflected a broader tendency to privilege rapid reporting from Palestinian authorities over cross-verification, amplifying accusations against before contradictory evidence emerged. Media reliance on Gaza Health Ministry figures, operated by Hamas, perpetuated distorted casualty narratives by presenting totals without distinguishing combatants from civilians or addressing methodological flaws such as including natural deaths and double-counting. Reports often emphasized that "women and children" comprised the majority of deaths—echoing Hamas claims of up to 70%—while omitting that such categories encompassed fighting-age males and failed to account for Hamas's embedding of military operations in civilian areas, which inflated non-combatant exposure to risks. Independent analyses, including those reviewing ministry data, revealed inconsistencies like impossible demographic breakdowns and underreporting of adult male casualties consistent with combatant losses, yet these were infrequently challenged in initial coverage, fostering perceptions of indiscriminate Israeli targeting. Coverage frequently prioritized imagery and narratives of Gaza civilian suffering over detailed accounts of Hamas's October 7 atrocities, such as systematic , mutilation, and targeting of families, with emotive language like "" applied more sparingly to Palestinian actions than Israeli responses. This selective emphasis aligned with pre-existing institutional inclinations in toward framing as aggressor, as documented in content analyses showing asymmetrical scrutiny of operations while contextualizing Hamas tactics as resistance. platforms exacerbated distortions by viral spread of unverified or staged footage—termed "Pallywood" in critiques of recurrent fabrications—depicting exaggerated injuries or recycled images from prior conflicts, which mainstream outlets sometimes echoed without immediate , normalizing skepticism toward verified claims. Post-attack assessments, including those from watchdogs, identified over two dozen instances of amplified falsehoods, such as unsubstantiated accusations, contributing to eroded in outlets perceived as prioritizing narrative alignment over empirical rigor. These distortions, rooted in systemic left-leaning predispositions within favoring framing and aversion to critiquing non-Western actors, disproportionately harmed accurate understanding of Hamas's initiating and Israel's defensive imperatives, as evidenced by surveys revealing heightened cynicism toward biased reporting.

Legal Claims and Proportionality Disputes

Israel invoked Article 51 of the UN Charter, affirming the inherent right of self-defense in response to Hamas's October 7, 2023, armed attack, which killed approximately 1,200 Israeli civilians and soldiers while taking over 250 hostages, constituting a deliberate targeting of non-combatants in violation of jus in bello principles. Hamas's founding 1988 charter explicitly calls for the obliteration of Israel and the killing of Jews as a religious imperative, framing the conflict as an existential struggle rather than a territorial dispute, which underpins Israel's legal justification for operations aimed at dismantling Hamas's military capacity. In November 2024, the (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Israeli Prime Minister and former Defense Minister on allegations of war crimes including starvation as a method of warfare, alongside warrants for Hamas military commander for related to the ; however, critics contend the ICC's focus on Israeli leaders overlooks the asymmetric nature of the conflict and Hamas's unprosecuted genocidal intent, with the court's jurisdiction over Israel disputed as a non-Rome Statute state. The proceedings highlight debates over equivalence, where Hamas's initiation of hostilities with intent for Israel's total destruction—evident in its charter and tactics—negates moral or legal parity with Israel's targeted responses, as under permits necessary force to repel ongoing threats rather than symmetric restraint. Disputes over proportionality center on jus in bello interpretations, where the principle requires that anticipated civilian harm not be excessive relative to the concrete military advantage anticipated from an attack, assessed individually rather than as a cumulative "tit-for-tat" ratio across the conflict. This differs from proportionality, which evaluates overall response necessity; in , Israel's operations against Hamas's embedded infrastructure— including tunnels under hospitals and civilian areas used as shields—necessitate precision strikes balancing urban density against eliminating command nodes, with legal scholars arguing that Hamas's deliberate civilian endangerment shifts primary responsibility for incidental harm. Gaza casualty figures, reported by the Hamas-controlled Health Ministry as exceeding 40,000 deaths by mid-2025 (including unidentified bodies, natural causes, and misfired rockets), are contested by , which estimates nearly 20,000 Hamas fighters killed by January 2025 and claims a civilian-to-combatant ratio of approximately 1:1 through intelligence-driven targeting, far lower than historical norms. Independent analyses note the ministry's data lacks differentiation between combatants and civilians, inflating non-combatant tallies while underreporting Hamas's use of human shields, contrasting sharply with Hamas's explicit aim of annihilating 's population, as manifested in October 7's massacres and charter-mandated . This asymmetry underscores that permits severe measures against an adversary posing existential risk, where neutralization of the threat—Hamas's governance and arsenal—outweighs localized harms when alternatives like ground incursions minimize broader escalation. Historical precedents, such as Allied strategic bombings in (e.g., in 1945, causing ~25,000 civilian deaths), were retrospectively justified under to hasten defeat against regimes with doctrines, despite high collateral tolls exceeding enemy civilian attacks; modern (IHL) evolved from these but retains flexibility for self-preservation against non-state actors like , whose hybrid tactics blur lines, invalidating strict numerical equivalence in favor of operational imperatives to prevent recurrence. In first-principles terms, causal realism demands recognizing that Hamas's embedding in civilian areas causally drives higher incidental losses, rendering Israel's restraint—evidenced by warnings and evacuations—compliant with IHL where total threat elimination is the only path to enduring security, absent illusions of negotiated symmetry with an annihilatory foe.

Long-Term Consequences

Impacts on Israeli Security and Society

The October 7, 2023, Hamas-led attack, which killed approximately 1,200 and took 250 hostages, prompted to mobilize around 360,000 reservists within days, the largest such call-up in its history, to bolster defenses and launch operations against . This rapid response exposed prior intelligence and deployment shortcomings, including sparse border forces, leading to internal inquiries and structural reforms to enhance surveillance and rapid reaction capabilities. By 2025, following a , 's security doctrine shifted toward proactive border defense, incorporating permanent troop deployments beyond national lines, preemptive strikes on threats, and expanded buffer zones in to neutralize 's capacity for incursions. These measures, driven by the attack's demonstration of 's tunneling and , aimed to restore deterrence but strained military resources amid multi-front threats from and Iran-backed groups. On the societal front, the attack caused widespread internal displacement, with tens of thousands of residents evacuated from southern communities near and northern areas under Hezbollah rocket fire, disrupting lives and local economies for over two years. impacts were severe, with rates of PTSD, , and anxiety nearly doubling in the immediate aftermath, particularly among those directly exposed or in proximity to the violence; studies reported high , with women and trauma witnesses showing elevated symptoms persisting into 2025. Economic fallout compounded these strains, as costs exceeding $55 billion through 2025 led to a budget deficit surge from 1.5% to over 7% of GDP, pressures, labor shortages from reservist absences, and reduced household incomes, with many families facing prolonged financial hardship. Socially, the attack initially fostered national unity, with polls showing heightened optimism and as rallied against the existential threat, temporarily bridging pre-existing divides over judicial reforms. However, prolonged hostage negotiations, military casualties, and debates over war conduct deepened fractures by mid-2024, exacerbating distrust in leadership and reviving protests, leaving society more polarized yet resilient in its resolve for security. Intergenerational trauma echoed historical vulnerabilities, prompting calls for systemic reforms to address long-term psychological burdens.

Shifts in Palestinian Governance

The elimination of key leaders by forces has significantly weakened the organization's command structure in . Since the October 7, 2023, attack, has killed or contributed to the deaths of numerous senior figures, including , the architect of the assault, in on October 16, 2024; , the political chief, in on July 31, 2024; , a deputy leader, in on January 2, 2024; and at least a dozen other military commanders such as and . This decapitation has created a , hampering operational coordination and exposing fractures within 's ranks, though the group retains some mid-level capabilities amid ongoing operations. Public support for the October 7 attack among Gazans, which initially exceeded 70% in late 2023 polls, has declined substantially by mid-2025, reflecting the causal toll of 's tactics, including embedding military infrastructure in civilian areas, which prolonged the conflict and intensified humanitarian suffering. A Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research (PCPSR) poll from December 2023 found 72% of Gazans viewed the attack as correct; by September 2024, support in dropped to around 40%, with only 39% deeming it justified in a November 2024 survey, compared to higher figures. By May 2025, overall Palestinian approval fell to 50%, with Gazans increasingly blaming external actors over for their plight, yet rejection of Israel's existence persisted at over 80% in the same poll, underscoring enduring ideological entrenchment rather than moderation. Tensions between and the (PA) have intensified without yielding governance reform or , as the PA remains sidelined and unable to assert control over . Efforts at unity, such as post-attack proposals for PA oversight, collapsed amid mutual recriminations, with the PA criticizing Hamas's unilateral actions while facing domestic pressure for irrelevance; by early 2025, the war's dynamics positioned to potentially supplant Hamas, but no substantive power transfer occurred, perpetuating divided and ineffective rule. Gaza's governance continues to hinge on international aid, dominated by , whose deep ties to have been laid bare, complicating any shift away from rejectionist structures. A UN investigation confirmed at least nine UNRWA staff participated in the October 7 attack, leading to their dismissal in August 2024; further evidence includes tunnels under UNRWA's Gaza headquarters and staff involvement in militant activities, revealing systemic complicity that sustains 's influence under the guise of humanitarian operations. This dependency entrenches aid as a proxy for governance, with little incentive for or PA elements to abandon militancy amid persistent public endorsement of armed resistance in polls.

Geopolitical Realignments

The , formalized in 2020, demonstrated resilience following the October 7, 2023, attack, with diplomatic ties between and signatories like the , , and remaining intact despite regional tensions. Trade volumes between and Abraham Accords countries declined by only 4% in the aftermath, far less than the 18% drop in Israel's overall trade, underscoring the agreements' stability amid the conflict. While public visibility of these partnerships diminished due to domestic pressures in Arab states, underlying economic and security cooperation persisted, countering Iranian influence in the region. Israel's military operations post-attack inflicted significant setbacks on and its "axis of resistance" proxies, enhancing Israel's regional deterrence. Targeted strikes eliminated senior Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps commanders and degraded capabilities of groups like and , exposing vulnerabilities in 's proxy network. These actions, including direct exchanges with in 2024, compelled to recalibrate its strategy, reducing its regional relevance as Arab states prioritized countering Iranian over Palestinian issues. The U.S. shift following Trump's 2024 further bolstered Israeli aid and autonomy, aligning with pre-Abraham Accords frameworks that emphasized deterrence against shared threats. Global energy dynamics eroded traditional Arab oil leverage, as diversified supplies and subdued price responses to Middle East conflicts limited OPEC's influence. Despite escalations involving Houthi disruptions and the Gaza war, Brent crude prices rose only 5.7% initially and failed to sustain spikes, reflecting U.S. shale production and non-Middle Eastern alternatives that diminished reliance on Gulf exports. This shift paralleled critiques of Western inconsistencies, where robust support for Ukraine against Russia contrasted with hesitancy on Israel, yet ultimately highlighted Israel's strategic gains in a multipolar order less beholden to energy coercion. Exposés of the October 7 atrocities contributed to a post-peak decline in global antisemitic incidents by mid-2025, fostering heightened awareness and reduced tolerance for such ideologies amid broader geopolitical scrutiny.