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2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (Airborne), known as "The Rock," is a light infantry battalion of the United States Army specializing in airborne operations and assigned to the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team, stationed in Vicenza, Italy, as a rapid-response force for Europe and Africa. Constituted on 14 March 1941 in the Army of the United States as Company B, 503rd Parachute Battalion and activated on 22 August 1941 at Fort Benning, Georgia, it was redesignated as the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment on 2 February 1942.^[1] During World War II, the battalion conducted combat parachute assaults in the Pacific Theater, including the seizure of Nadzab Airfield in New Guinea on 5 September 1943—the first airborne operation to employ a single type of parachute for all troops—and the recapture of Corregidor Island from Japanese forces on 16 February 1945, for which it earned a Presidential Unit Citation. Inactivated after the war, it was withdrawn from the active list in 1945 but later reorganized and redesignated multiple times, including as the 2nd Airborne Battle Group, 503rd Infantry in 1957, before being inactivated again in 1958.^[1] Redesignated as the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry on 25 May 1965 and assigned to the 173rd Airborne Brigade, the unit deployed to Vietnam as one of the first major U.S. Army ground combat formations there, conducting the Vietnam War's only combat parachute assault during Operation Junction City in February 1967 and participating in intense battles such as the assault on Hill 875 in November 1967.^[2] The battalion earned multiple Medal of Honor recipients during its Vietnam service before inactivation in 1972. Reactivated on 16 March 2000 at Vicenza, the battalion executed a combat parachute assault into northern Iraq on 26 March 2003 as part of Operation Northern Delay, securing Bashur Airfield and enabling subsequent coalition advances.^[3] It subsequently deployed multiple times to Afghanistan between 2005 and 2012, engaging in operations including the Battle of Wanat in 2008, contributing to the regiment's total of three Medals of Honor from that conflict. Today, it maintains readiness for contingency operations, upholding a legacy of airborne excellence across global theaters.

World War II Era

Activation and Early Training

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment was activated on 2 March 1942 at Fort Benning, Georgia, concurrent with the redesignation of the original 503rd Parachute Battalion as the 1st Battalion of the newly formed regiment.^[4]^[5] This activation occurred amid the rapid expansion of U.S. airborne capabilities in response to the demands of World War II, drawing personnel from experienced paratroopers and volunteers eager for specialized service.^[6] Initial training emphasized physical conditioning, small-unit tactics, and airborne proficiency, with soldiers undergoing the standard three-week Parachute School curriculum at Fort Benning, which included rigorous tower jumps, aircraft exits, and five qualifying jumps to earn the parachutist badge.^[7] The battalion's cadre, many veterans of early experimental jumps, instilled discipline and precision in recruits, focusing on rapid assembly, equipment handling under fire, and jungle warfare simulations anticipating Pacific deployment.^[8] By mid-1942, following completion of basic airborne qualification, the unit relocated to Fort Bragg, North Carolina, for advanced maneuvers and integration with regimental elements.^[5] This early phase solidified the battalion's reputation for toughness, as training regimens exceeded standard infantry standards to prepare for high-risk operations, though attrition from injuries and washouts was significant in the nascent airborne program.^[6] The 2nd Battalion's swift progression from activation to operational readiness positioned it as the first U.S. parachute unit dispatched overseas in June 1942, bound initially for the European theater before redirection to the Pacific.^[9]

Pacific Theater Campaigns

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment, as part of the regiment's operations in the Pacific Theater, conducted its first combat parachute assault during the Battle of Nadzab in New Guinea on September 5, 1943, securing the Markham Valley airfield to support Allied advances against Japanese forces.^[6] This operation involved the entire regiment dropping from C-47 aircraft onto an abandoned airstrip, marking one of the earliest U.S. airborne assaults in the theater and facilitating the rapid advance of ground forces.^[6] In July 1944, the battalion participated in the liberation of Noemfoor Island in Dutch New Guinea, where, to minimize parachute-related risks after prior jumps, the 2nd Battalion landed amphibiously by barge at Namber Airfield on July 9, confronting approximately 1,200 Japanese troops under Colonel Shimizu.^[10] The unit helped eliminate the enemy garrison in dense jungle terrain, contributing to the island's capture and the neutralization of Japanese air capabilities in the region, with the rifle battalions securing key positions over subsequent weeks.^[6] Following Noemfoor, the battalion moved to Biak on July 4 before staging for further operations.^[10] The battalion landed amphibiously on Mindoro Island, Philippines, on December 15, 1944, as part of the regiment's assault on San Jose, enduring intense Japanese air and naval bombardment during the initial phases but securing beachheads to support broader Philippine campaigns.^[6] This operation faced kamikaze attacks and artillery fire, yet the unit repelled counterassaults and expanded control inland.^[6] The battalion's most notable Pacific action occurred during the recapture of Corregidor Island on February 16, 1945, where elements of the 503rd executed a high-risk parachute assault onto the rocky "Topside" plateau, earning the regiment the nickname "The Rock" for overcoming sheer cliffs, fortified positions, and entrenched Japanese defenders numbering over 6,000.^[6] The 2nd Battalion secured initial objectives atop Topside while the 1st and 3rd Battalions pushed eastward along the island's tail, resulting in 169 killed and numerous wounded for the regiment amid brutal hand-to-hand fighting and booby-trapped terrain.^[6] This assault, one of the last major airborne operations of the war, fully liberated the fortress by March 1945, inflicting heavy casualties on the Japanese at a cost reflecting the hazards of dropping onto unprepared, elevated ground.^[10] Post-Corregidor, the battalion transferred to Negros Island in the Philippines, conducting ground operations against remaining Japanese forces until the war's end in August 1945, contributing to the acceptance of over 7,500 enemy surrenders.^[6]

Post-World War II Inactivation and Reactivation

Inactivation and Storage

Following the cessation of hostilities in World War II, the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment was inactivated on 24 December 1945 at Camp Anza, California, a primary Army separation center for processing demobilizing personnel from the Pacific Theater.^[11]^[6] This action aligned with the U.S. Army's postwar force reduction, which saw the rapid discharge of over 8 million service members between September 1945 and June 1947, including airborne units like the 503rd that had earned distinction in operations such as the Corregidor assault.^[11] The battalion's inactivation involved the administrative closure of its active roster, with remaining cadre personnel reassigned or separated, marking the end of its World War II operational era.^[8] In the years following inactivation, the 2nd Battalion entered a storage status, wherein its lineage, unit colors, and historical records were preserved by the Army for potential reactivation, while equipment was either mothballed, redistributed to other units, or surplused amid the demobilization drawdown.^[12] This period of dormancy lasted until 1 February 1951, when the parent 503rd was redesignated as the 503rd Airborne Infantry Regiment and allotted to the [Regular Army](/page/Regular Army), setting the stage for subsequent battalion-level reactivation.^[11] During storage, no active training or missions occurred, reflecting the Army's shift to a smaller peacetime structure focused on occupation duties in Europe and Japan rather than maintaining specialized parachute units.^[6]

Reactivation Under 173rd Airborne Brigade

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment was reactivated in 1963 as an airborne infantry battalion assigned to the newly activated 173rd Airborne Brigade (Separate), serving as a strategic response force for the U.S. Pacific Command.^[13] The brigade's activation occurred on 26 March 1963 at Kadena Air Base on Okinawa, Japan, incorporating the 2nd Battalion alongside the 1st Battalion, 503rd Infantry, the 3rd Battalion, 319th Artillery, and various support units to form a self-contained airborne force capable of rapid deployment.^[14] Stationed on Okinawa, the battalion emphasized maintaining high levels of airborne readiness, conducting regular parachute qualification jumps, live-fire exercises, and joint maneuvers with allied forces to ensure operational proficiency in potential contingency operations across the Asia-Pacific theater.^[13] This reactivation drew on the historical lineage of the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment from World War II, adapting it to Cold War requirements for light infantry mobility and shock action without armored or heavy mechanized support.^[14] The unit's structure included three rifle companies (Alpha, Bravo, and Charlie), a headquarters and headquarters company, and weapons platoon, totaling approximately 600-700 paratroopers equipped for airmobile and helicopter assault tactics.^[13] By early 1965, intensified intelligence on communist insurgencies prompted heightened alert status, positioning the battalion for its subsequent commitment to Southeast Asia as part of escalating U.S. advisory and combat commitments.^[14]

Vietnam War Service

Initial Deployment and Operations

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (Airborne), part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade (Separate), deployed to South Vietnam in early May 1965 as one of the first major U.S. Army ground combat units committed to the conflict. The battalion debarked at Vung Tau on May 5, 1965, before advancing overland approximately 60 miles northwest to establish a base camp at Bien Hoa Air Base, northeast of Saigon.^[15] This positioning placed the unit under the operational control of II Field Force, Vietnam, with initial missions focused on securing the vital Saigon-Bien Hoa corridor against Viet Cong incursions and interdicting enemy supply lines.^[2] The brigade, including the 2nd Battalion, conducted aggressive search-and-destroy patrols in the surrounding rubber plantations and jungle terrain, disrupting Viet Cong main force units and local guerrilla elements threatening allied air assets and logistics hubs.^[13] Early operations emphasized rapid airborne insertions and ambushes to exploit the brigade's mobility, though the dense terrain limited full use of parachutes in favor of helicopter assaults. By November 1965, the battalion participated in Operation Hump, a brigade-level search-and-destroy mission in War Zone D, approximately 15 miles north of Bien Hoa.^[15] On November 8, elements of the 2nd Battalion, including Company B, advanced into a suspected Viet Cong staging area but encountered an ambush by an estimated 1,200-strong enemy force employing coordinated small arms, machine gun, and mortar fire.^[16] The ensuing five-day battle resulted in 49 U.S. fatalities across the brigade (with significant involvement from 1st and 2nd Battalions, 503rd Infantry), 153 wounded, and three missing, while inflicting over 100 enemy killed; the action marked one of the earliest large-scale tests of U.S. infantry tactics against entrenched Viet Cong formations.^[15]^[2] These initial engagements highlighted the battalion's role in countering Viet Cong offensives near population centers, contributing to the denial of safe havens within 20-30 miles of Saigon through repeated cordon-and-search sweeps. Operations in late 1965 and early 1966, such as patrols in the Iron Triangle and preparatory actions leading into larger campaigns, yielded incremental successes in enemy body counts and captured materiel but at the cost of acclimating to ambushes, booby traps, and elusive foes in triple-canopy jungle.^[17] The battalion's adaptability in these phases set the stage for subsequent escalations, with command emphasizing aggressive patrolling to force enemy engagement on unfavorable terms.^[13]

Operation Junction City and Combat Jump

Operation Junction City, launched on February 22, 1967, represented the largest combined U.S. and South Vietnamese military operation of the Vietnam War to date, involving over 30,000 troops from the U.S. 1st and 25th Infantry Divisions, the 173rd Airborne Brigade, and allied forces aimed at dismantling Viet Cong (VC) command structures and sanctuaries in War Zone C, Tay Ninh Province, near the Cambodian border.^[18] The mission sought to locate the Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN), the VC's primary headquarters, through a multidivisional envelopment combining airborne, airmobile, mechanized, and ground assaults.^[18] However, intelligence later indicated that COSVN had preemptively relocated into Cambodia, limiting the operation's ability to achieve decisive destruction of high-level enemy leadership.^[18] The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, as part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade's Task Force 2-503, executed the operation's centerpiece: the war's sole U.S. combat parachute assault, the first such operation since the Korean War.^[13] At approximately 0900 hours on February 22, 845 paratroopers from the battalion jumped from 13 C-130 Hercules aircraft onto Drop Zone "C," positioned three kilometers north of Katum in War Zone C.^[19]^[13] The drop was unopposed, with troopers rapidly assembling to secure the landing zone and adjacent terrain amid dense jungle and potential enemy bunkers.^[19] Post-assault, the battalion patrolled aggressively to interdict VC movements, link up with advancing mechanized columns from the 1st Infantry Division, and clear base areas, yielding discoveries of supply caches, documents, and weapons despite elusive main force units.^[18] The operation concluded on April 15 after 82 days, with U.S. forces reporting 2,728 VC killed, 334 captured, and substantial materiel seized, including rice stockpiles and infrastructure destruction; however, American casualties totaled 282 killed and 1,576 wounded, reflecting the challenges of pursuing a mobile enemy in fortified border regions.^[18] For the 2-503rd, the jump validated airborne capabilities in a counterinsurgency context but underscored tactical limitations against dispersed adversaries who evaded large-scale engagements.^[13]

Key Battles and Casualties

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment experienced severe losses during the Battle of the Slopes on June 22, 1967, when Alpha Company, numbering approximately 137 paratroopers, was ambushed by a larger North Vietnamese Army force during a search-and-destroy mission near the Central Highlands. The engagement, characterized by intense close-range combat in rugged terrain, resulted in 77 killed in action and 23 wounded for Alpha Company, marking one of the costliest single-company actions for U.S. forces in the war, with enemy estimates claiming over 400 North Vietnamese killed.^[20] ^[21] In November 1967, as part of the broader Battle of Dak To, the battalion played a central role in the assault on Hill 875, a heavily fortified North Vietnamese position in Kon Tum Province. On November 19, elements of the 2nd Battalion, alongside other units of the 173rd Airborne Brigade, launched repeated attacks against entrenched enemy bunkers and artillery, suffering devastating casualties from small-arms fire, grenades, and booby traps in hand-to-hand fighting. The battalion recorded 87 killed in action, 130 wounded, and 3 missing in the Hill 875 operation alone, contributing to the engagement's reputation as one of the war's bloodiest for airborne forces, with over 400 enemy bodies counted on the objective.^[2] ^[22] Earlier, during Operation Hump in November 1965 near Cu Chi, Bravo Company of the 2nd Battalion encountered a reinforced Viet Cong regiment in dense jungle, leading to fierce fighting that highlighted the battalion's early combat testing. The operation inflicted heavy enemy losses but contributed to the brigade's overall toll of around 50 U.S. fatalities on November 8, underscoring the hazards of ambushes and superior enemy numbers in War Zone D.^[16] ^[2] These battles exemplified the battalion's exposure to high-intensity infantry combat against determined foes, with cumulative casualties reflecting the operational demands of airborne assaults and hill seizures in contested terrain. Official records indicate the 2nd Battalion's Vietnam service from 1965 to 1971 resulted in hundreds of killed and wounded, though precise totals vary by source due to fluctuating unit strengths and medevac classifications.^[2]

Post-Vietnam Reorganization and Cold War Assignments

Return to the United States and Reflagging

Following its final operations in Vietnam, the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, as part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade, departed South Vietnam on August 25, 1971, marking the end of over six years of continuous combat deployment.^[23] The brigade's elements began returning to the United States in late 1971, with full redeployment and processing completed by early 1972 at various installations, including Fort Campbell, Kentucky.^[2] In March 1972, amid post-Vietnam Army drawdowns that reduced active-duty end strength from over 2.3 million in 1968 to approximately 800,000 by 1972, the 173rd Airborne Brigade was inactivated. The 2nd Battalion's personnel, equipment, and operational expertise were absorbed into the newly redesignated 3rd Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile), which had itself returned from Vietnam earlier that year and shifted focus from traditional airborne operations to helicopter-based airmobile tactics.^[24] This reorganization reflagged the brigade's core structure under the 101st's lineage, transferring the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 503rd Infantry—along with other 173rd units—to augment the 101st's brigades, thereby preserving seasoned airborne-qualified soldiers within a divisional framework amid budget constraints and doctrinal shifts away from large-scale parachute assaults.^[15] The absorption effectively inactivated the 2-503 designation as an independent airborne battalion, with its assets redistributed to existing 101st units such as elements of the 327th and 506th Infantry Regiments, reflecting the Army's emphasis on multi-role capabilities over specialized airborne brigades during the Cold War buildup.^[11] By April 1972, the 101st Division completed its transition to full airmobile status, integrating the incoming personnel from the 173rd to enhance readiness for potential European theater contingencies against Soviet forces.^[24] This process maintained continuity of combat experience but subordinated the battalion's distinct regimental identity to divisional priorities, a common practice in the era's force restructuring to optimize resources without total disbandment.

Training and Readiness Exercises

Following its absorption into the 3rd Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile) at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, in 1972, the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment emphasized rigorous airborne qualification and field training to sustain combat readiness amid post-Vietnam force reductions. Soldiers conducted mandatory parachute jumps, with the battalion maintaining high qualification rates through weekly training cycles at nearby drop zones, including annual requirements for all airborne-qualified personnel to complete at least six jumps, four with equipment. This regimen ensured operational proficiency in rapid insertion tactics, drawing on the unit's paratrooper heritage while adapting to the division's evolving air mobility focus.^[24] In the mid-1970s, as the 101st transitioned to Air Assault operations following the 1974-1975 reorganization, the battalion integrated helicopter-borne assaults into its readiness exercises, participating in division-level drills that simulated large-scale vertical envelopments with UH-1 Huey and CH-47 Chinook aircraft. These included live-fire iterations and multi-battalion maneuvers at Fort Campbell's training areas, emphasizing sling-load operations, rappelling, and fast-rope insertions to counter potential Soviet armored threats in Europe. By 1976, the battalion contributed to REFORGER 76, where the 101st deployed significant aviation assets to Germany for NATO reinforcement simulations, involving over 30,000 U.S. troops in maneuvers testing rapid transatlantic deployment and integration with allied forces.^[25] Throughout the 1980s, training intensified with participation in annual exercises like Gallant Eagle series, which replicated REFORGER scenarios stateside, focusing on air assault against simulated Warsaw Pact incursions; the 101st, including elements from the 503rd, executed over 15 major joint and multinational drills in 1984 alone, spanning the U.S., Germany, Honduras, and Egypt to validate rapid response capabilities. Battalion-specific readiness involved company-level FTXs with M60 machine guns, TOW anti-tank systems, and 81mm mortars, achieving evaluated proficiency in urban and wooded terrain to prepare for high-intensity conventional warfare. These efforts underscored causal priorities of empirical skill maintenance over doctrinal shifts, prioritizing verifiable combat multipliers like marksmanship and mobility.^[26]

Operations in the Global War on Terror

Iraq Deployments and Urban Combat

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (2-503rd IN), operating as Task Force Rock under Lieutenant Colonel Dom Caraccilo, participated in Operation Northern Delay on March 26, 2003, conducting a combat parachute assault onto Bashur Airfield in northern Iraq as part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team; this marked the largest U.S. Army airborne operation since World War II, involving nearly 1,000 paratroopers to secure the northern front and facilitate the advance toward Kirkuk.^[11]^[13] The battalion advanced to Kirkuk city on April 10, 2003, assuming responsibility for urban security and stability operations amid ethnic tensions between Kurds, Arabs, and Turkmen populations in the oil-rich region.^[27] In Kirkuk, 2-503rd IN focused on countering post-invasion instability through patrols, checkpoint operations, and negotiations with local leaders, including securing a Baathist compound in spring 2003 via talks with Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) leader Jalal Talabani to establish weapons-free zones and prevent escalation of Kurd-on-Arab violence.^[27] The unit managed urban ethnic clashes, such as those on May 17-18, 2003, while supporting governance initiatives like the election of a 30-seat multiethnic city council on May 26, 2003, emphasizing de-escalation in densely populated areas prone to militia activity and improvised explosive devices.^[27] A brief detachment in June 2003 supported the 4th Infantry Division in Salah ad Din Province, but primary efforts remained in Kirkuk's urban core until January 2004, with the battalion redeploying fully by February 21, 2004.^[11]^[27] Urban combat in Kirkuk involved close-quarters patrolling and rapid response to insurgent ambushes in built-up areas, where the battalion's airborne training enabled maneuver in constrained environments, though operations prioritized stability over large-scale assaults to avoid alienating local populations along ethnic fault lines.^[27] The deployment incurred significant losses, with at least 24 soldiers killed in action during the rotation, reflecting the intensity of small-unit engagements against remnants of regime forces and emerging insurgents.^[28] Later, in a subsequent Iraq rotation around 2010, the battalion relocated southward within the country mid-deployment to reinforce brigade operations, adapting to evolving counterinsurgency demands in less urbanized sectors.^[29]

Afghanistan Engagements, Including Battle of Wanat

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (2-503 IN), known as "The Rock," participated in multiple deployments to Afghanistan under Operation Enduring Freedom, with significant operations in Regional Command East, including Kunar and Nuristan provinces. Deploying in May 2007 as part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team, the battalion conducted counterinsurgency missions involving outpost establishment, partnered patrols with Afghan National Army (ANA) units, and direct engagements with Taliban and al-Qaeda-linked insurgents in rugged, high-altitude terrain. These operations aimed to disrupt insurgent supply lines along the Pakistan border and secure key valleys, but faced challenges from local population hostility, limited intelligence, and numerical disadvantages against concentrated enemy forces.^[30]^[13] Early in the deployment, Chosen Company (C/2-503 IN) operated in volatile areas like the Korengal Valley, suffering casualties during ambushes and small-unit actions; for instance, medic Specialist Juan S. Restrepo was killed on July 22, 2007, in Korengal while treating wounded paratroopers under fire. The battalion's companies routinely conducted mounted and dismounted patrols, village clearances, and raids, often coordinating with ANA and U.S. Marine-embedded training teams, but contended with improvised explosive devices, rocket-propelled grenade ambushes, and sniper fire that inflicted steady attrition. By mid-2008, Task Force Rock (under 2-503 IN command) shifted focus to Nuristan Province under Operation ROCK MOVE to extend influence into insurgent strongholds, establishing temporary combat outposts amid resource constraints and incomplete fortifications.^[31]^[32] The Battle of Wanat on July 13, 2008, represented the battalion's most intense engagement, occurring at the newly established Combat Outpost (COP) Kahler and Observation Post (OP) Topside in the Waygal Valley, Nuristan Province. Approximately 150-200 insurgents, exploiting tactical surprise, attacked at 0420 hours using machine guns, RPGs, and small arms from concealed positions in villages and high ground, nearly overrunning the outpost manned by 2nd Platoon, Chosen Company (29 U.S. soldiers), 24 ANA troops, 3 U.S. Marines, and 6 engineers. The assault inflicted heavy casualties early, killing eight defenders at isolated OP Topside—including platoon leader 1st Lt. Jonathan Brostrom—and wounding most others; Sergeant Ryan Pitts, severely injured by grenade shrapnel, single-handedly defended the position with grenades and a machine gun while calling for support, holding off the enemy until Apache helicopter arrivals at 0523 turned the tide with close air support. Of the 48 initial U.S. defenders, 9 were killed and 27 wounded, with insurgents estimated at 21-52 killed.^[32]^[33]^[30] Post-battle analysis via Army Regulation 15-6 investigation identified contributing factors including inadequate pre-positioning of intelligence assets, failure to detect enemy buildup despite local warnings, and defensive vulnerabilities at OP Topside due to its low-ground placement and dead space exploitable by insurgents. The outpost was evacuated by July 15 amid persistent threats and logistical shortfalls, reflecting broader tactical challenges in sustaining small, remote bases against determined attacks. Pitts received the Medal of Honor for his actions, the first for a living Afghanistan War recipient, while 14 Silver Stars were awarded across the battle; the engagement underscored the high costs of outpost-centric strategies in contested terrain, prompting doctrinal shifts toward consolidated basing. Subsequent 2-503 IN rotations in 2009 and 2012 continued similar high-risk missions but with refined tactics emphasizing mobility over static defense.^[32]^[30]^[33]

Lessons from High-Intensity Conflicts

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment's experiences in high-intensity engagements during Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom underscored the critical need for adaptive tactics against numerically superior foes employing massed fire and coordinated assaults. In Iraq, the battalion's combat parachute assault into Bashur airfield on March 26, 2003, as part of Operation Northern Delay, demonstrated the value of airborne forces in rapidly securing key terrain to enable follow-on mechanized maneuvers, disrupting Iraqi command and control in northern sectors.^[34] This operation highlighted lessons in joint forcible entry, where light infantry, supported by air assets, held objectives against potential counterattacks until heavier forces arrived, emphasizing speed and surprise over sustained independent combat.^[35] The Battle of Wanat on July 13, 2008, in Nuristan Province, Afghanistan, provided stark insights into defending isolated positions under intense, sustained enemy fire from 120-300 insurgents armed with RPGs, machine guns, and small arms. Approximately 49 U.S. soldiers, augmented by Afghan and Marine elements, faced tactical surprise at dawn, with insurgents overrunning Observation Post Topside and pressuring Combat Outpost Kahler for over four hours, resulting in 9 U.S. killed and 27 wounded.^[32] Key tactical lessons included the necessity of positioning observation posts on military crests to minimize dead space and enhance fields of fire, as the ravine-adjacent setup at Topside allowed enemy infiltration within yards.^[32] Rapid reinforcement by ad hoc quick reaction forces, led by non-commissioned officers, prevented total collapse, illustrating the efficacy of decentralized execution in chaotic, dispersed fighting.^[32] Fire support integration emerged as decisive, with Apache helicopters and close air support arriving by 0523 to suppress enemy positions after initial artillery delays due to terrain and danger-close restrictions.^[32] The destruction of the TOW system and suppression of mortars early in the assault underscored vulnerabilities in exposed enablers, recommending redundant communications and dedicated fire support officers on site.^[32] Intelligence shortfalls, such as underestimating enemy intent despite observed pre-attack indicators like small groups scouting the site, highlighted the limits of ISR in remote valleys, advocating for complementary ground patrols and local informant vetting to counter insurgent surveillance.^[32] Logistical challenges, including delayed fortifications from contractor reliance and water shortages hampering construction, revealed the risks of establishing outposts without robust ground resupply routes, prompting post-battle shifts away from vulnerable capillary valleys toward populated areas with better sustainment.^[32] Leadership and training proved foundational; Medal of Honor recipient Staff Sergeant Ryan Pitts emphasized comprehensive preparation as the overarching lesson, enabling soldiers to improvise under extreme duress, such as single-handedly defending Topside briefly while wounded.^[36] These insights, disseminated through unit after-action reviews and Army analyses, informed adaptations like enhanced outpost fortification standards and have been shared with subsequent rotations to prepare for peer-level threats involving massed fires and terrain exploitation.^[37]

Recent Deployments and European Theater Focus

Rotations to Europe and Joint Exercises

In response to Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014, the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (2-503 IN), as part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team, participated in rotational deployments to Eastern Europe under Operation Atlantic Resolve to enhance NATO deterrence and interoperability.^[38] These rotations involved forward-deploying airborne infantry elements from their home station in Vicenza, Italy, to the Baltic states for training with host nation forces.^[39] A notable six-month rotation commenced in September 2016, with battalion elements deploying to Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to conduct joint training focused on regional security.^[39] This effort emphasized multinational maneuvers and marksmanship competitions to build partner capacities. Following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, approximately 330 paratroopers from 2-503 IN executed a rapid deployment to Latvia on February 24, 2022, within 17 hours of notification, returning to Italy by May 25, 2022, after a three-month mission to reinforce NATO's eastern flank.^[40] Activities included tactical road marches, weapons familiarization, and physical challenges to maintain combat readiness amid heightened tensions.^[40] Joint exercises during these rotations highlighted 2-503 IN's role in multinational operations. On October 13, 2016, snipers from the battalion competed in a Baltic allies' marksman event at Rukla, Lithuania, alongside 60 participants from regional forces, advancing two teams to the top stages but placing fifth overall to foster cooperation.^[39] In December 2016, Battle Company conducted a company-level attack field exercise (CALFEX) at Camp Adazi, Latvia, integrating UH-60 Black Hawk insertions, suppressive fires from attached artillery, and breaches by Latvian engineers with Slovenian infantry support to validate combined arms tactics.^[41] During the 2022 Latvia rotation, paratroopers participated in Saber Strike 22, a multinational drill emphasizing allied airborne interoperability.^[40] Saber Junction 22, held from August 29 to September 20, 2022, at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, Germany, involved over 4,500 U.S. and allied troops, where 2-503 IN paratroopers executed building clearances and raids to assess brigade-level readiness for unified land operations.^[42] These exercises underscored the battalion's agility in airborne assaults and urban operations, contributing to NATO's collective defense posture without direct combat engagements.^[42]

Current Role in Deterrence and Readiness

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment (Airborne), assigned to the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team in Vicenza, Italy, contributes to U.S. deterrence in Europe by serving as a rapid-response airborne force capable of projecting power across the continent within 96 hours. This posture supports Operation Atlantic Resolve and NATO's enhanced forward presence, emphasizing credible combat power to counter Russian aggression through multinational training and assured reinforcement pathways.^[43]^[44] The battalion sustains operational readiness via frequent airborne operations, urban combat drills, and live-fire exercises tailored to peer-competitor threats. In January 2025, paratroopers executed an airborne assault during the "Rock Snowfall" exercise to validate rapid insertion tactics. Subsequent activities included company-level maneuvers in Lithuania on May 20-21, 2025, focusing on military operations in urban terrain (MOUT) as part of Swift Response 2025, a NATO-led rapid deployment drill involving over 10,000 troops from 16 nations.^[45]^[46]^[47] Further enhancing interoperability and endurance, elements participated in the Nijmegen March in the Netherlands on August 31, 2025, covering 160 kilometers over four days to build physical resilience, while Battle Company trained for Expert Infantryman Badges at Grafenwöhr Training Area in August 2025. An airborne operation at Aviano Air Base, Italy, on July 22, 2025, and additional MOUT in Lithuania on August 13, 2025, underscored proficiency in contested environments. These efforts, integrated with allies like Italy and Baltic states, foster collective defense readiness against high-intensity scenarios.^[48]^[49]^[50]

Lineage, Honors, and Traditions

Detailed Lineage

The 2d Battalion, 503d Infantry Regiment traces its lineage to Company B, 503d Parachute Battalion, which was constituted 14 March 1941 in the Army of the United States and activated 22 August 1941 at Fort Benning, Georgia.^[51] On 2 February 1942, it was redesignated as Company B, 503d Parachute Infantry Regiment, participating in airborne operations during World War II, including combat jumps in the Pacific Theater.^[1] The unit was inactivated 24 December 1945 in Japan following the war's conclusion.^[51] Redesignated 1 February 1951 as Company B, 503d Airborne Infantry Regiment, the battalion was activated 1 April 1951 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, and later assigned 1 July 1956 to the 11th Airborne Division.^[1] It was inactivated 1 July 1958 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, but concurrently redesignated 1 September 1957 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2d Airborne Battle Group, 503d Infantry, with activation on the same date at Fort Campbell under the Army's Pentomic structure.^[51] Relieved 1 July 1961 from the 11th Airborne Division and assigned to the 82d Airborne Division, the battle group was reorganized and redesignated 25 May 1964 as the 2d Battalion, 503d Infantry, and assigned to the 173d Airborne Brigade.^[1] The battalion deployed to Vietnam as part of the 173d Airborne Brigade, conducting combat operations until inactivated 14 January 1972 at Bien Hoa, South Vietnam.^[51] Reactivated 16 February 1987 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, it was inactivated again 15 May 1997 at the same post amid post-Cold War force reductions.^[1] The unit was reactivated 16 December 2001 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and assigned 2 October 2005 to the 173d Airborne Brigade Combat Team, reflagged as airborne, and stationed in Vicenza, Italy, where it remains active in rapid deployment and deterrence roles.^[51]

Campaign Participation and Decorations

The 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment is entitled to campaign participation credit for engagements spanning World War II through the Global War on Terrorism, as documented in official U.S. Army lineage records. During World War II, the battalion earned credits for New Guinea, Leyte, Luzon (with arrowhead), and Southern Philippines, reflecting its role in airborne assaults and island-hopping operations in the Pacific Theater.^[51] In the Vietnam War, the unit accumulated credits for 16 campaigns, including Defense, Counteroffensive, Counteroffensive Phase II through VI, Tet Counteroffensive, Tet 69/Counteroffensive, Summer-Fall 1969, Winter-Spring 1970, Sanctuary Counteroffensive, Counteroffensive Phase VII, Consolidation I, Consolidation II, and Cease-Fire; these reflect sustained combat operations as part of the 173rd Airborne Brigade, the first major U.S. Army ground combat unit deployed to Vietnam in May 1965.^[51] Additional credits include Armed Forces Expeditions for Dominican Republic (1965-1966), Southwest Asia for Defense of Saudi Arabia and Liberation and Defense of Kuwait (1990-1991), and War on Terrorism campaigns encompassing Afghanistan (Liberation Phase through Transition I) and Iraq (Liberation through New Dawn). The battalion's decorations include three Presidential Unit Citations (Army): Streamer embroidered Dak To for actions from November 3 to December 1, 1967; Suoi Tre for February 21, 1967; and Phuoc Vinh for February 12, 1968.^[52] It also received a Valorous Unit Award, Streamer embroidered Arifjan (likely for post-9/11 operations); Meritorious Unit Commendations (Army) for Vietnam 1965-1966, Vietnam 1967, and Southwest Asia; and two Army Superior Unit Awards for 2003-2004 and 2007-2008, corresponding to deployments in Iraq and Afghanistan. Foreign honors include the Navy Unit Commendation, Streamer embroidered Vietnam; Belgian Fourragere 1940; citation in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for Ardennes actions; and Philippine Presidential Unit Citation, Streamer embroidered October 17, 1944, to July 4, 1945.^[51]

Notable Awards and Medal of Honor Recipients

Staff Sergeant Salvatore Giunta received the Medal of Honor for his actions on October 25, 2007, while serving with Battle Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, during an ambush in the Korengal Valley, Afghanistan, where he exposed himself to intense enemy fire to rescue a wounded comrade and retrieve a captured soldier. Sergeant Kyle J. White was awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism on November 9, 2007, in Nuristan Province, Afghanistan, as a platoon radio telephone operator with Company C, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment; despite severe wounds from enemy fire, he crossed open terrain multiple times to aid fallen comrades, provide suppressive fire, and coordinate medical evacuations under sustained attack.^[53] Staff Sergeant Ryan Pitts earned the Medal of Honor for his defense of Observation Post Topside during the Battle of Wanat on July 13, 2008, with Chosen Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, in Nuristan Province, Afghanistan; severely wounded by grenade shrapnel and small-arms fire from over 200 insurgents, he single-handedly manned multiple weapons systems, threw grenades, and radioed for reinforcements while refusing evacuation until the position was secured, despite losing nine comrades.^[30] These three recipients represent all known Medal of Honor awards to members of the 2nd Battalion since its reactivation, all stemming from combat operations in Afghanistan between 2007 and 2008. The battalion has also produced numerous Silver Star recipients for valor in Iraq and Afghanistan, including actions during urban combat in Baghdad and high-altitude engagements in the Hindu Kush, though specific counts vary by deployment.^[54] Unit-level decorations include multiple Valorous Unit Awards for sustained combat performance in the Global War on Terror, reflecting collective bravery in operations such as those in the Arghandab Valley.^[13]

References

[1]
None
### Summary of Lineage for 2d Battalion, 503d Infantry Regiment
[2]
The Heavy Toll of the 173rd Airborne Brigade in Vietnam - Army.mil
May 25, 2025 · The assault on Hill 875 in November 1967 was one of the Vietnam War's fiercest battles for the 173rd Airborne Brigade. The 2nd Battalion, 503rd ...
[3]
Operation Northern Delay: The 173rd Airborne commemorates the ...
Mar 26, 2023 · U.S. Army paratroopers assigned to 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment, 173rd Airborne Brigade listen to Col. John Spencer ...
[4]
The Original 503d PIR - corregidor.org
The history of the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment began 2 March 1942 when the 503d Parachute Infantry Battalions were redesignated as the 1st and 2nd ...
[5]
Static Line - Three Winds of Death - 503rd PRCT WWII Database
On 2 March 1942, the 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment was activated with a cadre coming from the 502nd Bn. Also on 2 March 1942, the 503rd Parachute ...
[6]
History of the 503d
The 503d Parachute Regimental Combat Team , World War II began with the activation of the 503d Parachute Battalion in Fort Benning, Georgia on 21 August ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[7]
503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment, US Army in Australia during WW2
The 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR) was activated at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA on 24 February 1942. The 503rd moved to Fort Bragg, North Carolina in ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[8]
503rd Parachute Regimental Combat Team (PRCT) - WW2 Airborne
he 503rd Parachute Regimental Combat Team, began with the activation of the 503rd Parachute Battalion in Fort Benning, Georgia on 21 August 1941. The Battalion ...Missing: 2nd | Show results with:2nd
[9]
Special guests drop in at Camp Bullis | Article | The United States Army
Aug 27, 2009 · The 503rd sailed to Scotland in June 1942, becoming the first American parachute unit to go overseas in WWII. It was attached to the British 1st ...
[10]
Chronology of the 503rd Parachute Infantry
### Chronology of the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR) in the Pacific, Highlighting 2nd Battalion Actions
[11]
2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry (Airborne) - GlobalSecurity.org
May 7, 2011 · The 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment was proud to have been allowed the honor of recapturing the island. Japanese sources had estimated there ...
[12]
Lineage of the 503d, 462d & 161st - corregidor.org
Former 2nd Battalion of the 503rd Parachute Infantry reorganized and redesignated as the 2nd Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry – and thereafter followed into ...
[13]
173rd Airborne Brigade > About Us > Our History
Jan 20, 2025 · The 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment was formed in 1941 at Ft Bragg. They jumped into New Guinea, in September 1943 as part of the first ...
[14]
173d Airborne Brigade History | Sky Soldiers
The 173d Airborne Brigade was reactivated on 12 June 2000 in Vicenza, Italy, with one battalion (2-503) and became the European Command strategic response ...
[15]
History - 173d Airborne Brigade Association
Activated in 1915, as the 173rd Infantry Brigade, the unit saw service in World War II but is best known for its actions during the Vietnam War. The brigade ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
C 1:51 INF, B 2:503 - VetFriends
Operation Hump (1965): B 2/503 INF participated in Operation Hump in Vietnam, where the battalion faced a much larger Viet Cong force. The action was later ...
[17]
Week of March 10, 2024 | Vietnam War Commemoration
Mar 10, 2024 · Map of the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, Operation SILVER CITY, March 1966 ... Company D of the 3d Battalion, 187th Infantry had an ...<|separator|>
[18]
Operation JUNCTION CITY 22 February-15 April 1967
Despite the size of the operation, only fifty-four VC were killed versus twenty-eight dead GIs. However, the destruction of facilities and captured rice and ...
[19]
US Parachute Combat Jump In Vietnam War - HistoryNet
US paratroopers of the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Airborne Infantry Regiment, 173rd Airborne Brigade, jump out of C-130 planes into War Zone C on D day of Operation ...
[20]
Battle of Dak To | Military Wiki - Fandom
On 20 June, Charlie Company, 2nd battalion, 503rd Airborne Infantry (C/2/503) ... Battle of the Slopes", claimed that 475 North Vietnamese had been killed ...<|separator|>
[21]
SGT David Allen Stephens, Largo, FL on www.VirtualWall.org The ...
The "Battle of the Slopes" began as a routine search and destroy mission ... As the 2/503 soldiers waited through the night, anticipating an all out ...
[22]
Dak To: One Hell of a Fight - The VVA Veteran
Greeley featured some tough engagements, especially the late-June scrape that pitted the 2nd Battalion of the 503rd Airborne Infantry against the North ...Missing: key | Show results with:key
[23]
173rd History
At 0900 Hours the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry along with A Battery, 319th Artillery led by Brigadier General John R. Deane, Jr. made the only combat ...
[24]
Unit History :: FORT CAMPBELL - Army Garrisons
Apr 8, 2025 · The 502nd, or “five-oh-deuce,” was activated July 1, 1941, as a parachute infantry battalion. In August 1942, the 502nd joined the 101st ...
[25]
Demonstrating Rapid Reinforcement of NATO - Army University Press
In REFORGER 1976, the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) shipped the bulk of its helicopter fleet and participated in two exercises, one in the US V ...
[26]
Division celebrates 72nd anniversary | Article | The United States Army
Aug 16, 2014 · The 101st Airborne Division and Fort Campbell-based units were deployed to humanitarian relief efforts and peacekeeping missions in Somalia, ...
[27]
[PDF] The US Army in Kirkuk: Governance Operations on the Fault Lines of ...
The 2-503 Infantry (2-503 IN) (Task Force Rock) com- manded by Lieutenant Colonel Dom Caraccilo, airdropped onto Bashur Airfield in late March 2003. The ...
[28]
Army Cpl. Pruitt A. Rainey - Honor The Fallen - Military Times
In total, 24 men from the battalion have been killed during this deployment. After the fierce combat that 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry endured in the past 15 ...
[29]
2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment: New deployment, new plan ...
Dec 10, 2010 · Six months into the rotation, the battalion was ordered to move hundreds of miles to the southwest and join the rest of the 173rd Airborne ...
[30]
Profile | Staff Sergeant Ryan Pitts | Medal of Honor Recipient
“The Rock” deployed in May 2007, to the most rugged, austere, and volatile areas of Kunar and Southern Nuristan Provinces, Afghanistan, in support of Operation ...
[31]
82 Sky Soldiers Lost in Afghanistan: 173rd Airborne Brigade Honors ...
Oct 5, 2025 · Juan S. Restrepo, a medic with B Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment. Killed on July 22, 2007, in the infamous Korengal Valley, his ...<|separator|>
[32]
[PDF] Combat Action in Afghanistan, 2008 - Army University Press
near Katum in the only combat parachute drop in the Vietnam War. During. World War II the 2-503d IN, then part of the 11th Airborne Division, had made a ...
[33]
[PDF] Wanat: Combat Action in Afghanistan, 2008 - DTIC
American casualties in the Battle of Wanat, although still relatively small in comparison to similar actions in American military history, were higher than ...
[34]
2-503rd Infantry Regiment: A Legacy of Airborne Excellence - DVIDS
Jan 2, 2025 · In 2003, it executed a combat parachute jump into Iraq during Operation Northern Delay, marking a key moment in the Iraq War. The battalion ...Missing: airdrop | Show results with:airdrop
[35]
[PDF] operation northern delay: the evolution of joint forcible entry - DTIC
Jun 15, 2018 · The JFE operation centered around the 173rd. Airborne Brigade conducting a hybrid airdrop/airland operation under the tactical control of ...
[36]
Medal of Honor Recipient Recalls Harrowing Firefight in Wanat ...
Apr 18, 2016 · The major lesson of the “Battle of Wanat,” according to Pitts, was training. “It's all about training,” he told the crowd of roughly 500 cadets.
[37]
Paratroopers share lessons from one of Afghanistan war's toughest ...
Jul 2, 2024 · Col. Matthew Myer, center, and Chief Warrant Officer 2 John Hayes, right, share lessons learned from the Battle of Wanat with members of ...Missing: 2-503 | Show results with:2-503
[38]
Sixth Atlantic Resolve armored and aviation rotations set to begin ...
Jun 17, 2020 · The sixth armored and aviation rotations in support of Atlantic Resolve are set to begin their training efforts next month.Missing: 2-503 | Show results with:2-503
[39]
2/503rd Snipers compete with allies - DVIDS
Oct 14, 2016 · 2nd Bn., 503rd Inf. Regt. (Airborne) arrived in the Baltics last month to embark on a six-month rotation to train with their Baltic partners as ...
[40]
Sky Soldiers Return to Home Station After Three Month Deployment ...
May 27, 2022 · This same spirit drove 2-503's paratroopers to ... October 8, 2015TWO BRIGADES FROM 4TH INFANTRY DIVISION TO DEPLOY TO AFGHANISTAN.
[41]
Paratroopers train to build capabilities during CALFEX with NATO ...
Dec 9, 2016 · The 'Sky Soldiers' of 2nd Bn., 503rd Inf. Regt., are on a training rotation in support of Atlantic Resolve, a U.S. led effort in Eastern Europe ...
[42]
Saber Junction 22 2-503 Raid [Image 3 of 9] - DVIDS
Sep 16, 2022 · Saber Junction 22 is a multinational rotational exercise designed to assess the readiness of the U.S. Army's 173rd Airborne Brigade to execute ...
[43]
NATO, Operation Atlantic Resolve: The art of assurance ... - Army.mil
The 'Sky Soldiers' of 173rd Airborne Brigade out of Vicenza, Italy, was the first unit to deploy and jump into Poland and the Baltic States in support of OAR ...
[44]
Sky Soldiers - 173rd Airborne Brigade
Jun 30, 2025 · The 173rd Airborne Brigade serves as the U.S. Army's Contingency Response Force in Europe, capable of rapidly deploying forces across the U.
[45]
173rd Airborne Brigade > Home > Home 2
Jan 14, 2025 · U.S. Army paratroopers assigned to 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, 173rd Airborne Brigade conducted an airborne operation and follow ...
[46]
Mission - 173rd Airborne Brigade
May 21, 2025 · U.S. Army paratroopers assigned to Battle Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, 173rd Airborne Brigade, conduct Military ...
[47]
Contact Us - 173rd Airborne Brigade - U.S. Army
... 2-503rd Staff Duty: DSN: 314-637-4211 Comm: + ... Training Area in Lithuania on May 21, 2025, during Swift Response 2025. ... 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment ...
[48]
Sky Soldiers ruck and laugh their way through four-day Nijmegen ...
Aug 31, 2025 · Sgt. Andrew Torrance, a forward observer from Chosen Company, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, joined a U.S. Army Europe and Africa team.
[49]
Battle Company, 2-503rd INF, 173rd Airborne Brigade is putting in ...
Aug 4, 2025 · Battle Company, 2-503rd INF, 173rd Airborne Brigade is putting in the work at Grafenwöhr Training hard for the Expert Infantry and Soldier ...
[50]
Check equipment! #SkySoldiers from 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry ...
Aug 4, 2025 · #SkySoldiers from 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment conducted an airborne operation at Aviano Air Base, Italy, July 22, 2025. The Herd is ...
[51]
https://history.army.mil/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=wWPwnQXPQC0%3D&portalid=143
[52]
Presidential Unit Citation Awarded the 2d Battalion (Airborne), 503d ...
The 2d Battalion (Airborne), 503d Infantry, 173d Airborne Brigade (Separate), with attachments, is cited for extraordinary heroism in connection with military ...
[53]
Sergeant Kyle J. White | Medal of Honor Recipient | U.S. Army
Kyle J. White, an infantryman with Company C, 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment, will be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Nuristan ...
[54]
Four NCOs get medals for combat valor | Article - Army.mil
Staff Sgt. Justin Grimm received the Silver Star for gallantry, Staff Sgt. Clifton Anderson and Sgt. Michael Lawrence received the Bronze Star with V device, ...