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A Defence of Common Sense

A Defence of Common Sense is a seminal 1925 philosophical essay by British analytic philosopher , in which he defends the indubitable truth of ordinary, everyday beliefs—known as "" propositions—against challenges from and . Published in the volume Contemporary British Philosophy (Personal Statements), Second Series, edited by J. H. Muirhead, the essay articulates Moore's commitment to by asserting that certain fundamental propositions about the external world, human bodies, and personal experiences are known with by ordinary people. Moore begins by listing key propositions, including: the existence of his own living body from birth to the present; the prior existence of the and other human bodies before his birth; and the occurrence of his sensory experiences, such as seeing and feeling. He maintains that these are not mere opinions but propositions that he and many others know to be true, with a certainty that outweighs any philosophical theory purporting to refute them. Moore structures his defense in three main sections, first establishing the self-evident nature of these common sense truths and then targeting idealist claims—such as those advanced by contemporaries like and —that physical objects depend on mental states or sense-data for their existence. He argues that such views lead to absurdities, as denying the propositions implies that no philosophers (including the idealists themselves) exist or can know anything, rendering their arguments self-defeating. In the second section, Moore refutes the notion that all physical facts are either logically or causally dependent on mental facts, insisting instead on the independent reality of the material world. The third section considers additional propositions, such as the , the immortality of the soul, and the precise nature of material objects or the self, arguing that unlike common sense truths, there is no sufficient reason to know them to be true, though may attempt to clarify them without achieving the same certainty. The essay's influence lies in its straightforward, anti-skeptical methodology, which prioritizes intuitive knowledge over abstract theorizing and has shaped subsequent debates in and , including responses from in On Certainty. Moore's approach exemplifies his broader "common sense realism," emphasizing that philosophy should not contradict the plain truths of ordinary experience.

Background

Publication History

G. E. Moore first presented "A Defence of Common Sense" as a paper to the Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club in late 1924. The essay was published the following year in the second series of Contemporary British Philosophy: Personal Statements, edited by J. H. Muirhead and issued by in , where it occupies pages 193–223. It was later reprinted in Moore's collection Philosophical Papers, published by in in 1959. The timing of the essay's creation and publication aligned closely with a pivotal moment in Moore's academic career. By 1925, Moore had been appointed to the Chair of Mental Philosophy and Logic at the , a role he held until his retirement in 1939; prior to this, he had returned to in as a in moral sciences after a period away from the university. This work encapsulated his philosophical evolution, particularly his decisive break from the prevalent in during his student years toward a commitment to , a shift that had begun with his critiques in Principia Ethica (1903) and continued to mature through his analytical engagements at . Spanning approximately 30 pages, the essay is organized into five numbered sections, offering a structured of Moore's views in response to contemporary philosophical challenges.

Philosophical Context

In the early twentieth century, grappled with a resurgence of , rooted in David Hume's empiricist challenges to inductive and , which cast on the reliability of sense experience for establishing external reality. This skeptical tradition was amplified by Bertrand Russell's later epistemological work, particularly in (1912), where he argued that while sense-data provide probable grounds for belief in physical objects, absolute certainty about the external world remains elusive, as our perceptions could be illusory without contradicting experience. These doubts influenced a broader philosophical climate that questioned commonsense assumptions about the material world, prompting responses aimed at reaffirming everyday certainties. Parallel to this, absolute idealism dominated British thought, as articulated by F.H. Bradley in Appearance and Reality (1893) and Bernard Bosanquet in The Principle of Individuality and Value (1912), which viewed reality as an interconnected whole where apparent distinctions—such as between mind and matter—dissolve into a unified absolute. G.E. Moore directly confronted this monistic framework in his seminal 1903 paper "The Refutation of Idealism," critiquing the idealist dictum "esse is percipi" (to be is to be perceived) by demonstrating that consciousness involves a relational distinction between the act of awareness and its content, thereby defending a realist ontology independent of perception. Moore's intervention marked an early break from idealism, highlighting its tendency to undermine ordinary distinctions in favor of speculative holism. Amid these debates, emerged at Cambridge University around 1900, with and as foundational figures who shifted emphasis from grand metaphysical systems to precise logical analysis of language and concepts. Rejecting idealism's internal relations doctrine—which held that all properties are interconnected— and advocated a pluralistic , analyzing philosophical problems through the "ordinary meanings" of terms to resolve confusions arising from ambiguous usage. This methodological turn, evident in 's focus on clarifying propositions and 's development of , positioned as a against both skeptical undermining and idealist abstraction, fostering a new era of philosophy grounded in linguistic clarity. The intellectual environment was further shaped by the cultural , which eroded faith in elaborate metaphysical constructs and promoted a return to practical, unpretentious perspectives amid widespread disillusionment with pre-war optimism. Philosophers increasingly valued commonsense as a counter to the perceived excesses of abstract theorizing, reflecting broader societal demands for grounded inquiry in a fractured world. This post-war reinforced the appeal of Moore's approach, aligning philosophical method with the certainties of everyday life.

Overview

Main Thesis

In "A Defence of Common Sense," G. E. Moore articulates his central philosophical position by asserting that a set of fundamental propositions—known as "truisms"—are indubitably true and form the bedrock of human knowledge. These include statements such as "There exists at present a living human body, which is my body," "The Earth has existed for many years past," and "Many other human beings have been alive in the past, and some will be in the future." Moore contends that these common sense beliefs are known with certainty by ordinary people and cannot be coherently doubted without self-contradiction, as they underpin all rational discourse. Moore rejects philosophical skepticism, which he divides into two groups: those who deny the truth of these truisms outright (Group A) and those who claim they are not known with certainty (Group B). He argues that skepticism is self-defeating because skeptics must presuppose the very truisms they question in order to advance their arguments; for instance, doubting the existence of one's body requires assuming the reliability of perceptual evidence, which itself depends on those basic beliefs. This rejection positions common sense as more secure than any skeptical hypothesis, rendering global doubt untenable. Central to Moore's is the emphasis on direct, unmediated of external facts, which requires no further philosophical justification or proof. He maintains that these truisms are self-evident to direct acquaintance, superior in epistemic status to abstract theories that challenge them, such as or . Moore employs a of "," demonstrating his point through the simple assertion of everyday propositions like ", and here is another," to refute sweeping skeptical claims without engaging in elaborate deduction. The unfolds this across five main sections, building from the assertion of truisms to their implications.

Overall Structure

Moore's essay "A Defence of Common Sense," published in , is structured as a continuous argumentative piece divided into five numbered sections (I through V), which progressively build a case for the and independence of common-sense beliefs against and . This organization allows Moore to methodically establish foundational propositions before addressing potential challenges, ensuring a logical from general assertions to specific refutations. Section I opens with an enumeration of key truisms—such as the of the speaker's body, other bodies, and the Earth's long —which Moore claims to know with , followed by the assertion that many others share this . Section II examines the distinction between mental and physical facts, arguing against their interdependence. Section III limits the scope of theological propositions, denying compelling reasons for beliefs in divine or . Section IV employs a direct perceptual demonstration, exemplified by the "Here is one hand" and "Here is another," to affirm the of external objects. Section V concludes by affirming the existence of other minds while questioning reductive analyses of selfhood. The rhetorical style employs formal, analytical , featuring numbered propositions for clarity and examples to illustrate points, such as the hand-holding in Section IV, which underscores the immediacy of perceptual evidence. This approach maintains a , reader-engaged tone without digressions, contributing to the essay's pacing as a concise exposition spanning approximately words. The original publication in Contemporary British Philosophy (second series), edited by J. H. Muirhead, includes no appendices, footnotes, or supplementary materials, focusing solely on the core argumentative text.

Core Arguments

Assertion of Common Sense Truisms

In the opening of "A Defence of ," G.E. presents a foundational list of twelve propositions, which he describes as undeniable truisms about himself and the world, known to him with greater certainty than any philosophical doctrine that might deny them. These statements form the core of his philosophy, asserting direct and immediate of everyday realities that cannot coherently challenge. Moore emphasizes that such truisms are not mere opinions but certainties that underpin all rational inquiry. The twelve truisms are as follows:
  1. There exists at present a living , which is my body.
  2. This body was born at a certain time in the , and has existed continuously ever since, though not without undergoing changes.
  3. Ever since it was born, it has been either in contact with or not far from the surface of the .
  4. At every moment since it was born, there have also existed many other things, having shape and size in three dimensions, from which it has been at various distances.
  5. There have (very often, at all events) existed some other things of this kind with which it was in contact.
  6. Among the things which have, in this sense, formed part of its environment, there have, at every moment since its birth, been large numbers of other living bodies, each of which has, like it, (a) at some time been born, (b) continued to exist from some time after birth, (c) been, at every moment of its life after birth, either in contact with or not far from the surface of the .
  7. Many of these bodies have already died and ceased to exist.
  8. The had existed also for many years before my body was born.
  9. For many of these years, also, large numbers of bodies had, at every moment, been alive upon it.
  10. Many of these bodies had died and ceased to exist before it was born.
  11. I am a being, and I have, at different times since my body was born, had many different , of each of many different kinds: I have had perceptions of things and of facts about them; expectations as to the ; beliefs of various kinds, both true and false; imaginations of various kinds; I have had affections and feelings of various kinds. In the case of each of these different kinds of experience, I have had them at different times. I have perceived things at different times and places; I have had expectations at different times as to what would happen at certain dates, some of which dates have remained future, while others are now in the , but have not been forgotten by me; I have had, both in the case of some things which have proved true, and in that of others which have proved false, and of others, again, about which I have not yet made up my mind, various degrees of confidence in their truth. I have had thoughts of various things and persons, which I have not perceived, and which have not been expectations; I have thought of some things and persons a great many times; I have thought of some things and persons only once. I have often thought of the same thing or person at different times. I have often thought of some things and persons when I believed in their , and often, again, when I did not believe in their . I have often thought of imaginary things and persons and incidents, in the reality of which I did not believe; I have had dreams; and I have had feelings of many different kinds.
  12. In the case of very many of the other bodies which have lived upon the , each has been the body of a different being, who has, during the lifetime of that body, had many different of each of these (and other) different kinds.
Moore argues that these propositions are known directly through ordinary experience, holding a higher degree of certainty than any abstract philosophical theory—such as or —that purports to refute them, since such theories lack comparable evidential support. He contends that philosophers who deny these truisms must implicitly accept them as premises in their own arguments, rendering skeptical doubt self-defeating and incoherent; for instance, the very existence of as a presupposes the truth of these basic facts about human bodies, the earth, and .

Independence of Mental and Physical Facts

In "A Defence of Common Sense," distinguishes between two categories of facts among the common-sense truisms he asserts to be known with certainty: mental facts and physical (or material) facts. Mental facts pertain to states of or subjective , such as "I went to the zoo yesterday" or "I am now seeing a coloured patch of some shape and size." Physical facts, by contrast, concern the existence and relations of material objects independent of , exemplified by statements like "There is a which is my body" or "That mantelpiece is at present nearer to this body than that bookcase is." Moore argues against idealist reductions, particularly those associated with and subsequent philosophers, which posit that physical objects are logically reducible to collections of ideas or sense-data, thereby making physical facts entail or depend upon . He contends that no mental fact logically entails any physical fact, nor does any physical fact logically entail a mental one; for instance, the truth of "that mantelpiece is nearer to my body than that bookcase" does not require the existence of any specific , such as my perceiving it, and could hold true even in the absence of altogether. This logical independence ensures that physical facts are not merely constructions of the , preserving the reality of the external world as known through . Furthermore, Moore emphasizes that these facts are known independently of one another. We can know the physical fact of the mantelpiece's position without inferring it from mental facts, and vice versa, without any circularity or ; this mutual refutes claims that all of the material world must be mediated or derived from subjective . He illustrates this by noting that perceiving a does not imply that creates or sustains its existence, as the book's spatial relation to other objects remains a standalone truth. Moore also rejects causal dependence between the categories, arguing that idealists and skeptics err in assuming every physical fact must be caused by or causally reliant on mental facts. For example, the physical fact that "the has existed for many years past" does not require any as its cause; such dependence would absurdly imply that unobserved historical events cease without a , which contradicts direct of the truisms. By establishing that mental and physical facts are "logically independent"—neither entailing nor causally necessitating the other—Moore upholds common-sense against philosophical doctrines that undermine the autonomy of the material world.

Limits on Theological Claims

In his essay, explicitly delimits the scope of the truisms he defends, arguing that they do not extend to proving the or an , even though some philosophers have assumed otherwise. He contends that while these truisms establish the certainty of earthly, observable facts—such as the existence of human bodies and the material world—they provide no basis for theological inferences, which remain unproven additions. Moore emphasizes that common sense certifies only those propositions grounded in direct experience and perception, such as the reality of physical objects and human consciousness during life, but stops short of metaphysical claims about divine creation or post-mortem . For instance, he notes that the truism "I am a human being" implies the of his but offers no for its continuation after , rejecting any automatic extension to . Similarly, while in God may be widespread among non-philosophers, Moore classifies it not as a foundational equivalent to the of one's own or the external world, but as a separate, unsubstantiated assertion that neither confirms nor refutes. Adopting an agnostic stance on theological matters, Moore maintains that his defense of common sense requires no commitment to the existence of God, differing sharply from philosophers who infer divine agency from the order of the universe or material facts. He explicitly states there is no good reason to suppose that God exists or that human consciousness persists beyond bodily death, thereby insulating his epistemological position from religious speculation. This limitation underscores Moore's focus on refuting skepticism and idealism through empirical certainties alone, without venturing into unprovable domains.

Affirmation of Other Minds

In "A Defence of Common Sense," asserts as a fundamental that "many human beings other than myself have before now perceived, and dreamed, and felt joy and sorrow, love and hate, and carried out complex trains of thought," thereby affirming the of other minds akin to his own. This proposition forms part of a broader set of common-sense certainties that Moore claims every reasonable person knows to be true, extending beyond solitary to interpersonal . Moore acknowledges the analytical difficulty posed by epistemologists who contend that direct access to other minds is impossible, as one can only observe external behaviors and expressions rather than internal mental states. Despite this challenge, he maintains that the remains indubitably certain through , without requiring a philosophical proof or causal demonstration of mental causation from observed actions. Central to Moore's rejection of solipsism—the view that only one's own mind is certain—is the sufficiency of behavioral evidence, such as others engaging in conscious activities like speaking, moving purposefully, and interacting socially, which intuitively warrants belief in their mentality. He argues that even skeptics who deny other minds inadvertently presuppose their existence by addressing arguments to fellow thinkers, rendering solipsistic doubt self-undermining. Moore's key claim is that denying the existence of other minds contradicts the parallel certainty one holds about one's own body and existence, as both are equally evident truisms within the same framework of direct, non-inferential knowledge. This interpersonal extension aligns with the truisms concerning the experiences of other human beings outlined in the essay.

Implications and Critiques

Challenge to Skepticism

In "A Defence of Common Sense," directly refutes radical forms of skepticism, such as about the external world or Humean skepticism regarding and causation, by arguing that skeptics cannot coherently deny the foundational truisms of everyday without contradicting their own philosophical positions. Moore contends that skeptics presuppose these truisms—such as the of one's body and —in order to even formulate their doubts, rendering their denial self-undermining. For instance, a skeptic questioning whether anything exists beyond their mind must still rely on the of perceptual , like the of one's hands, to advance the argument. Central to Moore's approach is his advocacy for common sense realism, which posits that knowledge of the external world is not derived from skeptical doubt or philosophical reconstruction but is instead a direct, foundational given that skepticism fails to overturn. Unlike skeptical methodologies that begin by suspending belief to rebuild from indubitable foundations, Moore insists that common sense propositions, such as "The has existed for many years" or "Other human bodies exist," are known with certainty and form the of rational inquiry. This realism emphasizes that philosophy should defend these certainties rather than question them, as any attempt to do so begs the question by assuming what it seeks to deny. Moore distinguishes his position from , which allows that even well-supported beliefs might be false, by asserting that claims are indubitable in a stronger sense: they are not mere empirical hypotheses open to revision but propositions known with through direct acquaintance, immune to the skeptical scenarios (e.g., or deception) that fallibilism might entertain. He argues that while fallibilists might grant probable of the world, skeptics demand absolute proof against all possible , a standard Moore rejects as inapplicable to these foundational truths, since no coherent evidence could ever disprove them without circularity. The broader implication of Moore's argument is a decisive shift in the burden of proof onto skeptics, who must now demonstrate that truisms are false rather than merely possible to doubt. By demonstrating, for example, ", and here is another," Moore illustrates that everyday facts provide immediate against global , forcing doubters to provide compelling reasons for denial—reasons that, on his view, they cannot supply without undermining their own claims to . This strategy not only defends ordinary cognition but reorients toward affirming rather than perpetually questioning the obvious.

Response to Idealism

In "A Defence of Common Sense," directs a pointed at idealist philosophies, especially , which posits that the external world consists solely of ideas or perceptions rather than independent realities. He specifically challenges the foundational principle of George Berkeley's immaterialism, encapsulated in the Latin phrase esse est percipi ("to be is to be perceived"), which asserts that objects exist only insofar as they are perceived. This view, extended by British Hegelians such as into a monistic where all distinctions dissolve into a single spiritual whole, is rejected by Moore as incompatible with evident facts about the world. Moore leverages his enumerated truisms—propositions known with certainty, such as the existence of his own body and the persistence of physical objects—to undermine 's core tenet that depends on . A key example is the that "the has existed for many years before my birth," which demonstrates that material entities like the planet endured long before any human (or divine) could perceive them, thus existing independently of . This argument highlights how cannot accommodate the unperceived continuity of , such as the 's pre-human , without rendering its claims self-contradictory. Implicitly building on his prior anti-idealist efforts, including the 1903 "Refutation of Idealism," Moore's position in the essay affirms a robust that upholds the mind-independent of the external world while avoiding through the parallel independence of mental facts. Ultimately, he argues that fails to explain the intuitive certainty of these facts, as any attempt to reduce them to mere ideas or perceptions leads to philosophical incoherence.

Common Objections and Replies

One common objection to Moore's defense of common sense truisms, such as "the earth has existed for many years" or "," is that they are vague or question-begging, failing to provide substantive justification against skeptical or idealist challenges because their certainty presupposes the very they aim to establish. Some critics argue that Moore's communal "we know" merely reaffirms the common sense view without proving its truth, rendering the argument circular. In reply, Moore contends that the intuitive certainty of these truisms is shared and self-evident within the human community, such that denying them leads to self-contradiction, as the existence of the "we" who doubt relies on their truth. Another frequent criticism is that Moore's approach ignores longstanding problems in the philosophy of perception, particularly the sense-data theory and the argument from illusion, where appearances of error (e.g., bent sticks in water) undermine claims to direct knowledge of external objects. Philosophers have noted that Moore's assertion of the hand's existence does not resolve whether what is directly known is a sense-datum rather than the material object itself, leaving idealistic interpretations viable. Moore's potential reply emphasizes that detailed analysis of sense-data can be deferred; the brute fact of the hand's presence, known with certainty, takes precedence over any theoretical skepticism until a superior alternative is provided. A third objection holds that Moore's essay does little to advance philosophical inquiry, as it merely restates obvious beliefs without engaging deeper metaphysical or epistemological issues, potentially stalling progress by rejecting theoretical innovation. , for instance, critiqued Moore's first-personal knowledge claims as misusing the concept of , making the assertions philosophically empty. Moore would counter that the essay's primary value lies in defending reliable starting points against erroneous philosophies, clearing the ground for genuine analysis rather than imposing a comprehensive theory. In modern epistemology, Moore's work is often critiqued as anti-theoretical, prioritizing unanalyzed intuitions over systematic explanation and thus limiting its applicability to complex debates on justification or . However, it is praised for grounding anti-skeptical positions by highlighting the limits of doubt, influencing subsequent discussions on certainty. Wittgenstein, in On Certainty, briefly engaged Moore's ideas, agreeing on the bedrock status of but arguing that such propositions are not "known" in an epistemic sense, as they form the unshakeable framework of and .

Reception and Influence

Initial Responses

Upon its publication in 1925 as part of the volume Contemporary British Philosophy (Second Series) edited by J. H. Muirhead, G. E. Moore's "A Defence of Common Sense" received positive attention from contemporary realists for its vigorous affirmation of everyday knowledge against skepticism and idealism. Bertrand Russell, Moore's longtime collaborator and fellow realist, praised the essay for its robust sense of reality, particularly how it bolstered certainty in the external world by emphasizing empirical truisms such as the existence of physical objects like hands or pencils. Russell highlighted Moore's approach as a valuable counter to philosophical doubt, noting its clarity in asserting that common-sense beliefs—such as "this is a human hand"—are known with certainty, thereby grounding epistemology in direct observation rather than abstract analysis. Similarly, C. D. Broad, another prominent realist at Cambridge, acknowledged the essay's influence in symposia and writings, viewing it as a key contribution to defending the independence of material facts, though he later expressed reservations about its broader methodological impact. The paper also provoked mixed reactions, especially from idealists who saw Moore's reliance on unanalyzed truisms as overly simplistic and insufficient to engage with metaphysical depths. In the immediate aftermath, during discussions at the Moral Sciences Club—where Moore was an active member and frequent presenter—idealist-leaning philosophers challenged the essay's dismissal of doctrines like Berkeley's "esse est percipi," arguing that it begged the question by assuming the very external it sought to prove. In the 1930s, Moore offered further clarifications on the essay during his lectures, addressing criticisms by distinguishing between the certainty of common-sense propositions and the philosophical analysis of sense-data, thereby refining the scope of his truisms without altering their foundational status. These talks, delivered to students and colleagues, emphasized that the essay's aim was not to refute all philosophical theories but to establish a baseline of known truths immune to . Moore's work also briefly influenced Ludwig Wittgenstein's evolving views on during his own lectures in the early 1930s, where he engaged with Moore's truisms as starting points for linguistic analysis.

Impact on Analytic Philosophy

G. E. Moore's "A Defence of Common Sense" exerted a profound influence on 20th-century , particularly through its impact on Ludwig Wittgenstein's On Certainty (1969), a posthumous collection of notes where Wittgenstein reconceptualizes Moore's truisms—such as the of the external world's —as " propositions." These are foundational beliefs that form the unshakeable framework of our language games and epistemic practices, withdrawn from rational doubt and serving as the pivot upon which all justification turns, rather than being justified themselves. Wittgenstein, while critiquing Moore's direct refutation of as insufficiently probing the grounds of , nonetheless elevates these common-sense certainties to a central role in dissolving philosophical confusions about knowledge. The essay also contributed significantly to the rise of , a movement associated with figures like and , who built upon Moore's insistence on the primacy of everyday linguistic certainties to counter overly abstract or revisionary philosophical analyses. Austin, in works such as Sense and Sensibilia (1962), echoed Moore's defense by scrutinizing ordinary uses of terms like "perceive" to undermine skeptical scenarios, arguing that philosophical problems often arise from linguistic distortions rather than genuine epistemic gaps. Similarly, Ryle's (1949) applies a Moorean commitment to commonsensical descriptions, rejecting Cartesian in favor of behavioral analyses rooted in , thereby emphasizing practical certainties over theoretical . This approach shifted toward therapeutic examinations of language, prioritizing how ordinary expressions reveal the structure of thought. In epistemology, Moore's essay established the notion of "Moorean facts"—everyday propositions whose certainty outweighs the plausibility of skeptical arguments—providing a cornerstone for anti-skeptical strategies that continue to resonate in contemporary debates. Philosophers like Barry Stroud have engaged deeply with this framework, as in The Significance of Philosophical Scepticism (1984), where he explores whether Moore's common-sense assertions truly refute or merely highlight its transcendental implications for our understanding of the world. Duncan Pritchard has further developed the "Moorean response" in "Resurrecting the Moorean Response to the Sceptic" (2002), arguing that knowledge of anti-skeptical propositions (e.g., "here is a hand") can be robustly defended against closure-based challenges by appealing to without undermining everyday epistemic standing. Recent scholarship, including the Cambridge Companion to Common-Sense Philosophy (2020) and analyses linking Moore's views to Wittgenstein and (2021–2025), continues to affirm the essay's role in hinge epistemology and disjunctivism. These discussions underscore the essay's enduring legacy as a bulwark against radical doubt, influencing hinge epistemology and disjunctivism. While the essay's influence remains concentrated within analytic traditions, its engagement with non- philosophies or feminist epistemologies has been limited, often overlooking how common-sense certainties might embed cultural or gendered biases, thus suggesting avenues for expanded and dialogue. Initial responses from Moore's peers, such as those in contemporary volumes, praised its clarity but debated its depth, setting the stage for these later developments.

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