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Plain language

Plain language is a communication approach that prioritizes clarity, conciseness, and accessibility, using straightforward wording, logical structure, and familiar terms so that the target audience can readily find, comprehend, and apply the information on first reading or hearing, irrespective of the delivery medium.^[1]^[2]^[3] Emerging as a response to dense, jargon-laden texts in legal, governmental, and technical domains, the plain language movement gained traction in the United States during the 1970s through federal initiatives urging agencies to draft regulations in forms comprehensible to the public, building on earlier 20th-century efforts to simplify consumer contracts and policies.^[4]^[5] This momentum led to President Clinton's 1998 memorandum directing plain language use across federal operations and, ultimately, the Plain Writing Act of 2010, which legally requires U.S. agencies to produce clear documents for public consumption, fostering broader adoption in policy, health communication, and business.^[5]^[6] Key principles include favoring active voice, limiting sentences to 20 words or fewer, avoiding unnecessary complexity, employing headings and lists for scannability, and testing drafts with actual readers to confirm understanding.^[7]^[8] Empirical assessments demonstrate its efficacy, revealing faster comprehension, reduced errors in form completion, lower inquiry volumes to providers, and substantial cost savings—such as billions in avoided administrative burdens—while even expert audiences process and retain information more efficiently without condescension.^[9]^[10] Though occasionally critiqued for potentially diluting nuance in highly technical contexts, its mandates have minimized misinterpretation risks and enhanced public engagement with authoritative materials.^[9]

Definition and Principles

Core Definition

Plain language constitutes a method of communication that employs clear, concise phrasing tailored to the intended audience, prioritizing logical organization, active voice constructions, and the exclusion of superfluous jargon or legalese to enable immediate comprehension. This approach minimizes interpretive ambiguity and cognitive processing demands, allowing recipients to grasp core meanings through straightforward linguistic patterns without reliance on specialized knowledge.^[11]^[12] In contrast to superficial simplification, which risks truncating substantive content or altering factual accuracy, plain language upholds essential precision by systematically removing obfuscatory elements such as redundant clauses or archaic terminology, thereby preserving the document's informational fidelity while enhancing usability. The U.S. Plain Writing Act of 2010 codifies this standard for federal agencies, requiring output in "clear Government communication that the public can understand and use," as evidenced by its application in regulatory and public-facing materials to reduce misinterpretation rates.^[13]^[14] Fundamentally, plain language operates on the observable mechanics of human cognition, wherein individuals derive understanding from empirical linguistic cues and sequential logic rather than inferred shared expertise or institutional conventions, thereby accommodating diverse interpretive capacities without presuming homogeneity in educational or cultural backgrounds.^[2]^[15]

Key Principles and Techniques

Core techniques for plain language emphasize structural and lexical simplicity to minimize cognitive demands during reading. These include limiting sentences to an average of under 20 words to reduce syntactic complexity, employing active voice to directly link subjects with actions, substituting common everyday words for specialized jargon where possible, organizing content with logical progression aided by headings and bullet points, and adopting a reader-centered perspective that prioritizes audience familiarity and needs.^[8]^[16]^[17] These principles draw from readability metrics like the Flesch-Kincaid tests, which quantify text difficulty using average sentence length in words and syllables per word, with empirical correlations to grade-level comprehension; shorter sentences correlate with higher reading ease scores and faster processing in controlled studies. Active voice facilitates comprehension by establishing clear agent-action-object sequences, which align with cognitive processing preferences for direct causal mappings over indirect ones in passive constructions, as evidenced by experiments showing quicker verification times and fewer errors for active sentences.^[18]^[19]^[20] In technical domains, where essential terminology cannot be fully eliminated, plain language adapts by defining specialized terms at their first occurrence and limiting subsequent uses, thereby preserving precision while enabling access; this approach maintains causal clarity without sacrificing domain-specific accuracy.^[21]^[22] Logical structuring with headings and lists further supports this by chunking information, reducing working memory load per cognitive science findings on hierarchical organization.^[23]

Purposes and Rationales

Enhancing Comprehension and Accessibility

Plain language enhances comprehension by employing familiar vocabulary, shorter sentences, and logical structures that align with typical human language processing patterns, thereby minimizing cognitive load and reducing errors in interpretation. Empirical evaluations of revised documents, such as court forms, demonstrate statistically significant gains in reader understanding, with average comprehension improvements reaching approximately 30% across tested groups. This causal mechanism stems from avoiding convoluted syntax and jargon, which often lead to misreading or abandonment of complex texts, particularly among those with limited formal education or non-native proficiency. Such clarity extends accessibility to varied demographics without relying on coercive inclusivity measures, as market incentives for effective communication naturally favor readable formats that enable quicker uptake. Data from surveys of over 500 U.S. adults indicate that plain language implementations boost reading speeds alongside grasp of content, allowing broader audiences to process information efficiently in practical settings like consumer notices or public advisories. These benefits arise from voluntary adoption in competitive environments, where providers prioritize user-friendly outputs to retain engagement. However, plain language does not eliminate all interpretive challenges, as persistent cognitive or attentional deficits may necessitate supplementary aids beyond textual simplification. Individual accountability in engaging with material remains essential, underscoring that while clarity mitigates surface-level barriers, deeper comprehension demands active reader effort and cannot be fully engineered through stylistic reforms alone.

Promoting Efficiency and Market Benefits

The adoption of plain language by businesses in contracts, disclosures, and customer communications voluntarily lowers transaction costs by streamlining negotiations and reducing the need for clarifications or amendments. Clear drafting enables faster deal closures and project execution, as parties expend less effort interpreting ambiguous terms, thereby minimizing delays and administrative overhead.^[24] For example, firms report decreased processing times for agreements when jargon is replaced with straightforward phrasing, allowing resources to shift toward value-creating activities rather than dispute resolution.^[25] Such practices yield direct business advantages, including higher customer retention through enhanced trust and satisfaction, as understandable documents foster loyalty without relying on coercive regulations. Companies employing plain language observe fewer support inquiries and complaints, which correlates with improved compliance rates and revenue streams from repeat business.^[26]^[27] This self-interested strategy provides a competitive edge in markets where consumers prioritize transparency, encouraging firms to differentiate via accessibility rather than obfuscation subsidized by government intervention. In market contexts, plain language mitigates information disparities between providers and consumers by facilitating informed decision-making, which promotes efficient resource allocation and curbs opportunistic behaviors like adverse selection. Businesses that prioritize clarity in voluntary disclosures attract discerning customers, amplifying competitive pressures that reward precision over complexity.^[24] Overdependence on mandates, however, risks distorting these incentives, as evidenced by cases where enforced simplification inadvertently hampers nuanced signaling in specialized sectors.^[28]

Supporting Legal Clarity and Ethical Communication

Plain language in legal documents facilitates clarity by using straightforward wording that reduces ambiguity in terms and conditions, enabling parties to better comprehend obligations and rights.^[29] In the United States, this approach gained traction through consumer protection measures in the 1970s, such as New York's 1978 plain language law requiring consumer contracts to employ common terms avoidable by reasonable consumers, and the federal Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act of 1975 mandating plain descriptions in product warranties to prevent deceptive practices.^[30] ^[31] Proponents contend that such reforms promote ethical communication by fostering informed consent, as opaque legalese can obscure material facts, leading to agreements entered without full awareness.^[32] Ethically, plain language aligns with principles of autonomy by ensuring contractual assent is knowing and voluntary, rather than perfunctory, particularly in adhesion contracts where one party holds superior bargaining power.^[29] However, this view presumes that simplification inherently enhances ethical outcomes, a claim lacking robust causal evidence tying readability scores directly to reduced deception or improved decision-making in non-experimental settings; real-world assent often hinges on factors like economic pressure beyond linguistic clarity.^[33] Legal drafters must balance accessibility with precision, as substituting everyday synonyms for established terms of art risks unintended interpretations that erode protections or invite disputes.^[34] Critics, including traditionalist legal scholars, argue that mandates for enforced simplicity overlook the inherent complexity of legal relationships, where nuanced phrasing—such as conditional subclauses or defined jargon—precisely delineates liabilities reflecting real-world contingencies rather than deliberate obfuscation.^[33] For instance, oversimplifying doctrines like implied warranties could dilute substantive rights by eliminating interpretive buffers against edge cases, potentially increasing rather than decreasing interpretive litigation despite intentions to the contrary.^[29] Empirical assessments of these laws show mixed results on dispute resolution, with some jurisdictions reporting anecdotal compliance gains but no consistent data linking plain language to broad litigation declines, underscoring that clarity alone does not resolve underlying conflicts of interest.^[32]

Empirical Evidence of Effectiveness

Studies on Reading Comprehension and Preference

A series of randomized controlled trials has demonstrated that plain language formulations improve comprehension of complex materials for non-expert readers. In two experiments involving over 4,500 lay participants evaluating summaries of psychological meta-analyses, replacing technical terms with plain equivalents raised content knowledge accuracy from 63.6% (no explanation condition) to 68.8%, with similar gains from including quality-of-evidence statements (45.9% vs. 35.5% in controls).^[35] These effects held across diverse demographics, including variations in education level, underscoring plain language's role in reducing barriers to understanding scientific content without glossaries, which proved less effective.^[35] In health communication contexts, plain language summaries (PLSs) yield measurable comprehension benefits, though results vary by audience and implementation. A 2023 multimethods randomized trial with adults assessing child-specific COVID-19 recommendations reported higher understanding scores and perceived accessibility for plain language versions versus standard text, with participants more likely to act on the information.^[36] Similarly, empirical evaluations of court forms revised for plain language showed statistically significant comprehension gains, with readers demonstrating better grasp of legal content through pre- and post-revision testing. These findings align with cognitive load theory, where simplified structures minimize extraneous processing demands, enabling deeper engagement with core ideas, as evidenced by improved recall in subgroups who initially understood the material.^[37] Reader preferences favor plain language for its fluency and perceived trustworthiness in controlled settings. The aforementioned psychological PLS trials found participants rated plain versions higher for readability and ease (means exceeding 4.5 on 8-point scales), preferring them over jargon-heavy alternatives despite equivalent trust levels across conditions.^[35] In health research dissemination, National Institutes of Health-supported reviews emphasize PLSs' enhancement of public trust and recruitment via accessible formats targeting below 8th-grade readability, with community-tested materials outperforming dense abstracts in user satisfaction.^[38] However, such preferences do not universally extend to reading speed, where plain language shows inconsistent effects, prioritizing accuracy over rapidity in experimental outcomes.^[36] Systematic overviews confirm these patterns but note limitations in generalizing beyond lay samples, as professional audiences may derive less benefit.^[39]

Impacts on Compliance, Outcomes, and Economic Factors

Field studies on simplified government forms, such as tax instructions rewritten in plain language, have demonstrated improved compliance rates. For instance, a review of empirical research indicates that clearer instructions correlate with higher form completion accuracy and reduced errors, potentially decreasing the need for audits and enforcement actions by making obligations more accessible.^[40] However, causal evidence remains limited, with few randomized field experiments isolating plain language from other factors like deterrence messaging.^[41] In regulatory contexts, plain language disclosures under the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission's 1998 Plain English rule have shown mixed outcomes on investor behavior and market efficiency. One analysis found inconsistent effects on implied cost of capital, suggesting that while readability improves in some prospectuses, it does not uniformly enhance compliance or reduce litigation risks in complex financial instruments.^[42] Proponents argue for downstream savings, such as fewer customer inquiries (e.g., 21% reduction in insurance policy contexts) and lower reversal rates in jury instructions (from 20% to 1% post-revision), which could translate to reduced enforcement and training costs.^[40] Economic factors tied to plain language mandates, including the 2010 Plain Writing Act, lack comprehensive ROI data from 2010-2020, with federal compliance reports focusing on implementation rather than quantified efficiencies. While anecdotal evidence points to time savings in public interactions and potential litigation reductions through clearer contracts, rigorous assessments reveal no proportional benefits in highly technical domains, where added verbosity or oversimplification may increase drafting costs without commensurate gains in adherence or outcomes.^[43] In complex regulations, plain language often fails to address underlying legal intricacies, potentially leading to null or negative effects on compliance by masking ambiguities rather than resolving them.^[41]

Criticisms and Limitations

Concerns Over Precision and Nuance Loss

Critics of plain language contend that simplifying complex legal terminology risks eroding the precision required to convey nuanced concepts, particularly in adversarial contexts where documents must withstand rigorous interpretation.^[44] In fields such as contract law and statutory drafting, established terms like "force majeure" encapsulate layers of judicial precedent defining unforeseeable events excusing performance, which everyday synonyms may fail to replicate without inviting disputes over scope.^[45] Traditional legalese employs redundant qualifiers and synonyms not for obfuscation but to seal potential loopholes, ensuring enforceability under hostile scrutiny by courts or opposing parties.^[46] This approach has evolved through centuries of common law refinement, prioritizing causal accuracy in outcomes over universal accessibility, as overly broad simplifications can distort intent in high-stakes scenarios like tax codes or international treaties.^[47] Defenders, including legal practitioners wary of interpretive overreach, argue that such language reflects practical necessities rather than elitism, with technical jargon compressing intricate doctrines—such as "res judicata" denoting claim preclusion—into concise forms that avoid verbose plain-language equivalents prone to misapplication.^[46] Empirical assessments offer mixed validation: a 2023 MIT study found lawyers rated simplified contracts as equally enforceable and preferable for comprehension, suggesting viability in routine cases.^[48] However, this equivalence holds less for inherently multifaceted ideas, where flattening hierarchies of meaning—via first-principles analysis—inevitably introduces distortion, as causal chains in regulatory compliance or liability allocation demand qualifiers preserving interpretive flexibility without unintended breadth.^[44] Thus, while plain language aids broad understanding, its application in precision-critical domains underscores trade-offs, with some rewrites historically amplifying litigation by diluting safeguards against exploitation.^[45]

Issues with Mandates and Overregulation

Since the 1970s, lawmakers have enacted at least 776 plain language laws across the United States, many of which remain untracked and unstudied, leading to fragmented regulatory landscapes that impose unpredictable obligations on regulated entities.^[29] These mandates often target private-sector documents such as consumer contracts, insurance policies, and notices, requiring adherence to varying readability standards that differ by jurisdiction, such as South Carolina's minimum score of 70 on specific tests.^[29] Critics contend that this patchwork approach exemplifies regulatory overreach, as businesses operating nationwide must standardize documents to the strictest requirements, elevating compliance costs through extensive rewrites, training, and legal reviews without corresponding evidence of superior outcomes over voluntary efforts.^[29] Such mandates can stifle innovation by prioritizing formulaic readability metrics over adaptive communication strategies tailored to specific audiences or complex transactions.^[32] For instance, rigid prohibitions on certain linguistic constructs in federal guidelines, such as "and/or," may overlook logical necessities in disjunctive reasoning where inclusive or exclusive interpretations are contextually required, potentially forcing drafters into less precise alternatives that hinder contractual flexibility. Reliance on prescriptive rules risks suppressing market-driven improvements, as empirical observations indicate that top-down enforcement diverts resources from substantive innovation to bureaucratic conformity. Enforcement inconsistencies exacerbate these issues, with subjective interpretations of compliance leading to uneven application and heightened litigation risks; skeptics highlight concerns that ambiguous standards invite disputes over whether documents meet vague "understandability" thresholds, despite scholarly findings showing no overall rise in confusion or suits post-adoption.^[32]^[29] Jurisdictional variations, such as differing readability scores for insurance types in Virginia, further complicate multi-state operations, fostering inefficiencies that voluntary adoption—prompted by consumer feedback and competitive pressures—avoids by allowing entities to refine language based on direct market signals rather than coerced uniformity.^[29] This bottom-up dynamic empirically outperforms mandates, as businesses voluntarily simplify disclosures when incentivized by reputational or efficiency gains, unburdened by the administrative overhead of regulatory oversight.^[49]

Stylistic and Cultural Drawbacks

Enforced adoption of plain language in professional and public communication has been criticized for diminishing the stylistic diversity inherent in rhetorical traditions, potentially leading to a homogenization of expression that prioritizes austerity over expressiveness. Classical rhetoric, as articulated by ancient theorists like Cicero and Quintilian, delineates three primary styles—grand (elevated and persuasive), middle (balanced and ornamental), and plain (direct and unadorned)—each suited to different purposes, with plain style intended for clarity in instruction rather than universal application.^[50] Overreliance on plainness risks sidelining the grand and middle styles, which foster rhetorical delight through metaphor, rhythm, and elaboration, thereby eroding access to these tools for non-instructional discourse such as persuasion or aesthetic appreciation. Critics of the plain language movement contend that this shift debases language by narrowing its expressive range, transforming it into a utilitarian instrument at the expense of its cultural depth.^[33] Writers with extensive experience in plain language environments report a perceptible atrophy in their capacity for more ornate or evocative prose, describing a "crippled" eloquence after years of habitual simplification. For instance, technical communicator Tom Johnson, after over a decade of adhering to plain language principles in documentation, observed that such practices dulled his instinct for rhetorical flourishes, making attempts at varied or playful language feel strained and unnatural, even in personal or creative writing.^[51] This experiential evidence aligns with broader concerns that prolonged enforcement stifles linguistic creativity, as the constant suppression of syntactic complexity and lexical variety conditions writers away from traditions of eloquence preserved in literature and oratory. While plain language excels in high-stakes informational contexts where misinterpretation carries risks—such as legal notices or safety instructions—its cultural imposition challenges the utilitarian monopoly by underscoring the value of stylistic choice in fostering individual agency and cultural continuity.^[51] In literary and non-utilitarian domains, reader engagement often hinges on stylistic variation, with selections of fiction influenced by preferences for distinctive prose elements like narrative voice and descriptive depth rather than unrelenting simplicity. Studies of book selection behaviors indicate that literary style, encompassing varied sentence structures and figurative language, serves as a key attractor for audiences seeking immersion beyond mere comprehension, countering the assumption that plainness universally enhances appeal.^[52] This preference underscores a tension: while plain language mitigates barriers in functional texts, mandating it across domains may undermine expressive freedom, prioritizing collective accessibility over the personal and cultural rewards of linguistic richness. Such drawbacks highlight the need to preserve space for stylistic autonomy, ensuring that clarity does not eclipse the human capacity for rhetorical artistry.^[53]

Historical Development

Early Origins and Pre-20th Century Roots

The concept of plain language traces its intellectual foundations to classical rhetoric, where clarity was deemed essential for effective communication. In ancient Greece, Aristotle, in his Rhetoric composed around 350 BCE, asserted that good style must prioritize saphêneia—clarity—arguing that speech failing to convey plain meaning defeats its purpose of persuasion and instruction.^[54] He advocated avoiding overly ornate or compound expressions in favor of straightforward diction to ensure accessibility to audiences, a principle echoed by Roman rhetoricians such as Cicero, who emphasized perspicuitas (perspicuity) as a core virtue of discourse to prevent ambiguity in public oratory and legal argumentation.^[54] These classical ideals influenced later efforts to simplify vernacular languages amid rising literacy and commerce in Europe and America. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, practical demands for uniform, phonetic spelling arose to facilitate education and national cohesion in the expanding United States, driven by trade, migration, and the need for accessible printed materials. American lexicographer Noah Webster, motivated by post-Revolutionary desires to diverge from British norms, published A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language in 1806, incorporating simplified spellings such as "plow" instead of "plough" and "check" for "cheque" to align orthography more closely with pronunciation, thereby easing reading for common citizens.^[55] His comprehensive An American Dictionary of the English Language in 1828 further standardized these reforms, influencing over 12,000 entries with phonetic adjustments that reduced irregularities inherited from older English forms.^[55] In legal contexts, 19th-century reformers targeted convoluted "legalese" to promote equity in interpretation amid industrial growth and democratization. British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) lambasted traditional legal jargon as obfuscatory "technicals," urging in works like his 1802 Theory of Legislation the use of precise, everyday terms to minimize disputes and ensure laws served utilitarian ends accessible to non-experts.^[56] Similarly, George Coode's 1845 treatise On Legislative Expression proposed methodical simplification of statutes, replacing archaic phrases with logical, sequential structures to enhance comprehensibility for legislators and the public alike.^[56] These initiatives stemmed from empirical observations of miscommunication in contracts and statutes hindering commerce and justice, rather than prescriptive ideologies, reflecting organic responses to societal expansion where clear expression directly supported enforceable agreements and informed participation.

20th Century Emergence and Readability Focus (1900-1970)

The push toward formalized readability measures in the 20th century began with empirical efforts to quantify text difficulty, building on word frequency analyses like Edward Thorndike's 1921 The Teacher’s Word Book, which tabulated common words to assess readability mathematically.^[57] By the 1940s, this evolved into practical formulas emphasizing sentence length and word complexity, with Rudolf Flesch developing the Reading Ease formula in 1948 as a consultant for the Associated Press to enhance newspaper comprehension through shorter sentences and monosyllabic words.^[57]^[18] The formula calculated scores on a 0-100 scale, where higher values indicated easier reading, prioritizing sentence-based metrics over vocabulary alone to predict audience understanding.^[57] In the United States, these tools gained voluntary traction in education and government during the 1940s-1960s, applied to textbooks and official documents to boost accessibility without mandates.^[58] Federal initiatives modestly targeted consumer-facing legal language starting in the 1940s, focusing on readability revisions rather than overhauls, while educators used formulas like Flesch's to grade materials for student levels. World War II accelerated this by prompting simplifications in military technical manuals, where readability assessments ensured draftees with diverse literacy could grasp procedures, as evidenced by post-war analyses of training comprehension.^[59]^[60] George R. Klare's 1963 book The Measurement of Readability further synthesized research, advocating formula-driven revisions for military, educational, and civilian texts to improve outcomes empirically.^[57] Internationally, Sweden saw early policy concerns in the 1960s amid expanding state bureaucracy, with a 1967 document from the Prime Minister’s Office, Språket i lagar och andra författningar, calling for clearer phrasing in statutes to aid citizen comprehension without initial enforcement.^[61] This reflected voluntary awareness of officialese barriers, predating binding rules and aligning with broader democratization efforts.^[61] Overall, the era's advancements remained tool-oriented and adoptive, grounding plain language in data-driven readability before shifting to usability and regulation.^[58]

Regulatory Expansion and Modern Standardization (1971-Present)

In the 1970s, the U.S. federal government initiated efforts to reduce bureaucratic language in regulatory drafting, marking the formal expansion of plain language mandates amid broader pushes for public accessibility in government communications.^[5]^[62] This momentum led to the enactment of over 700 plain language laws across states and federally, targeting areas such as consumer contracts, disclosures, and notices to enhance comprehension without sacrificing legal precision.^[32] The Plain Writing Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-274) institutionalized these principles at the federal level, requiring agencies to use clear, concise writing in documents providing public information or services, excluding regulations and certain notices, with annual compliance reports mandated to track adherence.^[13]^[63] Globally, plain language standardization accelerated in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with the UK Government Digital Service issuing explicit plain English guidelines for web content in 2014 to promote accessible digital government interactions.^[64] In the European Union, simplification initiatives emerged in legislative summaries and consumer communications, influenced by directives emphasizing readability, such as the 2025 accessibility requirements under the EU Accessibility Directive for financial institutions.^[65]^[66] The International Organization for Standardization formalized these trends with ISO 24495-1 in 2023, defining plain language as communication enabling the audience to quickly find, understand, and use needed information, applicable across sectors including digital platforms.^[67] U.S. digital resources, such as those from Digital.gov, reinforced this through updated guides in the 2020s, emphasizing plain language in online content to align with the 2010 Act's goals amid rising web-based public services.^[68]^[14] Recent research highlights plain language's integration into specialized fields, with 2024 studies advocating its use in health research dissemination to build community trust and improve equitable access to findings, including plain language summaries for clinical trials.^[69]^[38] However, controversies persist regarding mandates' efficacy; many of the 700+ U.S. laws lack systematic tracking or empirical evaluation of impacts on compliance rates, economic outcomes, or unintended legal ambiguities, leaving questions about whether simplified language consistently achieves intended causal effects like reduced misinterpretation without eroding precision.^[29] Federal implementation under the 2010 Act has shown mixed results, with early assessments revealing inconsistent agency adoption despite reported gains in public usability.^[70]^[71] These gaps underscore the need for rigorous, data-driven assessments to balance accessibility benefits against potential overregulation.

Guidelines, Implementation, and Tools

Established Standards and Best Practices

The Plain Writing Act of 2010 mandates U.S. federal agencies to produce clear government communications that the public can understand and use, emphasizing principles such as writing for the specific audience by tailoring language to their knowledge and needs.^[16] Key actionable standards include using active voice to enhance clarity, employing topic sentences to organize content, presenting summaries upfront for lengthy documents, and utilizing tables or lists to convey data and details efficiently.^[16] These practices prioritize simplicity in word choice, avoiding unnecessary complexity while ensuring the message aligns with audience expertise, as seen in guidelines that reject "dumbing down" for informed readers like small business owners.^[16] Internationally, the International Plain Language Federation defines plain language as communication where wording, structure, and design enable intended readers to easily find, understand, and apply the information, a standard formalized in ISO 21964-1:2023.^[72] This standard outlines three core methods: clear wording with familiar terms, one idea per sentence, and direct address to readers; logical structure prioritizing essential information first; and effective design via headings, white space, and visual cues for scannability.^[72] Adopted across sectors and languages, it requires verifying that content meets reader needs without presuming universal simplicity.^[73] Best practices advocate iterative revision to refine drafts, starting with audience analysis and progressing through multiple reviews to eliminate jargon and improve flow, supported by evidence that such processes yield measurable gains in comprehension over intuitive editing alone.^[74] Empirical validation, drawing from reader feedback rather than writer assumptions, underpins effective implementation, ensuring revisions address actual usability gaps.^[74] Adaptations vary by context: in regulations, plain language maintains legal precision and completeness, often extending document length to avoid ambiguity in obligations, as in simplified contracts that retain enforceability.^[24] For marketing, it balances clarity with persuasive elements, enhancing response rates through engaging yet straightforward phrasing, though over-simplification risks weakening brand differentiation.^[75] Trade-offs include potential verbosity in regulatory texts for accuracy versus concise appeal in promotional materials, with both prioritizing reader-centered outcomes.^[24]

Testing Methods and Evaluation Tools

Readability formulas, such as the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level, provide quantitative assessments of text complexity by calculating average sentence length and syllables per word to estimate the U.S. school grade level required for comprehension.^[18] These tools are widely integrated into software like Microsoft Word for automated scoring, aiming for scores below grade 8 in plain language contexts to target broad audiences.^[76] However, formulas like Flesch-Kincaid correlate imperfectly with actual reader comprehension, as they overlook factors such as prior knowledge, vocabulary familiarity, and contextual inference, leading to variability of up to five grade levels on identical texts.^[77]^[78] User-centered methods emphasize direct measurement of comprehension through quizzes administered after text exposure, where participants answer factual and inferential questions to gauge retention and understanding rates.^[79] A/B trials compare revised plain language versions against originals by tracking outcome metrics like task completion rates or error reduction in applied scenarios, prioritizing causal evidence of improved usability over proxy scores.^[80] These approaches reveal discrepancies absent in formulaic tests, as comprehension quizzes can identify nuanced failures in audience engagement not captured by syllable counts.^[78] Eye-tracking technology quantifies cognitive load during reading by monitoring fixation duration, saccade length, and regressions, with longer fixations indicating higher processing effort in complex plain language texts.^[81] Studies using eye-tracking data demonstrate its utility in assessing real-time readability beyond static formulas, as metrics like total reading time correlate more strongly with subjective difficulty ratings.^[82] In the 2020s, AI-driven tools have emerged for automated plain language checks, employing natural language processing to suggest simplifications and score texts against readability benchmarks, often outperforming baselines in reducing grade levels for patient materials.^[83]^[84] Despite these advances, all automated metrics, including AI enhancements, require validation through human-centered trials, as readability scores fail to account for diverse reader demographics or motivational factors, yielding unreliable predictions of behavioral outcomes.^[85] Empirical validation via controlled comprehension tests remains essential to establish causal improvements in understanding, circumventing the formulaic overreliance on linguistic proxies.^[86]

Examples and Case Studies

Government and Legal Applications

The Plain Writing Act of 2010 requires U.S. federal agencies to use clear, concise language in public documents, including IRS notices and forms, to enhance taxpayer comprehension and compliance.^[87] Post-enactment, the IRS initiated reviews of its correspondence, streamlining notices to incorporate plain language principles, with the goal of minimizing errors in tax filings and accelerating dispute resolutions.^[88] For instance, simplified IRS letters were designed to reduce the volume of taxpayer inquiries and appeals by clarifying obligations without legal jargon, though specific quantitative reductions in errors have been projected rather than universally measured across all forms.^[89] In judicial contexts, plain language has been applied to court notices to broaden access to legal processes, particularly for non-experts. Utah mandates plain language in juvenile court notices and filings to ensure parents and guardians understand proceedings, thereby reducing procedural defaults from misunderstanding.^[29] Empirical readability studies of plain language court forms indicate improved user understanding compared to traditional legalese versions, with metrics showing lower Flesch-Kincaid scores and higher comprehension rates among lay readers.^[90] Consumer disclosures under federal regulations, such as those governed by the Truth in Lending Act amendments, have seen successes through plain language reforms that simplify terms like interest rates and fees, leading to measurable gains in consumer decision-making accuracy.^[91] Over 700 state and federal plain language laws target such disclosures in contracts and notices, aiming to curb disputes by making terms intelligible, with evidence from wording adjustments demonstrating enhanced grasp of financial implications without sacrificing essential details.^[32] However, simplification efforts in statutes and regulations have occasionally introduced ambiguities, particularly in tax law where plain language summaries omit nuanced exceptions or recharacterize rules without full context, potentially fostering misinterpretations and litigation.^[92] In IRS applications, such approaches have been critiqued for failing to highlight limitations in simplified explanations, which can lead to taxpayer errors despite overall clarity gains.^[93] Litigation outcomes remain mixed, with plain language reducing some consumer disputes through clearer disclosures but occasionally complicating statutory enforcement where brevity obscures intent, as seen in interpretive challenges under simplified federal rules.^[29]

Business and Technical Communications

In business and technical communications, plain language has been adopted voluntarily by companies to enhance efficiency, reduce errors, and improve user engagement, often yielding measurable returns on investment through streamlined operations and customer retention. For instance, technical manuals from firms like Apple employ simple, direct phrasing to guide users, as outlined in Apple's Human Interface Guidelines, which recommend avoiding jargon and using accessible wording to facilitate quick comprehension.^[94] This approach in product documentation has correlated with lower support query volumes, as clearer instructions enable users to resolve issues independently, thereby cutting operational costs.^[95] Legal contracts in the private sector have increasingly incorporated plain language to accelerate negotiations and bolster compliance, with evidence indicating that simplified terms minimize misinterpretations and disputes. A Harvard Business Review analysis highlights how plain-English contracts expedite project initiation and management by reducing the cognitive load on readers, allowing businesses to allocate resources more effectively without protracted clarifications.^[24] Empirical reviews, including summaries of over 60 studies, demonstrate that such practices lead to higher adherence rates and fewer errors in contractual obligations, as parties grasp obligations faster and act accordingly.^[40] Recent digital trends underscore market-driven innovations in plain language, particularly in app interfaces and software documentation, where concise prompts and error messages have driven user satisfaction metrics upward. Tech companies leveraging these methods report boosts in completion rates and reduced abandonment, as intuitive language aligns with user expectations shaped by competitive pressures rather than regulatory fiat.^[96] Overall, private-sector applications have empirically outperformed rigid mandates by fostering iterative improvements tied to real-time feedback and profitability incentives.^[97]

References

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Plain language is communication that is clear and easy to understand for your target audience, regardless of the medium used to deliver it.
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Feb 21, 2025 · Plain language is grammatically correct, clear, and to the point, using accurate words. NIH uses it to help people understand research results.
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Plain language is when wording, structure, and design are clear so the audience can easily find, understand, and use the information.
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The Plain Language Action and Information Network (PLAIN) put together federal guidelines to help implement the Plain Language Act of 2010.
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Plain language is grammatically correct and universally understood language that includes complete sentence structure and accurate word usage.
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[15]
Plain Language at AHRQ | Agency for Healthcare Research and ...
Plain language uses grammatically correct, complete sentences and uses the right words to convey information. It tells a reader exactly what he or she needs ...<|separator|>
[16]
Principles of plain language - Digital.gov
Good opening sentences help organize the structure of writing. Use the active voice. Active voice helps the message stay clear and easy-to-read. Organize ...
[17]
Plain language | Center for civic design
Plain language (also called plain writing or plain English) is a writing and communication method. The goal is that readers can: Find what they need; Understand ...
[18]
Flesch Reading Ease and the Flesch Kincaid Grade Level
How do Flesch tests work? Flesch readability tests work by analysing sentence lengths and word complexity. The mathematical formula underlying the two tests ...
[19]
[PDF] An Analytical Study of the Flesch-Kincaid Readability Formulae to ...
These formulas combine the average sentence length in words with the aver- age word length in syllables.
[20]
[PDF] an investigation into ti-ie effect of active and passive
Others have indicated that active voice sentences are comprehended and verified much easier and faster than passive voice sentences. There is a need for ...
[21]
How to conduct a plain language review - Mass.gov
Defines jargon in plain language; Says what acronyms stand for; Provides any background information the audience needs; Avoids idioms and figurative language ...Step 1: Identify The... · Step 2: Check The... · Step 3: Check For Plain...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[22]
Technical Jargon - NN/G
Mar 19, 2023 · Jargon is the specialized language used by a particular profession or group, which is unfamiliar or meaningless to outsiders.
[23]
Few Guesses, More Success: 4 Principles to Reduce Cognitive ...
structure, transparency, clarity, and support — minimize users' cognitive load and improve usability.
[24]
The Case for Plain-Language Contracts - Harvard Business Review
Plain English should save time on the front end of a transaction, which allows the business to get into the project quickly, to manage it more easily, and ...
[25]
What are the business benefits of using plain language? - LinkedIn
Apr 12, 2018 · Using plain language saves your customers time, which is great for them. But it helps your company do things quicker too. When your website, ...Missing: compliance | Show results with:compliance
[26]
Cut the Jargon, Boost Satisfaction: Why Plain Language Matters in ...
Jan 29, 2024 · Plain language saves them time and effort, leading to faster resolutions, smoother interactions, and ultimately, increased loyalty.Missing: improves retention advantages
[27]
Plain Language: Stronger Trust in Regulated Industries
It improves customer experience, reduces call volumes, ensures compliance, and strengthens your brand. With the right processes, training, and technology ...Missing: retention | Show results with:retention
[28]
Information flow and market efficiency -unintended side effects of the ...
Nov 29, 2023 · Our findings suggest that the Act's promotion of plain language usage results in a reduction of (complex) financial jargon.Missing: reduces | Show results with:reduces
[29]
[PDF] The Rise of Plain Language Laws
Feb 22, 2022 · When lawmakers enacted 776 plain language laws across the United States, no one noticed. Apart from a hand- ful, these laws went untracked ...
[30]
[PDF] To Be Clear - Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond
New York State enacted a plain language law in 1978 for consumer transactions. The movement toward disclosures and plainer communi- cation has waxed and waned ...
[31]
[PDF] Plain Language Prospects in American Public Law: Insiders Weigh In
U.S. state to pass a plain language law in relation to consumer contracts, doing so in 1977, 21 and several other states followed suit by enacting laws ...
[32]
[PDF] REGULATING PLAIN LANGUAGE - Wisconsin Law Review
May 21, 2023 · This Part details how over the last century, plain language emerged as a form of advice on drafting legal documents. A.
[33]
[PDF] Answering the Critics of Plain Language
Plain language would reduce litigation by preventing the unnecessary confusion that traditional legal writing produces. We are told that litigation will occur ...Missing: disputes | Show results with:disputes
[34]
Why can't lawyers or legal professionals not used plain language in ...
May 3, 2023 · Lawyers are taught to be precise and using “jargon” is often a better way to accomplish that. A lot of jargon has precise meaning when you get ...Missing: mandates | Show results with:mandates
[35]
How to Put It Plainly? Findings From Two Randomized Controlled ...
Dec 15, 2021 · Plain language summaries (PLS) aim to communicate research findings to laypersons in an easily understandable manner.
[36]
A multimethods randomized trial found that plain language versions ...
Nov 25, 2023 · Plain language health recommendations improved understanding, accessibility, usability, and satisfaction, and were more likely to be followed.Missing: trust | Show results with:trust
[37]
[PDF] Does Plain Language Enhance Reading Comprehension and ...
Results showed no support for enhanced comprehension by plain language for this target group, but showed enhanced content recall for those who had understood ...
[38]
Communicating Health Research With Plain Language - PMC - NIH
Sep 8, 2025 · A lay summary is a plain language summary, typically 1 page or less in length, of study findings intended for study participants, stakeholders, ...
[39]
Plain language summaries: A systematic review of theory ... - NIH
The overarching aim of this review is to give a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of PLSs in the scientific literature and of evidence for ...
[40]
The Multiple and Extraordinary Benefits of Writing in Plain Language
Nov 8, 2023 · Plain language reduces calls, increases payments, improves user success, and makes information clear, benefiting both consumers and ...
[41]
Simplexity: Plain Language and the Tax Law
Simplexity occurs when the government presents clear and simple explanations of the law without highlighting its underlying complexity.Missing: field | Show results with:field
[42]
The Inconsistent Effects of Plain English Disclosures on ... - MDPI
Results suggest that a move to plain English for all types of risk factors may have consequences that are not fully understood or expected. This area needs ...
[43]
https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4673&context=umlr
[44]
[PDF] Plain Language in the Written Law
More recently, some empirical studies have narrowed down on discrete ele- ments of plain language that have a measurable effect on comprehension. For.Missing: disputes | Show results with:disputes
[45]
ARE CLARITY AND PRECISION COMPATIBLE AIMS IN LEGAL ...
Opponents of plain legal language respond first that for the average layperson, noticeably greater clarity is not attained with plain English, and second, that ...
[46]
[PDF] Point: In Defense of Legalese
Lawyers are frequently criticized by nonlawyers for logorrhea, the excessive use of words. But there are at least two valid reasons.Missing: conservative scholars
[47]
Plain language versus legalese: A religious war? - ITLawCo
Sep 1, 2024 · In legal documents, reducing complex terms to simplistic language risks creating loopholes or misunderstandings. It's like the plain language ...Missing: loss | Show results with:loss
[48]
Even lawyers don't like legalese | MIT News
May 29, 2023 · A new study shows lawyers find simplified legal documents easier to understand, more appealing, and just as enforceable as traditional contracts.
[49]
Plain Language: Lawmakers' Preferred Solution
Apr 21, 2023 · Externally, plain language increases public faith in the government, improves access to justice, decreases citizen complaints, and saves costs.Missing: reduction study<|separator|>
[50]
Grand, Middle, or Plain? Rhetorical Style and Horror Literature
Throughout the classical tradition, rhetoricians have often agreed on three styles within discourse: grand, middle, and plain.
[51]
Has plain language deepened or ruined our delight in language?
Sep 20, 2017 · Although technical writers champion plain language, embracing plain language for many years can cripple your ability to use more eloquent language.
[52]
The role of readers' literary preferences in predicting success in ...
Sep 3, 2019 · When selecting novels, readers refer to characteristics other than topicality like genre, plot or literary style, which are appealing or of ...
[53]
Language Ideology and the Plain-Language Movement: How Straight
This article examines the ideologies of the Plain Language movement under sociolinguistic theories, arguing that these ideologies perpetuate three harmful myths ...
[54]
Rhetoric by Aristotle - The Internet Classics Archive
Style to be good must be clear, as is proved by the fact that speech which fails to convey a plain meaning will fail to do just what speech has to do. It must ...
[55]
The Standardization of American English | TeachingHistory.org
Webster argued that even the smallest regional differences in spelling and pronunciation could turn into political difference, resulting in dangerous factions.
[56]
[PDF] Plain English in Legal Language: A Comparative Study of Two UK ...
Apr 25, 2016 · Though several reformers, such as Jeremy Bentham or George Coode, had criticised traditional legal language during the 19th century, it was not ...Missing: anti- | Show results with:anti-
[57]
History and Development of Readability Formulas
Rudolf Flesch is one of the better known developers of a readability formula called Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level. His formula uses the number of syllables per 100 ...
[58]
(PDF) Plain Language in the US Gains Momentum: 1940–2015
Aug 6, 2025 · Results: Between 1940 and 1970, plain language focused mainly on readability. During the 1970s, some practitioners began to employ usability ...
[59]
[PDF] Historical Antecedents and Contemporary Trends in Literacy ... - DTIC
three areas of Organization, Technical Communication, and Readability. ... reading comprehension of technical manuals (Tech. Rep.) Washington, D. C. ...
[60]
[PDF] Reading, Writing and the American Soldier
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[61]
[PDF] Plain language and professional writing - DiVA portal
Oct 2, 2018 · In Swedish language policy and planning, the use of plain language has been an issue of deep concern since at least the 1960s.
[62]
Using Plain Language to Draft Regulations | The Regulatory Review
Mar 6, 2018 · Plain language took on renewed prominence in the late 1960s and 1970s, as civil servants and public interest groups attempted to deepen the ...
[63]
[PDF] Public Law 111–274 111th Congress An Act - GovInfo
The Plain Writing Act of 2010, also known as Public Law 111-274, aims to enhance citizen access to government information by promoting clear communication.
[64]
The language of Government and the power of plain English
Apr 19, 2017 · In 2014 the Government Digital Service announced clear guidelines for writing in plain English on government web pages. Accessible language in ...
[65]
Simplification & supranationality: plain language in EU legislation ...
The Plain Language Movement proposed that legal texts should be redrafted for the benefit of non-experts in order to make them more accessible, understandable, ...
[66]
Plain Language Isn't Optional: Meeting the EU's B2-Level Standard ...
Aug 11, 2025 · Starting June 28, 2025, financial institutions in the EU must comply with new accessibility requirements under the EU Accessibility Directive.
[67]
ISO Plain Language Standard
The ISO Plain Language Standard helps create clear, concise, and effective documents. It is based on an internationally accepted definition of plain language.
[68]
Plain language - Digital.gov
Plain language is communication that is clear and easy to understand for your target audience, regardless of the medium used to deliver it.
[69]
Using Plain Language in Research: A qualitative study
Nov 20, 2024 · Conclusions: The use of plain language is essential to build trust with communities and will enable research to be available to all people.
[70]
Report: Plain Writing Act fails to live up to its name - Marketplace.org
Jul 23, 2012 · About a year ago a law went into effect called the Plain Writing Act, meant to compel federal agencies into communicating with the public in ...
[71]
Plain language law off to a spotty start | MPR News
Jul 19, 2012 · An effort to make the government write so people can understand what they're reading is off to a spotty start.
[72]
What is plain language?
Plain language is when wording, structure, and design are clear so readers can easily find, understand, and use information.
[73]
https://www.iso.org/standard/78907.html
[74]
[PDF] “Plain Language for Expert or Lay Audiences: Designing Text Using ...
This paper addresses these questions by illustrating a concrete and empirically-tested procedure for revising texts to meet the needs of expert or lay audiences ...Missing: iterative validation
[75]
Using Plain Language in Marketing and Advertising - Canada.ca
Feb 4, 2025 · Plain language and accessibility are vital in a digital communications space, from writing, editing, speaking, and now app advertising.
[76]
Get your document's readability and level statistics - Microsoft Support
See the reading level and readability scores for documents according to the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level and Flesch Reading Ease tests.
[77]
Assessing readability formula differences with written health ...
The Flesch-Kincaid formula was most commonly used (57.42%). Readability formulas demonstrated variability up to 5 reading grade levels on the same text. The ...
[78]
Readability Formulas: 7 Reasons to Avoid Them and What to Do ...
Jul 29, 2019 · Readability formulas are easy to use and give you a number. This combination makes them seductive. But a number isn't useful if it isn't reliable, valid, or ...
[79]
Comprehension testing - UserTesting Knowledge Base
Apr 21, 2025 · Comprehension testing is a way to check that your customers clearly understand your messaging text and imagery.
[80]
A/B Testing: Evaluative UX Research Methods - User Interviews
Jan 8, 2025 · A/B split testing is used to compare and evaluate multiple versions of product, design, or prototype. Learn how to use A/B tests for UX ...
[81]
Reading & Language — Eye Tracking Uncovers Data - Tobii
Eye tracking is used in reading research to help measure human language processing. A perfect tool for linguistics and education research. Find out how.Missing: plain | Show results with:plain
[82]
Surprisal Takes It All: Eye Tracking Based Cognitive Evaluation of ...
Feb 17, 2025 · In psycholinguistics, reading times and other eye movement measures are widely acknowledged to be highly informative of cognitive load during ...Missing: plain | Show results with:plain
[83]
Can Artificial Intelligence Improve the Readability of Patient ... - NIH
Jan 9, 2024 · AI dialogue platforms can enhance the readability of PEMs for patients with AS but may not fully meet recommended reading skill levels.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[84]
AI for Readability and How to Instantly Improve Content Clarity
Mar 17, 2025 · AI for readability means using smart tools to help catch areas that may be confusing or hard to follow. These tools scan your content and ...Missing: 2020s limitations
[85]
Stop using the Flesch-Kincaid test - And Read All Over
Feb 26, 2019 · This should be obvious. “[Flesch] created the formula by correlations ... “Readability formulas have even more limitations than Klare discusses”.
[86]
[PDF] The Accuracy of Readability Formulas in Health Content
Mar 4, 2024 · Study limitations and those associated with the readability formulas likely contributed to the poor performance. More studies are needed to ...
[87]
[PDF] Plain Writing Act Compliance Report - IRS
The Plain Writing Act of 2010 requires federal agencies to write clearly to ensure the public understands government information and services.
[88]
[PDF] Taxpayer First Act Report to Congress
With the passage of the Plain Writing Act in 2010, the. IRS began reviewing and streamlining our correspondence process to restyle and coordinate notices ...
[89]
IRS Aims for Letter-Perfect Language - Center for American Progress
May 16, 2011 · The idea is that simplified, user-friendly letters written in plain English will speed the resolution of disputes and reduce the need for ...
[90]
[PDF] Is Plain Language Better?
Results show a marked and statistically significant improvement in reader comprehension when court forms are treated for plain language.
[91]
Designing Disclosures to Inform Consumer Financial Decisionmaking
Oct 21, 2011 · Disclosure language should be plain but meaningful. Small wording changes can significantly improve consumer understanding, but for some ...
[92]
Simplexity: Plain Language and the Tax Law
Simplexity occurs when the government presents clear and simple explanations of the law without highlighting its underlying complexity.Missing: impact field studies
[93]
[PDF] Simplexity: Plain Language and the Tax Law
Jan 10, 2017 · Proponents of the plain language movement have heralded this form of communication as leading to simplicity in tax compliance, more equitable ...
[94]
Writing | Apple Developer Documentation
Feb 27, 2023 · Choose simple, plain language and write with accessibility and localization in mind, avoiding jargon and gendered terminology.
[95]
The Power of Plain Language—How It Saves Time and Money
Oct 24, 2024 · Cut customer support costs: Customers are less likely to seek assistance or clarification on a product or service if the instructions are ...
[96]
Beyond readability: how plain language delivers business results
Jun 29, 2025 · So how to measure plain language? · completion or conversion rates · accuracy of responses · support requests or time saved · audience satisfaction ...Plain Language Is More Than... · How Plain Language Improves... · Why This Matters Right Now
[97]
Plain Language Is Best for Business Communication | AACSB
Jul 12, 2022 · Plain language reduces the chance that the audience will misunderstand a business communication. When an organization uses plain language in its ...Missing: retention compliance