Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

AlGa

AlGa is an aluminum–gallium alloy with the nominal chemical formula AlGa, typically composed of aluminum and gallium in varying proportions, exhibiting a gray metallic appearance and, for the equiatomic composition, a molecular weight of 96.705 g/mol.^[1] This alloy is particularly renowned for its role in hydrogen production through the reaction of aluminum with water, where gallium acts as a catalyst by disrupting the passive aluminum oxide layer that normally inhibits hydrolysis.^[2] The process, described by the equation $2Al + 6H_2O \rightarrow 2Al(OH)_3 + 3H_2, allows for efficient on-board generation of hydrogen gas for fuel cells, with gallium remaining inert and recoverable for reuse.^[3] Typical compositions, such as Al-20 wt.% Ga, enable reactions at ambient temperatures and yield gravimetric hydrogen capacities of approximately 3.0 wt.% based on the materials involved, while gallium-rich mixtures achieve low melting points below 100°C.^[2] Beyond energy applications, AlGa alloys serve as master alloys in metallurgy for low-temperature casting and sacrificial anodes in corrosion protection systems.^[4] In advanced materials, composites like Al₁₀Ga covered with graphene (AlGa@Gr) enhance hydrogen generation rates under ultrasound by preventing oxidation and maintaining active aluminum surfaces, addressing limitations in sustained reactivity.^[5] Challenges in commercialization include optimizing reaction kinetics and managing byproduct formation, but ongoing research, including recent developments in Al-Ga-In microcomposites as of 2025, highlights its potential in renewable energy storage and portable power systems.^[6]^[7]

Composition and Formation

Chemical Composition

AlGa is a binary alloy composed primarily of aluminum (Al) and gallium (Ga), where the two elements form a simple eutectic system without intermediate intermetallic compounds.^[8] The alloy's composition typically features a low gallium content, ranging from 1 to 5 wt%, to achieve a degenerate structure in which gallium infiltrates the aluminum matrix beyond equilibrium solubility limits.^[9] This low Ga concentration enables the formation of a metastable alloy suitable for specific applications, while higher Ga levels would shift the system toward the gallium-rich side of the phase diagram. The Al-Ga phase diagram reveals a eutectic point at approximately 26.6°C and 97.9 at.% Ga (approximately 99.2 wt.% Ga), where the liquid phase decomposes into solid solutions of Al and Ga.^[10] Gallium, with a melting point of 29.8°C, exists as a liquid near room temperature and readily diffuses into the solid aluminum lattice, forming a two-phase region dominated by the Al-rich solid solution (α-Al) and nearly pure solid Ga.^[8] The maximum solid solubility of Ga in Al reaches about 9 at.% (roughly 20 wt.%) at the eutectic temperature, but decreases significantly at lower temperatures; at room temperature (~25°C), it is limited to approximately 0.5 wt.%, though infiltration processes can achieve supersaturated concentrations exceeding this limit.^[11] At the atomic level, Ga atoms primarily occupy substitutional sites within aluminum's face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure, given the similar atomic radii (Al: 143 pm, Ga: 135 pm), though some interstitial placement may occur under non-equilibrium conditions.^[9] This incorporation induces lattice distortion due to the larger atomic mass and slightly smaller size of Ga compared to Al, leading to local strain in the FCC lattice and a shift in X-ray diffraction peaks toward lower angles as Ga content increases.^[9] Common practical formulations include Al-1 wt.% Ga and Al-3.5 wt.% Ga, which balance solubility constraints with enhanced properties from the infiltrated Ga.

Formation Mechanism

The formation of the AlGa alloy is initiated by applying liquid gallium to the surface of solid aluminum, typically at room temperature, where the gallium wets the aluminum and begins penetrating along grain boundaries due to its favorable interfacial energy with aluminum.^[12] This wetting process replaces higher-energy aluminum grain boundaries with lower-energy aluminum-gallium interfaces, facilitating initial ingress without requiring elevated temperatures or mechanical stress.^[13] Gallium atoms then diffuse rapidly along these grain boundaries, exhibiting kinetics characterized by a low activation energy of approximately 29 kJ/mol, which enables fast migration compared to bulk diffusion in aluminum.^[14] Penetration speeds vary from 0.01 to 12.2 μm/s depending on boundary type, allowing gallium to infiltrate depths of several millimeters within hours, often following a square-root-of-time dependence as described by diffusion models.^[13]^[15] The infiltration rate shows strong temperature dependence, accelerating notably above 30°C due to enhanced atomic mobility, with complete gallium distribution achievable in 24–48 hours for thin aluminum samples under mild heating.^[16] This process yields alloys such as Al-1%Ga through controlled exposure.^[17] At the microstructural level, gallium segregation along grain boundaries induces weakening by reducing cohesive strength, promoting intergranular fracture planes while preserving the bulk aluminum structure without melting.^[18] In laboratory settings, the alloy is commonly prepared by dipping aluminum foil or sheets into liquid gallium to promote wetting and boundary penetration, or via electrodeposition to deposit precise amounts of gallium onto aluminum surfaces for tailored infiltration.^[12]^[19]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Characteristics

AlGa exhibits a distinctive appearance that evolves during the infiltration process. Initially, it retains the silvery metallic sheen characteristic of pure aluminum, but as liquid gallium penetrates the grain boundaries, the surface develops a dull, matte finish and a crumbly texture, often appearing discolored with dark lines indicating gallium diffusion.^[20] This transformation reflects the disruption of aluminum's crystalline structure without altering its overall macroscopic form significantly. Mechanically, AlGa is extremely brittle due to the liquid gallium film forming along grain boundaries, which weakens intergranular cohesion and promotes fracture under minimal stress. Tensile strength is drastically reduced to approximately 5–10 MPa in embrittled samples, compared to around 90–100 MPa for pure aluminum, allowing the material to fracture along grain boundaries even under finger pressure.^[20] Elongation at fracture can decrease by up to 60%, shifting the failure mode from ductile dimple rupture to brittle intergranular cleavage.^[21] Density remains close to that of pure aluminum at about 2.7 g/cm³, with no significant volume change despite the incorporation of denser gallium, as the infiltration involves only trace amounts (typically 1–5 wt%). Thermally, the presence of gallium lowers the local melting point of aluminum regions near grain boundaries to near gallium's melting point of 29.8°C, causing the alloy to soften noticeably around 30°C while remaining predominantly solid at room temperature.^[22] This behavior arises from the eutectic-like interaction at the boundaries without forming a bulk liquid phase. Microscopically, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) reveals Ga-rich phases concentrated at grain boundaries, manifesting as grooves, pits, and cracks, while energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) confirms elevated gallium concentrations in these intergranular regions, correlating with reduced bonding and increased dislocation density.^[20]

Chemical Reactivity

The presence of gallium in AlGa alloys inhibits the natural passivation of aluminum by preventing the formation of a stable protective Al₂O₃ layer. Gallium segregates preferentially to the alloy's surface and grain boundaries, where it facilitates liquid metal embrittlement, thereby exposing fresh aluminum surfaces to environmental reactants.^[12] This segregation disrupts the continuity of the oxide film, allowing ongoing access to the reactive aluminum core.^[23] The primary mode of corrosion in AlGa alloys is intergranular, driven by gallium's penetration along grain boundaries, which weakens intergranular cohesion and promotes rapid degradation, particularly in moist environments. This leads to accelerated material breakdown compared to pure aluminum, as the alloy's structure facilitates crack propagation and fresh surface exposure during exposure to humidity.^[24] AlGa alloys exhibit enhanced reactivity with water, catalyzed by gallium, which acts as a regenerable promoter without being consumed in the process. The overall reaction follows the equation:

\text{Al} + 3\text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{Al(OH)}_3 + 1.5\text{H}_2

This reaction proceeds significantly faster than pure aluminum, which does not react appreciably at room temperature due to the catalytic disruption of passivation.^[3] Initially, the oxidation pathway yields aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)₃), which can decompose at around 180°C to form Al₂O₃ and water vapor according to:

$2\text{Al(OH)}_3 \rightarrow \text{Al}_2\text{O}_3 + 3\text{H}_2\text{O}

Gallium remains largely inert throughout these transformations, retaining its catalytic role. In air, AlGa alloys demonstrate short-term stability under dry conditions, as a thin oxide layer may form superficially; however, reactivity accelerates significantly in humid environments due to water-mediated corrosion. The reaction rate shows pH dependence, proceeding more rapidly in neutral to basic conditions, where hydroxide ions further destabilize any nascent oxide barriers.^[23] This environmental sensitivity underscores the alloy's utility in controlled reactive applications while highlighting its vulnerability to unintended degradation.

Applications

Hydrogen Generation

AlGa alloys facilitate hydrogen generation through a hydrolysis reaction with water, where gallium serves as a catalyst by disrupting the passive aluminum oxide layer that normally inhibits reactivity. This enables aluminum within the alloy to react directly with water at ambient temperatures and pressures, producing hydrogen gas and aluminum hydroxide according to the overall reaction $2Al + 6H_2O \rightarrow 2Al(OH)_3 + 3H_2.^[2] In typical Al-Ga compositions, such as those with 80-90 wt% aluminum, gallium remains largely inert and does not consume during the process, allowing for its recovery and reuse.^[3] Theoretically, 1 g of an Al-Ga alloy with approximately 10 wt% gallium yields about 1.1 L of hydrogen gas under standard conditions, based on the aluminum content and stoichiometric conversion.^[2] In laboratory settings, conversion efficiencies reach 80-90%, with hydrogen yields often approaching theoretical values of ~1100 mL per gram of alloy in optimized conditions.^[3] Recent advancements, such as those involving nanoparticle formation from Ga-rich Al composites reported in 2022, enhance surface area and reaction kinetics, enabling rapid hydrogen evolution—up to 130 mL per gram—without external heating or pH adjustment, even in neutral or saline water sources. These nanoparticles form in situ as gallium dissolves the oxide barrier, accelerating the Grotthuss mechanism for proton transfer in water splitting.^[25]^[26] Process variants include batch reactions in aqueous media, where AlGa pellets or powders are added to water for on-demand hydrogen release, and integration into portable fuel cell systems for direct power generation. A 2007 development patented by Purdue University demonstrated AlGa's suitability for compact, portable hydrogen sources, powering devices like engines or fuel cells without the need for high-pressure storage. Compared to pure aluminum, which requires elevated temperatures or chemical activators to overcome its oxide passivation, AlGa offers room-temperature reactivity without additional additives, simplifying deployment. Post-reaction, gallium can be separated from the aluminum oxide byproduct via density differences or electrolysis, enabling recycling and reducing material costs.^[3]^[27] For scalability, 1 kg of AlGa alloy can theoretically produce around 1.2 m³ of hydrogen, making it viable for small-scale energy applications such as unmanned vehicles or backup power systems. This gravimetric capacity, combined with the alloy's stability in dry storage, positions AlGa as a promising material for decentralized hydrogen production, though challenges like gallium's scarcity and cost remain for large-scale adoption. Ongoing research as of 2025 continues to explore recyclable AlGa variants for enhanced on-demand H₂ in portable devices.^[2]^[25]

Structural and Demonstrative Uses

AlGa's weakening effect on aluminum structures has found prominent use in demonstrative experiments, where liquid gallium is applied to aluminum objects like cans or foil to illustrate liquid metal embrittlement and alloy formation. In these setups, gallium penetrates aluminum grain boundaries, rendering the material brittle and malleable within hours, often demonstrated by tearing the treated aluminum by hand. Such experiments, popularized in educational and science communication contexts around 2018, effectively showcase the rapid diffusion and intergranular attack without actual dissolution, emphasizing the alloy's unique metallurgical behavior.^[28] In structural engineering, AlGa alloys enable controlled weakening for applications like sacrificial anodes in corrosion protection systems. Gallium additions to aluminum prevent oxide passivation, allowing sustained anodic dissolution to protect steel structures in marine environments, with performance optimized through controlled cooling rates during alloy solidification to maintain gallium segregation at grain boundaries. This results in higher current capacities compared to traditional zinc anodes, though at lower driving voltages to minimize hydrogen evolution. Additionally, the embrittlement mechanism supports temporary supports in prototypes, where targeted gallium application induces predictable brittle fracture under stress, facilitating disassembly or failure-on-demand in testing scenarios.^[29]^[30] Educationally, AlGa serves as a low-cost tool in classrooms to teach concepts of diffusion, alloying, and metallurgy, using everyday materials like household aluminum foil and gallium spoons. Demonstrations involve simple heating to liquify gallium and observing its interaction with scratched aluminum surfaces, providing hands-on insight into grain boundary phenomena and material property changes, often integrated into undergraduate materials science curricula.^[28] Emerging applications explore AlGa in additive manufacturing for on-demand brittle components, such as dissolvable biomedical devices like stents or staples that disintegrate upon gallium-indium exposure, enabling temporary implantation without surgical removal. These leverage the alloy's one-time weakening for controlled degradation, though commercial adoption remains limited due to challenges in precise application and biocompatibility verification.^[31] The interest in AlGa's structural and demonstrative roles surged post-2000s, driven by online media and accessible experiments, building on foundational mid-20th-century metallurgical studies of liquid metal embrittlement in aluminum-gallium systems that documented intergranular fracture mechanisms via electron microscopy.^[32]

Safety Considerations

Handling and Health Risks

AlGa alloy, composed primarily of aluminum and gallium, presents a generally low toxicity profile for direct human exposure under normal handling conditions. Gallium metal exhibits low acute toxicity and is only mildly irritating to the skin and eyes upon contact. However, inhalation of fine dust or particles from the alloy, particularly during machining or fracturing, may cause respiratory irritation due to the formation of gallium oxide, which is known to irritate the lungs. The aluminum hydroxide byproduct generated during reactions with water is non-toxic, with an oral LD50 exceeding 5000 mg/kg in rats. Skin contact with gallium in the alloy can lead to mild dermatitis, especially with prolonged exposure, necessitating the use of protective gloves to minimize risks. Fine particles produced during handling or breakage pose an aspiration hazard if inhaled or ingested, potentially leading to mechanical irritation in the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts. No carcinogenic effects have been associated with gallium or aluminum in this alloy form. A key hazard during handling arises from the alloy's reactivity with water, which generates hydrogen gas, heat from the exothermic reaction, and increases the risk of fire, explosion, or thermal burns in confined spaces.^[2] Therefore, storage under an inert atmosphere, such as argon or nitrogen, is recommended to prevent unintended reactions. This reactivity underscores the need for careful manipulation to avoid moisture exposure. In case of skin contact, immediately wash the affected area with soap and water. For eye exposure, rinse thoroughly with water for at least 15 minutes and seek medical attention. If ingestion occurs, do not induce vomiting; seek immediate medical advice, as professional evaluation is required to address potential gastrointestinal effects.

Transportation and Storage Guidelines

Due to its reactivity with aluminum, AlGa alloy must be transported and stored in non-metallic packaging such as plastic pails or glass containers, or compatible stainless steel drums, to prevent corrosion-induced leaks in aluminum containers.^[1] Gallium's ability to infiltrate and embrittle aluminum structures poses a particular risk during air transport, as demonstrated by a documented incident where liquid gallium spillage damaged aluminum seat rails and floor panels on an aircraft, potentially compromising hull integrity.^[33] Pure gallium (UN 2803) is classified as Class 8 corrosive (Packing Group III) under DOT and IATA regulations, with inner packaging limits of 2.5 kg (semi-rigid plastic) or 15 kg (glass/rigid plastic) and a subsidiary "corrosive to metals" hazard; however, pure AlGa alloy in solid form is typically classified as non-hazardous (NONH).^[34] For storage, AlGa should be kept in a cool, dry environment in tightly closed, compatible containers to minimize gallium diffusion and potential reactions, and separated from water sources or moisture to avoid unintended hydrogen generation.^[36] Incompatible materials like acids, oxidizers must be avoided to prevent hazardous reactions; additionally, contact with aluminum should be prevented due to embrittlement risks. In the event of a spill, responders should wear appropriate personal protective equipment and mechanically collect the material to prevent environmental release, using dry sand or inert absorbents like vermiculite if needed to contain it without introducing water.^[37] The area must be well-ventilated to disperse any hydrogen gas that may form upon contact with moisture, and further reference to DOT/IATA guidelines is recommended for compliance during cleanup and disposal.^[37]

References

[1]
Aluminum-Gallium Alloy | AMERICAN ELEMENTS ®
Compound Formula, AlGa. Molecular Weight, 96.705 g/mol. Appearance, Gray metallic pieces or solid in various forms. Melting Point, N/A. Boiling Point, N/A.
[2]
[PDF] Reaction of Aluminum with Water to Produce Hydrogen
The purpose of this White Paper is to describe and evaluate the potential of aluminum-water reactions for the production of hydrogen for on-board ...
[3]
New process generates hydrogen from aluminum alloy to run ...
May 15, 2007 · Purdue researchers demonstrate their method for producing hydrogen by adding water to an alloy of aluminum and gallium.
[4]
Aluminum-Gallium Alloy - ATT Advanced Elemental Materials Co., Ltd.
Aluminum-Gallium Alloy ; Compound Formula, AlGa ; Molecular Weight, 96.705 g/mol ; Appearance, Gray metallic pieces or solid in various forms ; Melting Point, N/A.
[5]
A novel AlGa@Gr material for ultrasound enhanced hydrogen ...
A novel Al10Ga@5Gr material characterized by micron-sized Al(Ga) solid-solution laminar particles covered by graphene (Gr) was fabricated and then hydrolyzed ...
[6]
Using aluminum and water to make clean hydrogen fuel - MIT News
Aug 12, 2021 · It could be used in fuel cell vehicles, heat-producing boilers, electricity-generating gas turbines, systems for storing renewable energy, and ...
[7]
The Al−Ga (Aluminum-Gallium) system | Journal of Phase Equilibria
(Equi Diagram; Experimental). 60Wri: E. H. Wright and L. A. Willey, “Gallium Binary Phase Diagrams”, Alcoa Research Lab., Pittsburgh, PA, unpublished work ...
[8]
Gallium-Enhanced Aluminum and Copper Electromigration ...
Jan 25, 2021 · Electrical testing demonstrated that Al-8 at. % Ga is more suitable for conducting lines in flexible electronics, showing an almost 50% increase in ...
[9]
Al-Ga-Y (Aluminum-Gallium-Yttrium) | Journal of Phase Equilibria ...
Apr 1, 2009 · The Al-Ga phase diagram [Massalski2] is a simple eutectic system with the eutectic temperature and composition at 26.6 °C and 97.9 at.% Ga.
[10]
Al – Ga (Aluminium – Gallium)
The phase diagram is very simple showing moderate solubility (maxi- mum of approximately 9 at.%) of Ga in solid Al and very low solubility of Al in solid Ga.
[11]
Activating the Growth of High Surface Area Alumina Using a Liquid ...
Dec 3, 2018 · In this method, liq. gallium (Ga) is penetrated into grain boundaries (GB) of the pure aluminum (Al). Both high angle grain boundaries (HAGB) ...
[12]
The kinetics of gallium penetration into aluminum grain boundaries
Aug 7, 2025 · Based on an in situ TEM study at room temperature, the penetration speed of Ga at grain boundaries varies between 0.01 to 12.2 μm.s -1 [22]. ...
[13]
A kinetic study of liquid gallium diffusion in a tin-based solder alloy ...
In cases of LME by liquid metal penetration along solid metal grain boundaries (GBs), an activation energy of 28.9 ± 4.8 kJ mol-1 was reported for the liquid Ga ...
[14]
Fast Penetration of Liquid Gallium in Polycrystalline Aluminum Films
According to Mae and Hori,4) the penetration depth is pro- portional to the square root of time. For the penetration depth of 1mm, the speed is ...
[15]
Experimental Study on Liquid Metal Embrittlement of Al-Zn-Mg ... - NIH
When gallium atoms enter the intergranular phase of aluminum, a much weaker aluminum–gallium metallic bond is formed, requiring less energy to break than the ...
[16]
Kinetics calculation of Al/Ga interfacial diffusion in sandwich ...
Liquid gallium penetrates aluminum grain boundaries during diffusion. The diffusion activation energy is 41.5 kJ/mol, and a diffusion kinetics model was ...
[17]
Insight into gallium behavior in aluminum grain boundaries from ...
The grain boundary embrittlement of aluminum is the most easily observed and dramatic effect of gallium impurities. From experimental observations it seems to ...Missing: AlGa | Show results with:AlGa
[18]
Aluminium activation produced by gallium - ScienceDirect.com
Gallium activation of aluminum occurs via two mechanisms: a Ga-Al amalgam forming at -1.5V, and a chloride adsorption process at -1.1V. Full activation can ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
[PDF] The Effect of Texture and Microstructure on Equibiaxial Fracture in ...
Figure 1.7 The variation of the tensile strength of embrittled aluminum ... brittle intergranular fracture typical of the gallium embrittled aluminum sheets ...
[20]
In Situ EBSD Study of Aluminum After Embrittlement by Gallium - PMC
Feb 26, 2025 · The results show that the fracture elongation of aluminum decreased by 60% after being embrittled by liquid gallium at 80 °C for 40 min.Missing: thermal | Show results with:thermal
[21]
Gallium–Aluminum Alloy (Ga–Al): Structure, Behavior & Applications
Learn how Ga–Al alloys challenge conventional metallurgy with ultra-low melting points and corrosion potential.
[22]
https://earthrarest.com/gallium/ga-al/
[23]
Liquid metal embrittlement of aluminium by segregation of trace ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... embrittlement of model binary AlGa alloys containing 50–1000 ppm2 Ga is studied. Ga ... The Al/Ga system is capable of significant liquid ...
[24]
Aluminum Nanoparticles from a Ga–Al Composite for Water Splitting and Hydrogen Generation
### Summary of Nanoparticle Enhancement for Al-Ga Hydrogen Generation
[25]
A Review of Unique Aluminum–Water Based Hydrogen Production ...
Jan 7, 2021 · This comprehensive review paper compares the different methods developed experimentally to produce hydrogen by reacting aluminum and water.
[26]
[PDF] Aluminum Gallium Water Hydrogen Fuel Cell System
Jan 2, 2024 · The system uses aluminum, water, and gallium in a reaction chamber to produce hydrogen, which is then used in a fuel cell to generate ...
[27]
[PDF] 2018 Science Demonstrations - University of Northern Colorado
After the gallium is liquid, pour it on to the top of the can. Let it sit for about 3 hours. The newly formed alloy should be quite malleable, and you should be ...
[28]
Understanding Al-Ga Sacrificial Anodes via Simulation and ...
Apr 15, 2018 · Aluminum would be a good choice for a sacrificial anode to protect steel structures if it did not passivate. However, various elements can be ...
[29]
[PDF] Use of Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) for Controlled Fracture - DTIC
For example, it is well documented that gallium and/or mercury can embrittle aluminum via grain boundary penetration. This has been used for the selective ...
[30]
https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD1090489.pdf
[31]
[PDF] EMBRITTLEMENT BY LIQUID METALS - DTIC
Both processes appear to be actuated by the mass transport of liquid gallium along grain boundaries. In the cases of the primary liquid metal embrittlement, the ...
[32]
[PDF] Untitled - Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
§ 173.861 Gallium metal, liquid. Gallium metal, liquid, when offered for transportation, must be packaged in earthenware, glass, or plastic inside packagings ...
[33]
None
### Summary of Aluminum-Gallium Alloy SDS Sections
[34]
49 CFR § 173.162 - Gallium. - Law.Cornell.Edu
Gallium must meet Packing Group I for air, Group III for other transport, with specific packaging requirements. Small amounts in articles are exempt. Low temp ...Missing: alloy | Show results with:alloy
[35]
https://www.americanelements.com/print/view/pdf/products_sds/block_1?view_args%5B%5D=28770
[36]
[PDF] Aluminum Alloys | Russel Metals
Wash thoroughly after handling. Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product. Obtain special instructions before use. Do not handle until all safety ...