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Allioideae

Allioideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Amaryllidaceae in the order Asparagales, comprising approximately 17 genera and over 1,000 species of mainly bulbous or rhizomatous geophytes characterized by their distinctive alliaceous (onion-like) odor produced by sulfur-containing compounds, superior ovaries, and often umbellate inflorescences with six tepals.^[1]^[2] Recent studies (as of 2025) have revised the South American tribes, recognizing additional genera through phylogenetic analyses.^[3] These plants are predominantly perennial herbs adapted to temperate and subtropical environments, with leaves that are typically linear and basal, and flowers featuring spirally twisted filaments in many species.^[4] The taxonomy of Allioideae recognizes four tribes: Allieae, Gilliesieae, Leucocoryneae, and Tulbaghieae, reflecting phylogenetic relationships established through molecular data such as nuclear ribosomal ITS and plastid markers.^[1] Allieae is monotypic, consisting solely of the species-rich genus Allium with around 900 species, while Gilliesieae includes 8 genera and about 80 species, Leucocoryneae has 7 genera and roughly 100 species, and Tulbaghieae is monotypic with the genus Tulbaghia encompassing 20–30 species.^[1]^[2]^[3] This classification, updated in line with the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV system, highlights the subfamily's monophyly and its distinction from other Amaryllidaceae subfamilies like Amaryllidoideae and Agapanthoideae.^[4] Allioideae exhibits a disjunct global distribution, with Allieae centered in the Northern Hemisphere (particularly Eurasia and North America), Gilliesieae and Leucocoryneae restricted to southern South America (from Peru to Chile), and Tulbaghieae endemic to southern Africa.^[2] This pattern is linked to an ancient Gondwanan origin around 62 million years ago, followed by vicariance and long-distance dispersal events, such as the migration of Allium ancestors via the Indian plate.^[2] Ecologically, species thrive in diverse habitats from Mediterranean shrublands to grasslands and montane regions, often as early successional pioneers with adaptations like underground storage organs for surviving seasonal droughts.^[1] Notable for their economic and cultural significance, Allioideae includes numerous edible and medicinal species, most prominently in Allium such as onion (A. cepa), garlic (A. sativum), and leek (A. ampeloprasum), which are cultivated worldwide for their culinary, pharmaceutical, and ornamental value due to bioactive sulfur compounds with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties.^[2] Other genera like Tulbaghia contribute to traditional medicine in Africa, while species in Gilliesieae and Leucocoryneae are valued for horticulture in arid landscapes.^[1] The subfamily's diversity also poses taxonomic challenges, with ongoing research into karyotype evolution—such as stable chromosome numbers in Allieae (x=8) versus variability in Gilliesieae (x=4–10)—aiding species delimitation and conservation efforts.^[2]

Description

Morphology

Members of the Allioideae are geophytes characterized by underground storage organs that are predominantly bulbs or corms, enabling dormancy and nutrient storage. Bulbs in the tribe Allieae, especially within the genus Allium, are typically tunicated, consisting of a central axis surrounded by overlapping fleshy scales protected by a papery outer tunic derived from dried leaf bases.^[5] In contrast, non-tunicated bulbs predominate in other genera, featuring separate, succulent scales without a unified outer covering, while some species in Gilliesieae exhibit rhizomatous storage organs.^[5] The leaves are generally linear to lanceolate, arising basally and sheathing the lower portion of the flowering stem (scape), which lacks chlorophyll and emerges leafless. Leaf width varies from terete (cylindrical) in some Allium species to broader and flat in genera like Tulbaghia, with venation patterns ranging from parallel to slightly reticulate across tribes, influencing rigidity and photosynthetic efficiency. Inflorescences form as compact umbels borne atop leafless scapes, subtended by one or two papery bracts that enclose the developing flowers. Each flower is actinomorphic or zygomorphic, with six similar tepals in two whorls of three (outer and inner series), often free or basally connate; six stamens with filiform filaments, sometimes appendaged at the base; and a tricarpellate, superior ovary leading to a style with a capitate stigma. Fruits develop as loculicidal capsules that dehisce along the locule walls, typically three-lobed and containing multiple seeds. Seeds are generally black and angular, with a hard testa and small embryo embedded in mealy endosperm, facilitating dispersal and germination. Anatomically, tissues in Allieae often contain calcium oxalate crystals, including raphide bundles (needle-like crystals) in idioblasts, which may deter herbivory, alongside sulfur-containing compounds responsible for the characteristic alliaceous odor released upon tissue damage. Morphological variations include elongated perianth tubes in Leucocoryneae, adapting flowers for specialized pollinators, and colorful, often zygomorphic tepals in Gilliesieae that enhance visual attraction for insect pollination.

Reproduction

Allioideae species engage in sexual reproduction through hermaphroditic flowers arranged in umbels, which facilitate efficient pollen transfer and seed set.^[6] These flowers produce nectar via septal nectaries located at the base of the ovary, serving as a reward for pollinators, while some taxa exhibit UV-absorbing patterns on tepals acting as nectar guides to direct insects toward reproductive structures.^[7] Elongated, solid styles extend beyond the stamens in many species, promoting cross-pollination by increasing contact with visiting insects.^[8] Pollination in Allioideae is predominantly entomophilous, with syndromes varying by tribe. In Allium, the dominant genus, flowers attract a generalist assemblage of insects including bees (Apis mellifera) and syrphid flies, which visit for nectar and pollen during the brief flowering period. These pollinators contribute to outcrossing, though self-compatibility allows autogamy in some cases. In contrast, the Gilliesieae tribe displays specialized pollination strategies, exemplified by Gilliesia graminea, where strongly zygomorphic, green flowers with dark purple markings mimic insect bodies to deceive male butterflies and wasps through sexual mimicry, without offering nectar but emitting scents from osmophores on tepal appendages.^[9] Following pollination, fertilized ovules develop into seeds within loculicidal capsules that dehisce longitudinally to release black, angular seeds primarily via gravity dispersal.^[10] Apomixis, an asexual seed formation process, is rare across the subfamily but documented in Nothoscordum gracile, a tetraploid species where it enables geographical parthenogenesis and rapid spread.^[11] Vegetative propagation occurs naturally through offsets from bulbs or division of corms, allowing clonal spread and persistence in stable habitats; this mode is also widely employed in cultivation to maintain desirable traits.^[12] Members of Allioideae exhibit a perennial geophytic life cycle, characterized by underground storage organs that enable seasonal dormancy during adverse conditions, followed by renewed growth and flowering.^[13] Flowering is triggered by environmental cues, including vernalization (prolonged cold exposure) and photoperiod changes, which synchronize reproduction with favorable seasons.^[14] Cytologically, Allioideae display base chromosome numbers that vary across tribes, with x=8 stable in Allieae and more variable (x=4–10) in Gilliesieae, alongside frequent polyploidy—particularly in Allium—driving speciation through ecological shifts and reproductive isolation.^[15]

Taxonomy

Historical development

The classification of plants now recognized as Allioideae traces back to Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum in 1753, where he described the genus Allium as part of the family Liliaceae, accepting 30 species grouped into three informal alliances based on morphological similarities such as bulb structure and inflorescence type.^[16] Allium served as the type genus, with early descriptions emphasizing its characteristic onion-like odor and tunicate bulbs, which distinguished it within the broader Liliaceae.^[17] In the 19th century, botanists began to refine the placement of Allium and related genera through more detailed monographic work. William Herbert established Allioideae as a tribe in 1821, separating it from other Liliaceae elements based on floral and vegetative traits like superior ovaries and umbellate inflorescences.^[18] This separation was further elaborated by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker in their 1883 classification, where the Allieae tribe—encompassing Allium and allies—was positioned as one of 20 tribes within Liliaceae, incorporating subtribes like Gilliesieae to account for variations in seed coat and pollen morphology.^[19] Key contributions during this period included Richard Anthony Salisbury's 1866 treatment of British Allium species in The Genera of Plants, which proposed sectional divisions based on leaf and flower characteristics, and John Gilbert Baker's 1874 monograph in the Journal of the Linnean Society, which recognized approximately 220 species worldwide and emphasized geographic patterns in bulb tunics and filament appendages.^[20]^[21] By the early 20th century, debates intensified over whether alliaceous plants warranted family status distinct from Liliaceae, driven by comparative studies of floral anatomy, seed traits, and karyotypes. Hamilton Paul Traub elevated Alliaceae to family rank in 1963, arguing for separation based on unique features such as the absence of septal nectaries and the presence of alliaceous odors, while including genera like Agapanthus and Brodiaea in broader alliances.^[22] Rolf Martin Theodor Dahlgren reinforced this in 1985, recognizing Alliaceae as a distinct family with about 30 genera and 720 species, justified by differences in pollen ultrastructure and seed albumen compared to core Liliaceae.^[23] Pre-molecular era controversies, such as the inclusion of Agapanthus and Amaryllis in expanded Alliaceae concepts, were addressed through pollen morphology and karyotype analyses, as exemplified by Knud Rahn's 1998 review, which used chromosome numbers and aperture types to clarify alliances while maintaining Alliaceae as separate from Amaryllidaceae.^[23] Prior to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classifications, most systems treated Alliaceae as an independent family, reflecting a consensus on its morphological coherence despite ongoing debates over generic boundaries.^[24]

Phylogenetic relationships

Allioideae is recognized as one of three subfamilies within Amaryllidaceae according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (APG III) classification in 2009 and the updated APG IV system in 2016, alongside Amaryllidoideae and Agapanthoideae.^[25]^[1] This placement reflects molecular evidence establishing Allioideae as a distinct lineage within the family, characterized by its bulbous habit and inflorescence structure, though these traits are not the focus of phylogenetic inference here.^[4] The core Allioideae clade is monophyletic, strongly supported by analyses of plastid markers such as rbcL and matK, as well as nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences.^[4] Molecular clock estimates indicate that the subfamily diverged approximately 50–60 million years ago during the Paleocene-Eocene, with the crown group diversification around 58 million years ago (95% highest posterior density: 52–64 million years ago).^[4]^[2] Early molecular studies, such as Meerow et al. (2006), confirmed the monophyly of Allioideae using multigene approaches including ITS, trnL-F, and rbcL, providing foundational support for its separation from other subfamilies.^[26] Subsequent work by Ng et al. (2014) incorporated the tribe Leucocoryneae into Allioideae based on combined plastid and nuclear data, resolving its position within the southern Hemisphere lineages.^[27] Recent phylogenomic analyses since 2022 have advanced understanding of intra-subfamily relationships, particularly within the dominant genus Allium, using whole plastomes and nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA).^[4] These studies have refined subgeneric boundaries; for instance, a 2025 analysis of Allium subgenus Melanocrommyum employed plastome and nuclear sequences to clarify its monophyly and biogeographic patterns across Eurasia and North Africa.^[28] Similarly, phylogenies of subgenus Amerallium (2024) and subgenus Rhizirideum (2023) have used multi-locus data to resolve inter-subgeneric connections, highlighting rapid radiations in Old World lineages.^[29]^[30] Despite these advances, several unresolved issues persist in Allioideae phylogeny. Genera such as Nothoscordum and Ipheion exhibit non-monophyly, likely due to reticulate evolution and ancient hybridization within tribe Leucocoryneae, as evidenced by incongruent plastid and nuclear topologies.^[27] In Allium, hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting complicate relationships, particularly in East Asian lineages, where a 2025 study identified substantial gene tree discordance attributable to these processes.^[31]^[32] Biogeographic reconstructions suggest a Northern Hemisphere origin for tribe Allieae (primarily Allium), with subsequent dispersals to southern continents shaping Allioideae diversity.^[33] In contrast, other tribes show southern Gondwanan roots, with vicariance and long-distance dispersal driving intercontinental disjunctions around 50–60 million years ago.^[4]^[2]

Subdivision

Allioideae is subdivided into four tribes: Allieae, the type tribe comprising approximately 80% of the subfamily's species diversity with a Northern Hemisphere focus; Tulbaghieae, consisting of aromatic herbs endemic to South Africa; Gilliesieae, featuring colorful flowers native to Andean South America; and Leucocoryneae, restricted to Chile and Argentina and formally recognized as a distinct tribe in 2018.^[34]^[35] The Allieae is diagnosed by the production of sulfur compounds such as allyl sulfides responsible for the characteristic odor, tunicated bulbs, and scapose inflorescences forming umbels, along with solid styles and superior ovaries; it includes the monotypic genus Allium with over 900 species.^[34]^[36]^[37] Tulbaghieae features non-tunicated bulbs, persistent leaf sheaths, solid styles, superior ovaries, and allyl sulfide chemistry; it includes minor genera such as Tulbaghia with about 28 species.^[34]^[38] Gilliesieae is characterized by cormous underground organs, diverse growth habits ranging from geophytes to rhizomatous forms, and zygomorphic flowers; it encompasses 8 genera and approximately 80 species, including Miersia with recent additions such as M. stellata and M. raucoana described in 2022.^[34]^[39] Leucocoryneae is distinguished by long-tubed actinomorphic flowers, cape-like bracts, and septal nectaries; it includes genera such as Leucocoryne across 7 genera and about 100 species.^[34]^[35] Overall, the subfamily contains ~1,100–1,600 species across 18–20 genera, with tribe circumscriptions stable since 2018 but subject to ongoing refinements based on phylogenetic evidence.^[34]

Genera

The subfamily Allioideae encompasses approximately 18 genera distributed across four tribes, with a total species diversity exceeding 1,000, predominantly driven by the genus Allium.^[3] These genera exhibit varying levels of species richness and geographic specialization, reflecting the subfamily's evolutionary history in temperate and subtropical regions.^[36] The largest genus, Allium in the tribe Allieae, comprises over 900 species organized into 15 subgenera, accounting for the majority of Allioideae's diversity.^[30] Recent taxonomic additions include Allium sulaimanicum from Pakistan, described in 2022 and placed in a new section based on morphological and molecular evidence, and Allium parhamii from Iran, also recognized in 2022 with a diploid chromosome number of 2n=16.^[40]^[41] The name Allium derives from the Latin word for garlic, with Allium sativum as the type species.^[42] Other notable genera include Nothoscordum in Leucocoryneae, with 20–30 species primarily from the Americas, though molecular studies indicate it is polyphyletic, incorporating elements of Beauverdia.^[43] Tulbaghia in Tulbaghieae consists of about 28 species native to southern Africa, several of which, such as Tulbaghia violacea, are valued for their medicinal properties in traditional treatments for ailments like fever and respiratory issues.^[44] Tristagma, a small genus of around 10 species in Leucocoryneae, is endemic to the Andean regions of Chile, Argentina, and Peru, featuring specialized adaptations to high-altitude habitats.^[45] Recent taxonomic revisions have refined the subfamilial composition. In 2022, the monotypic genus Atacamallium was established in Leucocoryneae for Atacamallium minutiflorum, a bulbous geophyte endemic to the coastal desert of northern Chile, distinguished by its diminutive flowers and basal tepal fusion.^[46] Within Gilliesieae, the genus Miersia saw the addition of two species, Miersia stellata and Miersia raucoana, in 2022, based on phylogenetic analyses confirming their placement alongside Miersia putaendensis.^[39] Additionally, the genus Latace was reinstated in Leucocoryneae in 2015, recognizing its distinct status from related genera like Leucocoryne and Nothoscordum.^[47] Several former genera have been subsumed due to phylogenetic evidence. Miersiella was merged into Gilliesia in Gilliesieae following morphological and molecular reassessments.^[48] Similarly, Ipheion has been incorporated into Tristagma in some contemporary treatments, with many of its species, including Ipheion uniflorum, reclassified based on 2019 revisions emphasizing shared floral and karyotypic traits.^[45] Diversity within Allioideae is unevenly distributed, with Allium dominating the northern-hemisphere-focused Allieae, while the southern tribes—Gilliesieae, Leucocoryneae, and Tulbaghieae—feature fewer genera that are often more morphologically specialized and regionally endemic, such as the eight genera in Gilliesieae (e.g., Solaria, Speea) and seven in Leucocoryneae (e.g., Zoellnerallium, Leucocoryne).^[3] This pattern underscores the subfamily's Gondwanan origins and subsequent radiations.^[36]

Distribution and ecology

Global distribution

The subfamily Allioideae exhibits a disjunct global distribution aligned with its tribal structure, spanning temperate regions across both hemispheres but with distinct concentrations. The tribe Allieae, comprising primarily the genus Allium with approximately 900 species, is predominantly distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, Asia, and North America.^[36]^[4] A major center of diversity for Allium occurs in Central Asia, where over 250 species are recorded, particularly in the mountainous regions of the former Soviet Central Asian republics.^[49] High levels of endemism characterize Allium in this area, with more than 60 endemic species in Turkey and around 93 species total in Iran, many of which are regionally unique.^[50]^[51] In the Southern Hemisphere, the tribe Tulbaghieae is endemic to southern Africa, centered in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, with approximately 30 species.^[36] The tribes Gilliesieae (about 50 species) and Leucocoryneae (roughly 100 species) are concentrated in South America, primarily along the Andean chain from Peru through Chile and Argentina.^[36]^[4]^[1] Recent discoveries, such as the new genus Atacamallium (A. minutiflorum) described in 2022 from the coastal Atacama Desert in northern Chile, highlight ongoing revelations of endemism in arid Andean zones and contribute to refinement of species counts in Leucocoryneae.^[52] The overall range of Allioideae extends from temperate to subtropical zones, roughly 40°N to 40°S latitude, with limited presence in tropical areas and complete native absence from Australia.^[2]^[3] Biogeographic patterns reflect a Gondwanan origin in Africa around 62 million years ago, followed by vicariance and long-distance dispersal events that carried Allieae northward via the Arabian Peninsula or Indian plate to establish Holarctic dominance, while southern tribes diversified in situ on separated continents.^[36]^[4]^[3] Introduced Allium species, such as A. vineale, have become invasive weeds in Australia and parts of the Americas outside their native ranges.^[53]

Habitat and adaptations

Members of the Allioideae subfamily primarily inhabit temperate grasslands, Mediterranean shrublands, and montane meadows, with many taxa exhibiting xerophytic traits suited to arid zones such as steppes. For instance, species in the genus Allium thrive in dry, well-drained soils of Eurasian steppes and Mediterranean regions, where seasonal drought is prevalent. In South America, genera within the Gilliesieae tribe occupy high-altitude Andean meadows, adapting to cooler, variable climates at elevations up to 3,500 meters. Similarly, Tulbaghieae species in southern Africa favor fire-prone fynbos shrublands and coastal dunes, showcasing resilience to environmental stressors in nutrient-poor substrates.^[54] Key physiological adaptations enable Allioideae to persist in these diverse niches, including dormant bulbs or corms that facilitate drought tolerance by storing water and nutrients during unfavorable periods. These underground structures allow plants to remain viable through extended dry seasons, as seen in Allium species of arid central Asian steppes. Additionally, many taxa form mycorrhizal associations with arbuscular fungi, enhancing nutrient uptake—particularly phosphorus—in impoverished soils typical of Mediterranean and montane habitats. Polyploidy further bolsters adaptability to harsh conditions like cold and desiccation in northern and high-elevation populations.^[54]^[55] Ecologically, Allioideae species serve as early-season pollinator attractants, with vibrant spring blooms supporting insects in grasslands and shrublands before canopy closure. In Allium, sulfur-containing compounds like allicin exhibit allelopathic effects and deter herbivores through pungent volatiles released upon tissue damage, reducing grazing pressure in open habitats. These chemical defenses contribute to the subfamily's role in maintaining plant community dynamics.^[56]^[57] Habitat loss poses significant threats to Allioideae, particularly in the Mediterranean Basin and Andean regions, where urbanization, agriculture, and climate-induced aridification fragment ecosystems and endanger endemic taxa.^[58] Some species also exhibit invasive potential in disturbed areas, such as Allium vineale spreading in North American grasslands via prolific bulbils, outcompeting natives.^[53] Climate responses vary across the subfamily, with northern Allium taxa demonstrating cold hardiness through frost-resistant bulbs and phenotypic plasticity in boreal zones. In contrast, South African Tulbaghia species are fire-adapted, relying on rhizomatous storage organs to resprout post-fire, a critical trait in frequently burned ecosystems. These adaptations underscore the subfamily's resilience amid shifting environmental conditions.^[59] Biodiversity hotspots harbor a substantial portion of Allioideae diversity, with approximately 50% of species concentrated in the Mediterranean Basin and Andean regions, where endemism drives evolutionary innovation. The Mediterranean supports high Allium diversification due to climatic variability, while Andean montane zones foster speciation in Gilliesieae and related tribes through isolation and elevation gradients.^[60]

Uses

Culinary and medicinal applications

Allioideae species, particularly those in the genus Allium, have been integral to culinary traditions worldwide due to their distinctive flavors imparted by sulfur-containing volatiles like allicin. Allium sativum (garlic) is a staple in Mediterranean, Asian, and Latin American cuisines, often used raw, roasted, or minced in sauces, marinades, and stir-fries for its pungent aroma and antibacterial properties during food preparation.^[61] Similarly, Allium cepa (onion) serves as a base for soups, curries, and salads across global dishes, while Allium ampeloprasum (leek) is commonly used in soups, stews, casseroles, and stir-fries, and Allium schoenoprasum (chives) adds a mild, onion-like garnish to egg dishes, salads, and oriental stir-fries.^[62]^[63]^[64] These flavors arise from enzymatic reactions releasing organosulfur compounds upon cutting or crushing, enhancing both taste and preservation in cooked meals.^[65] Nutritionally, Allium vegetables are low-calorie sources of essential nutrients, including vitamin C (up to 8.14 mg per 100 g in onions), vitamin B6, potassium, and dietary fiber, alongside prebiotic fructans that support gut health.^[66] They are rich in antioxidants such as quercetin and kaempferol, which contribute to their anti-inflammatory effects and potential cardiovascular benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease through improved lipid profiles and blood pressure regulation.^[67] Regular consumption has been associated with lower cholesterol levels and enhanced immune function, attributed to these bioactive compounds.^[68] Historical evidence highlights garlic's role in ancient Egyptian diets, where it was provided to pyramid builders for sustenance and strength, facilitating trade along early routes.^[69] Medicinally, Allium species have been employed traditionally for their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, with garlic's allicin demonstrating broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including multidrug-resistant strains.^[70] Modern studies on organosulfur compounds, such as diallyl sulfide and S-allylcysteine, indicate potential cancer-preventive effects by inhibiting tumor growth and promoting apoptosis in preclinical models, particularly for colorectal and esophageal cancers.^[71] These compounds also exhibit immunomodulatory benefits, enhancing proinflammatory cytokines like IFN-γ and TNF-α to combat infections.^[72] Beyond Allium, other genera in Allioideae offer culinary and medicinal applications; for instance, Tulbaghia violacea from southern Africa serves as a mild garlic substitute, with its edible leaves and flowers used in soups, salads, and as a flavoring in traditional dishes, while also possessing antimicrobial properties for treating respiratory ailments.^[73] Processing methods like drying, pickling in brine, and freezing preserve these plants' nutritional and bioactive qualities, extending shelf life while retaining antioxidants in products such as pickled onions and garlic powder.^[74] However, raw Allium consumption poses safety risks, as N-propyl disulfide causes oxidative damage to red blood cells, leading to hemolytic anemia in pets like dogs and cats, and livestock such as cattle.^[75]^[76]

Ornamental and other uses

Species in the Allioideae subfamily are widely cultivated as ornamental plants due to their diverse flower colors, shapes, and bulbous growth habits, which add architectural interest to gardens. The genus Allium, comprising around 900 species, includes numerous ornamental varieties prized for their spherical umbels and long-lasting blooms, often used in borders, rock gardens, and as cut flowers. For instance, Allium schubertii features explosive, starburst-like flower heads in shades of pink to purple, making it a striking addition to mixed perennial beds, while Allium giganteum produces tall stems up to 1.5 meters high topped with large, globe-shaped inflorescences, ideal for back-of-border plantings. These plants are valued for their ability to naturalize in meadows and lawns, providing pollinator attraction through nectar-rich flowers.^[77] Other genera in Allioideae also contribute to ornamental horticulture. Tulbaghia species, such as Tulbaghia violacea (commonly known as society garlic), are popular for their grass-like foliage and clusters of lilac or white flowers, which emit a mild garlic scent; they are frequently planted in massings, herb gardens, or along pathways for low-maintenance ground cover in USDA zones 7-10. Similarly, Ipheion uniflorum (spring starflower) is employed in rock gardens, woodland edges, and containers for its delicate, star-shaped blue or white blooms that emerge in early spring, tolerating partial shade and poor soils while spreading gently to form colonies. These selections enhance landscape diversity with their evergreen or semi-evergreen traits in milder climates.^[78]^[79] Beyond ornamentals, certain Allioideae members serve ecological roles in sustainable gardening, such as companion planting to deter pests like aphids due to their sulfur compounds, though this application borders on traditional pest management rather than primary use. Some species, including Allium cernuum, support biodiversity by attracting bees and butterflies, contributing to pollinator gardens without requiring intensive care.^[77]

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Sep 12, 2016 · The molecular phylogenetic relationships of Zoellnerallium and Leucocoryne we recovered are not congruent with previous results based only on ...
[27]
New insights into the molecular phylogeny and biogeographical ...
May 16, 2025 · Subgenus Melanocrommyum is the second largest subgenus of Allium, with a wide distribution ranging from the Canary Islands to northwestern India ...Missing: 2022-2025 Amerallium Rhizirideum
[28]
Dated phylogeny, phylogeography, and classification of Allium ...
Jun 9, 2024 · About 145 species belong to the Allium subg. Amerallium Traub, which occur in North America, Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and South- ...
[29]
Phylogeny and adaptive evolution of subgenus Rhizirideum ...
Feb 1, 2023 · The subgenus Rhizirideum in the genus Allium consists of 38 species worldwide and forms five sections (A. sect. Rhizomatosa, A. sect.
[30]
Phylogenomics of East Asian lineage within subgenus Anguinum ...
Jul 22, 2025 · Widespread phylogenetic discordance in the EAL is mainly due to incomplete lineage sorting (ILS), with hybridization also playing key roles.
[31]
Incomplete lineage sorting and gene flow within Allium ... - PubMed
Mar 11, 2024 · We presented clear evidence for substantial ILS across the phylogeny of Allium. Further, we identified two ancient hybridization events for the ...Missing: Unresolved issues Allioideae non- Nothoscordum Ipheion 2025
[32]
Phylogeny and biogeography of Allium (Amaryllidaceae: Allieae ...
Phylogenetic analyses reveal that Allium is monophyletic but that some subgenera are not. The large genetic distances imply that Allium is of ancient origin.
[33]
https://academic.oup.com/aob/article/106/5/709/142613
[34]
https://doi.org/10.31055/1851.2372.v58.n3.40046
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Divide to Conquer: Evolutionary History of Allioideae Tribes ...
Apr 6, 2020 · Allioideae (e.g. chives, garlics, onions) comprises three mainly temperate tribes: Allieae (800 species from the northern hemisphere), ...Missing: venation | Show results with:venation
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Biological Diversity and Nutritional Importance of Allium Perennial ...
Sep 11, 2024 · There are 56 recorded Allium species in the Balkans; 17 of them are endemic. The most common and well-studied Allium species in the Balkans are ...
[37]
Tulbaghia L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Accepted Species. Includes 28 Accepted Species. KB. Tulbaghia acutiloba Harv. Tulbaghia aequinoctialis Welw. ex Baker · Tulbaghia alliacea L.f. · Tulbaghia ...
[38]
Two new species of Miersia and their phylogenetic placements ...
Oct 20, 2022 · Gilliesieae is a poorly known tribe comprising several threatened species ( Torres-Mellado et al. 2012 ) characterized by zygomorphic flowers, a ...
[39]
The origin and diversification of Amaryllidaceae: A phylogenetic and ...
Sep 11, 2025 · Members of subfamily Allioideae are distinguished by their distinctive alliaceous odor, superior ovaries, a hollow style, and spirally ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
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Allium sulaimanicum: A new Allium species and section ... - Frontiers
Dec 13, 2022 · A new species, Allium sulaimanicum, is described from northern Balochistan and southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan based on morphological, molecular, and ...Missing: parhamii | Show results with:parhamii
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Allium parhamii (Amaryllidaceae, Allioideae), a new species from ...
Mar 3, 2022 · Based on morphological features, the new species belongs to A. sect. Asteroprason. It differs from the closely related species A. monophyllum in ...
[42]
https://www.britannica.com/plant/allium-plant
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Reconstructing the phylogenetic history of the tribe Leucocoryneae ...
The Allioideae includes four tribes geographically disjunct namely: Allieae, widespread in the northern hemisphere, tribe Tulbaghieae distributed in South ...
[44]
The genus Tulbaghia (Alliaceae)--a review of its ethnobotany ...
Sep 16, 2013 · The approximately 63 species have nutritive, ornamental and medicinal value. For centuries, several Tulbaghia species have found diverse uses ...
[45]
Tristagma - Pacific Bulb Society
Aug 10, 2025 · In 1963 Hamilton P. Traub proposed moving Ipheion to Tristagma. In 2019 many of the accepted names of these plants are now found in the genera ...
[46]
Atacamallium minutiflorum (Amaryllidaceae, Allioideae), new genus ...
Mar 12, 2022 · Atacamallium minutiflorum differs from other species of Leucocoryneae by its overall smaller flowers, tepals fused only at the base, six stamens ...
[47]
The reinstatement of Latace Phil. (Amaryllidaceae, Allioideae)
Aug 6, 2025 · We outline the differences among genera and species, present a taxonomic review with a new lectotype and consider the conservation status of the ...
[48]
Alliaceae Genera
VASCULAR PLANT FAMILIES and GENERA. List of Genera in AMARYLLIDACEAE-ALLIOIDEAE. All = Allieae, Gill = Gilliesieae, Leu = Leucocoryneae, Tul = Tulbaghieae.
[49]
Allium formosum Sennikov & Lazkov (Amaryllidaceae), a new ...
Apr 2, 2013 · The genus Allium L. is highly speciose in the former Soviet part of Central Asia. The latest synopsis ( Khassanov 2008 ) lists nearly 250 ...
[50]
Allium ekimianum: a new species (Amaryllidaceae) from Turkey
Apr 6, 2016 · Allium ekimianum is described here as a new species. This taxon belongs to the genus Allium section Allium and grows in Elazığ Province (East Anatolia, Turkey).
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(PDF) The genus Allium (Alliaceae) in Iran: Current state, new taxa ...
Jul 22, 2025 · ... number of Allium species occurring in Iran to 93 which belong to seven subgenera ... Of all endemic species occurring in Iran, 2143 species ...
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Allium vineale - Pacific Bulb Society
Jan 4, 2025 · This species was introduced in Australia and North America, where it has become a noxious weed. Height: to 90 cm. All parts of the plant ...
[53]
Insights into phylogeny, age and evolution of Allium (Amaryllidaceae ...
Apr 1, 2020 · This is the first study that conducted phylogenetic and evolutionary analyses on the genus Allium combined with the plastome and morphological and cytological ...
[54]
[PDF] Mycorrhizal Status of Plant Families and Genera
Jun 9, 2020 · Allioideae. Allium. Garlic, Onion, Leek, Chives,. Shallot. Yes. Altingiaceae. Liquidambar. Sweetgum. Yes. Amaranthaceae. Alternanthera.
[55]
All about Allium - Cell Press
Nov 22, 2021 · Produced upon injury of the plant, the strong smell may deter herbivores and parasites. The scents of their flowers appear to be produced ...
[56]
Understanding the defense mechanism of Allium plants ... - Frontiers
Dec 10, 2024 · Sulfur-derived allicin/isoallicin are distinctive flavor compounds characteristic of the Allium genus. The biosynthetic pathway of isoalliin, ...
[57]
Allium munzii - Wikipedia
Major threats to this flower include urbanization, agriculture, clay mining, and other human activities. A recovery plan for Allium munzii is not in motion but ...
[58]
[PDF] The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat - IUCN
The Mediterranean is also hosting 253 species of endemic freshwater fish. Although the Mediterranean. Sea makes up less than 1% of the global ocean surface, up ...Missing: Allioideae | Show results with:Allioideae
[59]
Tulbaghia maritima | PlantZAfrica - SANBI
Although Tulbaghia maritima is not fire-adapted in the normal sense, its underground storage organ allows it to be able recover after fires, a useful trait in ...
[60]
Multiple Drivers of High Species Diversity and Endemism Among ...
The Mediterranean Basin represents one of the world's major biodiversity hotspots with an exceptionally high species diversity and endemism rate (Myers et al., ...
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Producing Garlic in Michigan - Vegetables
Jun 30, 2016 · The culinary uses and recent reported health benefits of garlic (Allium sativum L.) have contributed to an increased interest in garlic by ...
[62]
Traditional uses and practices of edible cultivated Allium species ...
Mar 10, 2022 · Several types of onion have commonly been used as condiments in pickled herring dishes, spreads, sauces, foods made of blood and offal, ...
[63]
Garlic Chives, Allium tuberosum - Wisconsin Horticulture
They can be added to salads, egg dishes, soups, or stews. It is used in stir fries and other dishes in several oriental cuisines, especially Korean. The flowers ...
[64]
All About Alliums—Knowing Your Onions, Shallots, Garlic and Leeks
Apr 22, 2020 · They are so called because they belong to the genus Allium. We add them to pizza and pasta, soups and stir-fries, and Thai and Indian cuisine.Missing: species | Show results with:species
[65]
Onion Benefits: Nutrients, Antioxidants, and Cooking Ideas - Healthline
Key nutrients in onions · Calories: 44 · Protein: 1.2 g · Carbs: 10.3 g · Sugar: 4.66 g · Fiber: 1.87 g · Fat: 0.1 g · Potassium: 161 milligrams (mg) · Vitamin C: 8.14 ...
[66]
Nutritional value and antioxidant capacity of organic and ... - NIH
Nov 4, 2022 · Allium vegetables are a valuable source of polyphenolic compounds, mainly flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol and their glycosides), as well as ...
[67]
Allium Vegetables: Their Health Benefits and Nutrition
Mar 12, 2025 · Many alliums are an excellent source of vitamin C, which boosts the immune system and supports skin health. They also provide B vitamins like ...
[68]
The History of Garlic - Eat My Globe
Apr 27, 2020 · As in ancient Egypt, garlic was valued for its supposed benefits to strength, energy and to work capacity. It formed part of the diet for ...
[69]
Antimicrobial properties of allicin from garlic - PubMed
Allicin in its pure form was found to exhibit i) antibacterial activity against a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.Missing: inflammatory | Show results with:inflammatory
[70]
Allium vegetables and organosulfur compounds: do they help ... - PMC
Allium vegetables and organosulfur compounds are thus possible cancer-preventive agents. Clinical trials will be required to define the effective dose that has ...
[71]
Immunomodulation and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Garlic ... - PMC
Allicin reduced parasitemia and prolonged survival due to improved host immune responses. Enhancement of proinflammatory mediators IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-12p70.
[72]
tulbaghia violacea Society Garlic PFAF Plant Database
A mild garlic flavour, they are used as a flavouring in soups and salads[183]. A substitute for chives and garlic. Flowers - raw or cooked. They can be added to ...
[73]
Influence of Pickling Process on Allium cepa and Citrus limon ... - NIH
Mar 7, 2019 · Pickling using brine, an old traditional process used to preserve food products, was investigated for the first time using an MS-based ...
[74]
Some food toxic for pets - PMC
It is widely agreed that n-propyl disulphide is the principal toxin that reduces the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in red blood cells ...
[75]
Onions - Guide to Poisonous Plants
Animals Affected Cattle and cats are the most susceptible to onion poisoning ... Toxic Principle An alkaloid, N-propyl disulfide, present in both cultivated ...Missing: pets | Show results with:pets
[76]
Allium | Pacific Bulb Society
Jan 16, 2025 · The genus Allium L. contains approximately 750 species and has been classified as belonging to Alliaceae and Liliaceae, but is currently ...
[77]
Society Garlic - UF/IFAS Gardening Solutions
The rhizomes and leaves are edible and can be used in dishes the same way that garlic or garlic chives are used. Flowers are also edible and can be used as a ...
[78]
Ipheion uniflorum (Mexican Star, Spring Starflower, Starlikes)
Plant in late fall and bury plants 5 in. to base of the bulb and space 2-4 in. apart, 10-20 bulbs per sq. ft. These are excellent for use in rock gardens, lawns ...