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Amblypygi

Amblypygi, commonly known as whip spiders or tailless whip scorpions, constitute a small order of arachnids characterized by their dorsoventrally flattened bodies, exceptionally elongated and antenniform first pair of legs that function primarily as sensory organs, and robust, raptorial pedipalps armed with spines for capturing prey.^[1]^[2]^[3] Unlike true spiders or scorpions, they lack venom glands, silk-producing spinnerets, and a post-abdominal flagellum or tail, instead relying on mechanical force and agility for predation.^[4]^[5] The order Amblypygi encompasses five extant families—Charinidae, Charontidae, Phrynichidae, Phrynidae, and Paracharontidae—distributed across 17 genera and approximately 260 described species, with a fossil record extending back over 300 million years to the Carboniferous period, indicating remarkable morphological stability over geological time.^[6]^[7] These arachnids exhibit a pantropical distribution, primarily inhabiting warm, humid environments such as tropical rainforests, caves, and understory vegetation in regions spanning Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and northern Australia, though some species extend into subtropical areas.^[8]^[9] They are predominantly nocturnal, equipped with eight ocelli arranged in three clusters for dim-light vision, but depend heavily on chemotactile and mechanosensory cues from their whip-like forelegs to navigate and detect prey.^[10]^[5] Biologically, amblypygids are solitary or weakly social predators that feed mainly on insects, other arthropods, and occasionally small vertebrates like lizards or frogs, employing rapid strikes with their pedipalps to immobilize victims before consumption using chelicerae.^[4]^[11] Reproduction involves indirect sperm transfer via a specialized spermatophore, with females exhibiting maternal care by carrying nymphs on their bodies for weeks after hatching; some species display complex social behaviors, including vibrational communication and tolerance in communal refuges.^[10] Their exoskeleton features a unique cerotegument layer for protection against desiccation in humid microhabitats, and while generally harmless to humans, larger species can deliver painful pincers from their pedipalps if provoked.^[12]^[4]

Taxonomy and classification

Higher classification

Amblypygi constitutes an order of arachnids within the class Arachnida, specifically placed in the clade Tetrapulmonata, a grouping supported by morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses that unite them with other pulmonate arachnids.^[1] This clade encompasses orders characterized by four book lungs or lung slits, distinguishing them from other arachnid lineages.^[13] Amblypygi are readily distinguished from other arachnids by several key traits, including the complete absence of silk glands and spinnerets, which precludes web-building or any silken structures, as well as the lack of venomous fangs in their chelicerae, rendering them harmless to humans despite their formidable appearance.^[3] Instead, they possess enlarged, raptorial pedipalps armed with spines, which function as sensory and predatory appendages for grasping prey.^[14] The order's name, Amblypygi, derives from the Greek amblys (blunt) and pygē (rump), alluding to the truncated posterior lacking the flagellum present in related taxa like Uropygi.^[15] Within Tetrapulmonata, Amblypygi shares a close phylogenetic relationship with Araneae (spiders) and Uropygi (whip scorpions), forming a monophyletic group based on shared derived characters such as the structure of their book lungs and genital opercula.^[13] As an established taxonomic order, Amblypygi currently includes approximately 260 described species, reflecting ongoing discoveries in tropical regions.^[8]

Families and genera

The order Amblypygi comprises five extant families: Charinidae, Charontidae, Paracharontidae, Phrynichidae, and Phrynidae.^[6] These families collectively include 17 genera and 262 species as of 2023, with ongoing discoveries contributing to gradual increases in diversity.^[6] The family Charinidae is the most speciose, characterized by small-bodied species (typically under 1 cm in body length) with a pantropical distribution, often inhabiting humid forest understory and caves; it includes 3 genera and approximately 100 species, predominantly in the genus Charinus.^[16] Charontidae features medium to large species (up to 4 cm body length) primarily in the Old World tropics of Africa and Asia, noted for robust pedipalps; it encompasses 2 genera and approximately 20 species.^[17] Paracharontidae, the smallest family, consists of blind, troglobitic species adapted to cave environments in West Africa and northern South America, with 2 monotypic genera (Paracharon and Jorottui) and 2 species following a 2023 revision that added a new Colombian endemic.^[6] Phrynichidae includes spiny, arboreal species mainly from Africa and Southeast Asia, with 3 genera (Damon, Phrynichus, Euphrynichus) and around 30 species.^[18] Phrynidae, restricted to the Americas, contains the largest amblypygids (up to 4.5 cm body length) in arid and humid habitats; it has 4 genera (Acanthophrynus, Heterophrynus, Paraphrynus, Phrynus) and about 80 species.^[19] Recent taxonomic additions have focused on cave-dwelling forms, highlighting underexplored subterranean diversity. For example, in 2025, a new species Sarax yunnan was described from Yunnan Province, China.^[20] Historical reclassifications, driven by molecular phylogenetic analyses, include the separation of Paracharontidae from Charontidae in 1996 and subsequent transfers within Charinidae based on DNA sequence data, refining family boundaries and resolving paraphyletic groups.^[6]^[8]

Family	Number of Genera	Approximate Number of Species	Key Characteristics and Distribution
Charinidae	3	~100	Small size; pantropical, often cavernicolous
Charontidae	2	~20	Medium-large; Old World tropics (Africa, Asia)
Paracharontidae	2	2	Troglobitic, blind; West Africa and northern South America
Phrynichidae	3	~30	Spiny, arboreal; Africa and Southeast Asia
Phrynidae	4	~80	Large size; Neotropical (Americas)

Evolutionary history

Fossil record

The fossil record of Amblypygi extends from the late Carboniferous period approximately 300 million years ago to the present day, revealing a group with ancient origins among arachnids. The oldest well-documented fossils come from the Mazon Creek Lagerstätte in Illinois, USA, where siderite concretions have preserved complete specimens of the genus Graeophonus. These Carboniferous forms, dating to the Pennsylvanian subperiod (about 315–300 million years ago), already display the distinctive elongated, antenniform first legs used for sensory exploration, indicating that core morphological traits were established early in the lineage.^[21]^[22] Preservation of Amblypygi is challenging owing to their soft-bodied construction and absence of hard exoskeletal elements beyond the prosoma shield, resulting in a sparse fossil record confined to exceptional depositional environments known as Lagerstätten. Notable sites include the Carboniferous Mazon Creek deposits, the Early Cretaceous Crato Formation in Brazil, and mid-Cretaceous amber from Kachin, Myanmar. In these amber inclusions, whip spiders are often found in high fidelity, capturing details of their raptorial pedipalps and leg structures. Mesozoic records are predominantly Cretaceous, with Cenozoic examples from Eocene and Miocene ambers in the Baltic and Dominican Republic, respectively.^[22]^[23] To date, eight extinct genera comprising 13 species have been described, underscoring the order's limited fossil diversity relative to its ~270 extant species. Examples from the Mesozoic include Burmacharon and Cretamblypygi from Burmese amber, while Cenozoic fossils such as Succinamber from Baltic amber illustrate continuity in form. The suborder Paleoamblypygi, encompassing early taxa like Graeophonus and Weygoldtina from Carboniferous deposits, represents basal divergences within the order.^[22] Fossils demonstrate the early evolution of antenniform legs, a defining feature for tactile navigation, as these structures are evident in the oldest specimens and persist without major alteration. Morphometric analyses of fossil and modern forms reveal morphological stasis, with the prosoma shield showing only slight size reduction over time and overall body plan remaining conservative across 300 million years, suggesting ecological stability in tropical habitats.^[22]

Phylogenetic position

Amblypygi occupy a key position within the arachnid clade Tetrapulmonata, where molecular phylogenies consistently place them as part of a monophyletic group alongside Araneae (spiders), Uropygi (whip scorpions), and Schizomida (short-tailed whip scorpions). Specifically, 2020s molecular studies, including those utilizing transcriptomic and RNA-seq data, support Pedipalpida (Amblypygi + Uropygi + Schizomida) as the sister group to Araneae, forming a basal dichotomy within Tetrapulmonata that diverged approximately 400 million years ago during the Devonian period.^[24] This placement is reinforced by shared morphological traits, such as the structure of the book lungs and pedipalps, combined with genomic evidence from ultraconserved elements that highlight deep evolutionary conservation. The monophyly of Pedipalpi, traditionally defined as comprising Amblypygi and Uropygi, remains a point of contention in arachnid systematics. Early morphological analyses supported Pedipalpi as a clade sister to Araneae, but subsequent molecular studies have challenged this by suggesting alternative topologies, such as Schizomida nesting within or as sister to Uropygi, potentially rendering Pedipalpi paraphyletic or requiring its redefinition to exclude certain lineages.^[2]^[25] These debates underscore the limitations of morphology alone in resolving ancient divergences, with phylogenomic approaches favoring a more fragmented structure over strict Pedipalpi monophyly.^[26] Post-2021 phylogenomic analyses have significantly advanced the resolution of intra-Amblypygi relationships, producing robust family-level trees through integrated datasets of ultraconserved elements, mitochondrial genomes, and legacy Sanger sequences. These studies confirm the basal position of Charinidae within Euamblypygi, with Paleoamblypygi (e.g., Paracharontidae) as the earliest diverging suborder, reflecting a stepwise radiation from ancient lineages. In 2024, a living relict species of Paleoamblypygi was discovered in a Colombian cave, enabling the first global molecular phylogeny of Amblypygi and corroborating its basal position.^[1]^[8] Such analyses, sampling over 100 species, reveal low overall diversification rates but highlight cryptic diversity in tropical regions. The fossil record provides brief corroboration for these early divergence points, with Carboniferous specimens indicating Tetrapulmonata's antiquity.^[21] Biogeographic implications from these phylogenies point to Gondwanan origins for Amblypygi, with crown-group diversification linked to the breakup of the supercontinent around 180–100 million years ago, followed by multiple dispersals into Laurasian territories via vicariance and overwater rafting.^[14] This pattern aligns with the pantropical distribution of modern species, where basal families like Charinidae exhibit relict populations in Gondwanan fragments such as Africa and South America.^[27]

Morphology

Body plan

Amblypygi possess a characteristic arachnid body plan, consisting of a fused prosoma (cephalothorax) and a segmented opisthosoma (abdomen). The prosoma is a consolidated anterior tagma that houses the mouthparts and appendages, while the opisthosoma comprises 12 distinct segments and is connected to the prosoma by a narrow pedicel.^[2]^[24] Their overall body form is dorsoventrally flattened, facilitating movement through crevices and leaf litter.^[3] A key distinguishing feature of Amblypygi from the related order Uropygi is the absence of a tail or flagellum, which in Uropygi arises from elongation of the final abdominal segment. Additionally, they lack spinnerets for silk production, and their book lungs—used for respiration—are not externally visible.^[28]^[29] Body length in Amblypygi typically ranges from 1 to 4 cm, though some species exhibit sexual dimorphism with females attaining larger body sizes. The exoskeleton is composed of thin, flexible chitin, often in shades of brown or tan that provide camouflage against bark and soil substrates. The exoskeleton also features a unique cerotegument, a wax-like secretion layer that forms microstructures for water repellency and protection against desiccation.^[30] Adults undergo periodic molting to replace the exoskeleton, continuing this process throughout their lives after reaching maturity.^[31]^[32]^[10]

Appendages and sensory structures

Amblypygi possess a distinctive set of appendages adapted for sensory perception and prey capture, reflecting their reliance on tactile and chemical cues over vision. The first pair of legs is modified into elongated antenniform structures that function primarily as tactile explorers rather than for locomotion. These antenniform legs can extend up to several times the body length—reaching spans of 50 cm in larger species with body lengths of 3–4 cm—enabling the detection of environmental features from a distance.^[2] They are densely equipped with sensory sensilla, including trichobothria, which are filiform hairs sensitive to air movements and vibrations, aiding in the detection of nearby prey or threats.^[33] Additionally, chemoreceptive sensilla on these legs allow for the identification of chemical signals, such as pheromones during social interactions.^[34] The pedipalps in Amblypygi are raptorial appendages, enlarged and adorned with strong spines that facilitate prey capture and manipulation. These structures are held folded against the prosoma when not in use and strike rapidly to grasp insects or small vertebrates. Sexual dimorphism is evident in pedipalp size and shape in many genera, with males typically exhibiting longer and thicker pedipalps, likely due to their role in male-male contests.^[35] The chelicerae, by contrast, are small and non-venomous, serving mainly to process food by tearing and conveying it to the mouthparts after prey has been subdued by the pedipalps.^[3] The remaining three pairs of walking legs support locomotion and are adapted for navigating complex terrains, particularly vertical surfaces. Their tarsi feature pretarsal structures, including arolium-like pads and claws, that provide adhesion for climbing smooth substrates such as tree bark or rock faces, allowing Amblypygi to exploit arboreal and crevice habitats.^[36] Sensory capabilities beyond the appendages include a modest visual system consisting of one pair of median eyes and three pairs of lateral eyes, all simple ocelli with limited resolution and poor overall vision, contributing minimally to orientation or prey detection.^[37] Unlike some related arachnids, Amblypygi generally lack stridulatory organs, though isolated species exhibit rudimentary stridulation via other mechanisms.^[38]

Distribution and ecology

Geographic distribution

Amblypygi, commonly known as whip spiders, display a pantropical distribution confined to tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, spanning the Americas, Africa (including Madagascar), Southeast Asia, and northern Australia, with no established populations in temperate zones.^[8] This order comprises approximately 260 described species, the majority of which inhabit humid environments across these areas.^[8] The Neotropical region, particularly Central and South America, hosts the highest diversity.^[8] Key centers of species richness include the Amazon basin, where numerous endemic taxa thrive in rainforest understories, and Madagascar, a center of endemism with several species in genera such as Charinus and Phrynichus, many restricted to the island.^[39] Island endemism is notable in the Caribbean, with high levels of single-island specificity among genera like Phrynus and Paraphrynus, reflecting historical isolation and diversification.^[40] These patterns underscore the order's reliance on stable, warm climates for survival. Dispersal in Amblypygi is constrained by poor vagility and a strict dependence on humid microhabitats, limiting natural range expansions to contiguous suitable areas rather than long-distance colonization. Recent surveys in 2024 and 2025 have documented new records and species, extending known distributions in the Indo-Pacific, such as the first occurrence of Sarax ioanniticus in Cyprus and additional cave populations in Southeast Asia.^[41] No introduced populations have been confirmed, though the growing pet trade in genera like Damon and Heterophrynus raises concerns for potential non-native establishments via escaped or released individuals.^[42]

Habitat preferences

Amblypygi primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical forests, caves, and karst systems worldwide, favoring environments with high humidity levels exceeding 70% to prevent desiccation.^[10]^[5] These arachnids show a strong preference for dark, sheltered conditions, which align with their nocturnal lifestyle and sensory adaptations for low-light navigation.^[43] Within these broader habitats, they occupy specific microhabitats such as leaf litter accumulations, under loose bark on trees, and narrow rock crevices, where moisture is retained and predators are minimized.^[44]^[45] A notable portion of Amblypygi species exhibit troglophilic or troglobitic lifestyles, residing in subterranean cave systems that provide stable humidity and perpetual darkness.^[46] For instance, genera like Charinus and Phrynus include cave-adapted forms in regions such as Brazil and Colombia, where they exploit the consistent microclimates of karst formations.^[47]^[48] Recent studies in 2025 have emphasized conservation needs for cave species like Charinus santanensis in Brazil's Caatinga, threatened by habitat alteration.^[49] Their nocturnal activity patterns further support survival in these niches, as foraging occurs primarily at night to capitalize on humidity peaks and reduce exposure to drying conditions.^[24] Amblypygi occupy an altitudinal range from sea level to approximately 2000 meters, with records in Andean cloud forests demonstrating tolerance for varied elevations within humid tropics.^[50]^[51] Habitat loss poses significant threats to Amblypygi populations, particularly through deforestation that fragments tropical forests and disrupts cave access via mining and agriculture.^[47] Several species are threatened due to ongoing habitat degradation, with at least two classified as vulnerable by IUCN as of 2020.^[52] These pressures highlight the need for conservation focused on preserving humid, forested microhabitats essential for their persistence.^[53]

Diet and predation

Amblypygi are carnivorous ambush predators that primarily feed on arthropods such as crickets, cockroaches, moths, and spiders, though they occasionally consume small vertebrates including lizards and even fish.^[54]^[55] They employ raptorial pedipalps armed with spines to grasp and immobilize prey, drawing it toward the chelicerae, which pierce the exoskeleton to inject digestive enzymes and extract liquefied tissues.^[11] This feeding mechanism allows them to handle prey items up to approximately half their body length, limited by pedipalp size and spine configuration. In captivity, amblypygids exhibit opportunistic scavenging behavior, consuming dead or dying prey such as vertebrate carrion when live food is unavailable, though they prefer active targets.^[55] Their hunting strategy relies on a sit-and-wait approach, with individuals remaining stationary while using elongated antenniform legs to detect prey through vibrations in the substrate and subtle air currents.^[10] These sensory legs, equipped with mechanoreceptors and chemosensilla, enable precise localization and orientation toward potential meals without visual reliance, facilitating rapid strikes from short distances.^[56] As ectothermic arachnids, amblypygids have low metabolic rates, requiring minimal daily food intake—often just one small meal every few days or longer periods of fasting.^[57] In ecosystems, amblypygids serve as apex predators within leaf litter and cave food webs, exerting top-down control on insect and arthropod populations by preying on both competitors and smaller intraguild species.^[48] This role helps regulate community structure in humid tropical habitats, where they contribute to nutrient cycling through predation and occasional scavenging.^[10] While they face few natural predators, amblypygids are occasionally consumed by birds, reptiles such as lizards, and select invertebrates including scorpions and large spiders.^[58]

Behavior

Locomotion and activity

Amblypygi utilize a scuttling, crab-like gait for locomotion, employing the second, third, and fourth pairs of legs while elevating the elongated first pair of antenniform legs, which serve sensory functions rather than walking.^[2] This sideways-oriented movement facilitates navigation through cluttered habitats, with the antenniform legs providing tactile input from thousands of sensory receptors to detect obstacles and enable precise climbing on irregular surfaces such as bark or rock faces.^[59] The sensory structures on these legs briefly reference chemoreceptive and mechanoreceptive capabilities that support such adept terrain traversal.^[60] These arachnids exhibit strictly nocturnal activity patterns, retreating to shelters like crevices or under bark during the day and emerging at night for essential functions including exploration and feeding.^[61] Their circadian rhythms are primarily entrained by light intensity cues detected via simple eyes, which help synchronize daily cycles despite limited visual acuity.^[62] During the breeding season, males engage in heightened territorial exploration, wandering farther than females in search of potential mates, which increases their overall activity range.^[63] Individuals can reach relatively fast speeds in short bursts to traverse open areas quickly.^[64] Amblypygi demonstrate thigmotactic responses, consistently following walls and surfaces with their antenniform legs to maintain contact and orient movement in dark environments.^[59] They are also acutely sensitive to substrate vibrations via specialized trichobothria, enabling rapid predator detection and evasion maneuvers.^[60] Amblypygids are predominantly solitary arachnids, engaging in territorial defense against conspecific intruders through ritualized displays that minimize physical contact. These displays typically involve the waving of antenniform legs and the opening of pedipalps to signal aggression, as observed in species like Phrynus marginemaculatus during agonistic encounters.^[65] In territorial contests, particularly among males, interactions escalate from visual and tactile signaling to ritualized fights, where residency advantages holders, leading to higher success rates in defending refuges.^[66] Such behaviors are mediated by sensory cues detected via the highly modified antenniform legs, which facilitate rapid assessment of intruder proximity.^[10] Despite their solitary lifestyle, limited sociality occurs in some species, with aggregations forming in protected microhabitats like caves, though without evidence of cooperative interactions. For instance, individuals of Damon diadema actively aggregate in groups, tolerating proximity to familiar conspecifics while maintaining individual foraging.^[67] Communication among individuals includes vibrational signals produced by drumming pedipalps on the substrate, which aids in mate location during reproductive periods.^[2] These vibrations propagate through the environment, allowing distant individuals to orient toward potential partners without direct contact.^[10] Cannibalism poses a significant risk during conspecific encounters, often resulting from territorial disputes or opportunistic predation, and is atypically symmetric regardless of size differences in species like Phrynus longipes. In laboratory-staged interactions, aggression frequently culminates in cannibalism, with latency to attack influenced by territorial motivation.^[68] Post-mating, females exhibit heightened cannibalistic tendencies toward males, potentially as a nutritional strategy, though this varies by species and context.^[69] Evidence of kin recognition in maternal groups reduces aggression and promotes tolerance among related individuals, as demonstrated in Damon diadema where juveniles discriminate kin from non-kin via chemical cues on the exoskeleton.^[70] This ability facilitates prolonged associations in aggregations, minimizing cannibalism risks within family units.^[71] Territorial patrolling, involving deliberate locomotion to monitor boundaries, further reinforces these solitary tendencies outside kin contexts.^[10]

Reproduction and parental care

Amblypygi exhibit indirect sperm transfer during mating, a process characteristic of many arachnids. Males deposit a stalked spermatophore on the substrate following an elaborate courtship display, during which they use their elongated antenniform first legs to touch, stroke, and vibrate against the female's body, often involving ritualized movements to assess receptivity and reduce aggression. The female then approaches the spermatophore and uses specialized claw-like structures on her gonopods, associated with the pedipalps, to grasp and internalize the sperm mass for fertilization. This behavior has been documented in species such as Phrynus marginemaculatus, where courtship can last several minutes and includes specific postural displays by the male.^[72] Following fertilization, females produce a brood sac containing fertilized eggs, which they attach to their ventral sternum using a sticky secretion and carry throughout the incubation period. This period typically lasts 3-4 months, during which the female refrains from feeding to protect the developing embryos. The eggs hatch within the brood sac, and the nymphs emerge. Brood sizes vary by species but generally range from 10 to 90 eggs. Gestation duration and success depend on environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity.^[10]^[73] Maternal care in Amblypygi is extensive compared to most arachnids, with females providing protection and transport to the hatched first-instar nymphs. Upon emergence from the brood sac, the nymphs immediately climb onto the mother's opisthosoma (abdomen), where they ride for 1-3 weeks or until their first molt, during which the female guards them aggressively against predators and maintains suitable microhabitats. This philopatric behavior enhances nymph survival, as the altricial young are initially immobile and dependent; after molting to the second instar, they disperse and become free-living. Such care is observed across genera, including Phrynus and Damon, and contributes to the relatively high investment in offspring quality.^[10]^[74] The life cycle of Amblypygi involves indeterminate growth, with individuals continuing to molt post-maturity, but juveniles require 4-6 molts to reach sexual maturity, typically over 1-2 years depending on species and conditions. Nymphs grow through successive instars, regenerating lost appendages if needed during molts, while adults may live 5-10 years. Reproductive strategies vary, with most species iteroparous.^[10]

Relationship to humans

As exotic pets

Amblypygi, commonly known as whip spiders or tailless whip scorpions, have gained popularity in the exotic pet trade due to their unique appearance, docile nature, and relative ease of care compared to other arachnids. Among the species kept as pets, Phrynus marginemaculatus, often called the giant tailless whip scorpion or Florida whipspider, stands out for its larger size—adults can reach leg spans of up to 7 inches—and its adaptability to captivity, making it a favored choice for enthusiasts.^[75] Other commonly traded species include Damon medius and Damon diadema, which are smaller but similarly low-maintenance.^[76] Captive husbandry for Amblypygi requires a vertically oriented enclosure to mimic their arboreal habits, with a minimum size of 10-20 gallons for adults to allow climbing and hiding.^[77]^[78] These setups should maintain high humidity levels around 70-90%, achieved through daily misting and a moist substrate like coconut fiber or peat moss, while providing multiple hiding spots using cork bark, branches, or PVC pipes stacked vertically to reduce stress and facilitate molting. Temperatures are typically kept at room level, between 70-80°F, without the need for supplemental heating in most cases.^[79] Feeding involves offering live prey such as crickets, roaches, or mealworms once a week, with portions sized appropriately to the animal's body to avoid overfeeding and obesity. Amblypygi obtain hydration primarily from their food and enclosure moisture rather than a water dish, which can increase drowning risk. With proper care, they exhibit longevity of 10-20 years in captivity, though males often have shorter lifespans than females.^[79] Handling is generally safe as they lack venom and stingers, but their fragile exoskeletons and spiny pedipalps can cause minor pinching if they feel threatened, so minimal interaction is recommended to prevent injury or escape.^[80] The pet trade in Amblypygi is largely unregulated internationally, with no species currently listed under CITES appendices, though local wildlife laws may restrict collection or import in regions like the United States and Europe.^[81] Captive breeding has been promoted as a conservation strategy for species like P. marginemaculatus, helping reduce pressure on wild populations by providing sustainable alternatives to wild-caught specimens.^[82] However, challenges in captivity include stress during molting, which requires undisturbed vertical space to prevent failed ecdysis, potential cannibalism if groups are overcrowded despite their generally social tendencies, and limited access to specialized veterinary care for invertebrates.^[76]^[75]^[83]

In culture and conservation

In popular media, Amblypygi are sometimes misidentified as spiders or scorpions, amplifying public anxieties about arachnids despite being harmless to humans. Most Amblypygi species remain Data Deficient or not evaluated on the IUCN Red List as of 2025, reflecting limited assessments despite their global distribution in tropical habitats.^[84] Primary threats include habitat destruction from deforestation and agriculture, particularly in biodiversity hotspots like the Amazon, as well as overcollection for the exotic pet trade, which targets popular species such as Phrynus marginemaculatus.^[82] While no species are broadly listed as endangered, microendemic and troglobitic forms, like Charinus tomasmicheli in Cuban caves, face heightened risks from localized disturbances and are assessed as vulnerable or critically endangered in specific cases.^[85] Recent discoveries, including over 30 new species since 2021, underscore the understudied nature of Amblypygi and the urgency of conservation in tropical and cave ecosystems.^[86] Conservation efforts benefit from protections in reserves, such as Amazonian national parks (e.g., Yasuní in Ecuador), where habitat preservation indirectly safeguards populations.^[87] The ecology of Amblypygi remains understudied, with significant research gaps in their subterranean behaviors and population dynamics, particularly for cave-dwelling species that serve as key predators in fragile ecosystems.^[48] Calls for enhanced cave protection have emerged, emphasizing the need to mitigate tourism impacts and mining threats to these microhabitats, as many species exhibit restricted ranges vulnerable to extinction.^[88] In educational contexts, Amblypygi are featured in arachnid exhibits at museums and zoos to dispel myths of their danger, highlighting their non-venomous nature and ecological roles to foster appreciation and reduce unfounded fears.^[54]

References

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Phrynidae - Arácnidos de Centroamérica
Phrynidae consists of 4 extant genera: Phrynus, Paraphrynus, Acanthophrynus, and Heterophrynus (Quintero, 1981). Phrynids, due to their abundance throughout the ...Missing: list | Show results with:list
[20]
The phylogeny of fossil whip spiders - BMC Ecology and Evolution
Apr 21, 2017 · Whip spiders (Arachnida, Amblypygi), are one of the smaller arachnid orders with ca. 190 living species. Here we restudy one of the oldest ...
[21]
The fossil record of whip spiders: the past of Amblypygi | PalZ
Mar 31, 2021 · We review here all fossil whip spider specimens, figure most of them as interpretative drawings or with high-quality photographs including 3D imaging.
[22]
A new whip spider (Arachnida: Amblypygi) in mid-Cretaceous ...
This discovery augments the fossil record of Amblypygi and increases the diversity of the Amblypygi in the mid-Cretaceous. B. dunlopi is only known from Kachin ...
[23]
Genomic resources and toolkits for developmental study of whip ...
Aug 28, 2020 · The phylogenetic position of Amblypygi in Arachnopulmonata posits them as an interesting group to test the incidence of the proposed genome ...
[24]
Phylogenomic Interrogation of Arachnida Reveals Systemic ...
Aug 8, 2014 · Here, we show that phylogenetic signal for the monophyly of Arachnida is restricted to the 500 slowest-evolving genes in the data set.
[25]
Comprehensive Species Sampling and Sophisticated Algorithmic ...
Arachnid Monophyly Is Not Supported by Phylogenomic Approaches. Molecular results that recover nontraditional groupings are often labeled as artifacts, ...
[26]
Gondwanan relic or recent arrival? The biogeographic origins and ...
The composition of Australia's fauna and flora has been largely assembled by two biogeographic processes, vicariance and long-distance dispersal and ...Missing: Laurasian | Show results with:Laurasian
[27]
The order of the whip spiders (Amblypygi) - Panarthropoda.de
One of the most prominent traits that distinguish the whip spiders from the Uropygi is that the latter possess a “tail“ that consists of an extremely elongated ...
[28]
Creature Feature: Tailless whip scorpion - The Ethogram
Jan 23, 2018 · [Source] Both the Amblypygi and the Uropygi orders of arachnids lack the silk-spinning spinnerets or poison glands characteristic of spiders2,3.
[29]
Chapter 4 Classes of Arthropod Pests of the Urban Community
Aug 23, 2002 · The body length may range from only 2 mm to as much as 6.5 cm, as in ... In the suborder Amblypygi, the abdomen bears neither ...<|separator|>
[30]
[PDF] Global patterns of sexual dimorphism in Amblypygi
Feb 24, 2018 · Sexual dimorphism is a common feature of life. Researchers have noted that some species of Amblypygi. (Class Arachnida) exhibit male-biased ...Missing: opisthosoma exoskeleton
[31]
[PDF] Sensory biology of whip spiders (Arachnida, Amblypygi) - Zobodat
Dec 15, 2001 · Their first legs are no longer used for walking but are specialized sensory organs, comparable to the antennae in insects. Note the extremely ...
[32]
The Sensory and Behavioural Biology of Whip Spiders (Arachnida ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Especially in Amblypygi, bimodal chemo-/mechanoreceptive sensilla ... sensilla, trichobothria, plate organ, pit organ and foliate leaf like hairs.
[33]
Global patterns of sexual dimorphism in Amblypygi - ScienceDirect
We found that, generally, males have larger pedipalps, longer antenniform legs, but smaller carapace widths relative to conspecific females for nearly all ...
[34]
Functional anatomy of the pretarsus in whip spiders (Arachnida ...
The largest pulvillate species belongs to the genus Charon and reaches body lengths of 4 cm, a walking leg span of 18 cm and a weight up to 4 g. As the feet ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
The central nervous system of whip spiders (Amblypygi)
Sep 25, 2020 · Each of the three vmN segments receives massive input from a large number of fine fibers (less than 1 μm diameter) from the respective neuromere ...3.3 Olfactory Glomeruli · 4 Discussion · 4.1 Olfactory Pathway
[36]
(PDF) Stridulation in Acanthophrynus Coronatus (Butler) (Amblypygi ...
Aug 10, 2025 · By synthesising our understanding of stridulation and stridulatory organs across major arthropod groups, we create the necessary framework ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Eight New Species of Charinus Simon, 1892 (Arachnida: Amblypygi
Currently, circa of 170 species are known and several new ones have been described in the last few years from all over the world [3–16].<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
(PDF) Islands within islands: Diversification of tailless whip spiders ...
Aug 5, 2025 · The Caribbean Islands are a biodiversity hotspot harboring high levels of endemic biodiversity. In an effort to contribute to the ...Missing: Madagascar | Show results with:Madagascar
[39]
First report of a Tailless Whip Scorpion in Cyprus: the case of Sarax ...
Jul 10, 2025 · The first documented record of Sarax ioanniticus, a tailless whip scorpion, was found in Cyprus in 2023, confirming the presence of Amblypygi ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[40]
Searching the web builds fuller picture of arachnid trade - Nature
May 19, 2022 · The 1264 species detected in trade included: 11 (8.0%) Uropygi species, 350 (12.7%) scorpions, and 903 (1.8%) spiders (Fig. 1). In terms of ...
[41]
[PDF] Nocturnal navigation by whip spiders: antenniform legs mediate near
Nocturnal arachnids in the order amblypygi—known as whip. 88 spiders ... visual adaptations in nocturnal ants. Integrative and Comparative Biology 57 ...
[42]
Summary of behavioral ecology-related research using Amblypygi ...
Amblypygi pedipalps are multifunctional, however, being used in courtship and contest, and vary greatly in form between species. Increased pedipalp length may ...
[43]
On the habitat use of the Neotropical whip spider - Zoologia
Mar 29, 2018 · Some species of whip spiders select trees with burrows at their base, while others use substrates such as rocks. Here, we investigated the ...Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific
[44]
We prefer night‐time, they prefer daytime: Biological rhythm ...
Oct 13, 2024 · This study investigates the influence of specialization on subterranean habitats and the presence of biological rhythms on the locomotor ...
[45]
Conservation, systematics and ultrastructure of the poorly known ...
Oct 30, 2025 · Eleven of the Brazilian species of Charinus occur only inside caves (troglobionts) being, therefore, an important component of cave ecosystems ...
[46]
Whip spiders (Arachnida, Amblypigi) from Colombian Caves
May 19, 2025 · Subterranean amblypygids, or whip spiders, are important yet understudied components of cave ecosystems, playing key roles as apex predators ...
[47]
[PDF] Whip spiders (Arachnida, Amblypigi) from Colombian Caves
May 19, 2025 · This study examines 53 specimens of amblypygids from 12 Colombian caves, and compiles all available literature records to provide an updated ...Missing: Southeast Asia
[48]
Habitat of two threatened short-tailed whip-scorpions (Arachnida
Apr 6, 2024 · In this study, we describe the habitat of two species of Surazomus in endangered Andean tropical forests of Colombia after a sampling effort of 15.12 m 2.
[49]
Cryptic diversity within three South American whip spider species ...
The Heterophrynus (Amblypygi: Phrynidae) genus of whip spiders includes 16 nominal species endemic to South America (Weygoldt, 2000). The distribution and ...
[50]
[PDF] 2024-2025 Report of the IUCN Species Survival Commission and ...
The IUCN Species Survival Commission. (SSC) is a science-based network of thou- sands of volunteer experts from almost every country of the world, ...
[51]
At night in the rainforest: Whip spiders, Amblypygi - Bug of the Week
Jan 23, 2017 · By night they hunt and ambush prey. A nighttime walk along a rainforest trail is full of spooky encounters, including ones with amblypygids. ...Missing: types strategy
[52]
Arachnids that feed on vertebrate carrion: necrophagy by the whip ...
Dec 10, 2021 · Amblypygids are mainly predators of other arthropods, although there are some records of them preying on vertebrates (e.g., Owen & Cokendolpher ...
[53]
November (Amblypygi) | - Paul Bertner - WordPress.com
This highlights two key features: 1) The eyes; though functionally of little value these are still important compositionally, and 2) The spines which ornament ...
[54]
Metabolic rate in the whip-spider, Damon annulatipes (Arachnida
... predators (Hoffmann et al., 2001; Terblanche et al., 2004). Simple simulations illustrate that, if these kinds of effects are more common than has been ...
[55]
Known predators of amblypygids delineated by vertebrate and...
... Amblypygids are opportunistic predators with varied diets, predominantly consisting of arthropods (Chapin and Hebets 2016) , though instances of predation ...
[56]
[PDF] Development of site fidelity in the nocturnal amblypygid, <i>Phrynus ...
Nov 4, 2017 · Amblypygids often use their antenniform legs to guide their movement (Santer and Hebets 2009), so we defined wall following as the proportion of ...
[57]
(PDF) Sensory Biology of Whip Spiders (Arachnida, Amblypygi)
Mar 6, 2016 · The morphology of these “whips” and the sensory organs of their tarsi and tibiae are described using scanning and transmission electron ...Abstract And Figures · References (32) · Recommended Publications
[58]
Description of a new troglomorphic species of Charinus Simon ...
Jun 22, 2016 · Amblypygids perform their vital activities, such as mating and feeding, in nocturnal periods. The most important sensory organ used by whip ...<|separator|>
[59]
retinula axons and visual neuropils of Amblypygi (whip spiders) - PMC
Dec 19, 2018 · Only a few studies have examined the visual systems of Amblypygi (whip spiders) until now. ... Tetrapulmonata seems to be clear [18–22], but their ...
[60]
[PDF] Relating the unique sensory system of amblypygids to the ecology ...
Jan 7, 2002 · Males and females of this species most likely wander in search of mates. ... Amblypygi). J. Insect Physiol. 46: 1441–1448. © 2002 NRC ...
[61]
Whip Spiders (Amblypygi) - British Arachnological Society
When walking, amblypgids resemble crabs, moving more side-ways than forward. Despite their clumsy appearance they can be very fast. Prey is captured using large ...
[62]
Evidence for Air Movement Signals in the Agonistic Behaviour of a ...
Aug 10, 2011 · The African cave cricket Phaeophilacris spectrum lacks stridulatory organs, but males make silent wing flicks during courtship and ...
[63]
Territoriality evidenced by asymmetric intruder–holder motivation in ...
Amblypygids engaged in agonistic interactions after the opportunity to establish a putative territory on one side of an arena. We found that intruders of ...
[64]
[PDF] SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN AMBLYPYGIDS, AND A REASSESSMENT ...
We report and quantify for the first time in Amblypygi prolonged mother-offspring-sibling associations, active aggregation, and frequent ''amicable'' (tolerant, ...
[65]
(PDF) Territoriality mediates atypical size-symmetric cannibalism in ...
We staged paired interactions and recorded latency to escalate to physical aggression or cannibalize to understand the dynamics of cannibalism and resource ...
[66]
Cannibalism in whip spiders (Arachnida: Amblypygi) - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · These spiders possess stridulatory apparatus and they often stridulate following a contact with conspecifics. We found that cannibalism ...
[67]
Kin discrimination in the amblypygid, Damon diadema - BioOne
Aug 1, 2008 · Our second experiment tested the hypothesis that a young amblypygid is capable of distinguishing its mother from an unrelated adult female using ...
[68]
Kin Discrimination in the Amblypygid, Damon diadema - jstor
We discuss our results in relation to other examples of kin discrimination in insects and arachnids, and potential benefits to amblypygids at different ages.
[69]
[PDF] COURTSHIP AND SPERM TRANSFER IN THE WHIP SPIDER ...
ABSTRACT. The aim of this study was to provide descriptive and quantitative data regarding behaviors involved in courtship and in sperm transfer of the whip ...
[70]
Sexual dimorphism in the size and shape of the raptorial pedipalps ...
Aug 31, 2019 · ... body length, according to the data presented in our study. More broadly, amblypygid pedipalps can range from ~S50% body length up to ~200% body ...
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https://www.jstor.org/stable/25434294
[72]
Florida Whipspider Phrynus marginemaculatus - Bugs In Cyberspace
Out of stock Rating 5.0 (1) Apr 18, 2025 · They can be kept together in the same tank with a low incidence of cannibalism. These elusive arachnids are neither spider, nor scorpion.
[73]
Damon medius - The Tarantula Collective
Post-Molt: Wait 3–7 days after a molt before feeding, ensuring its exoskeleton is fully hardened. Adults. Frequency: Feed every 3 weeks (or as needed). Prey ...
[74]
[PDF] Tailless Whip Scorpion Amblypygi Sp. Care Sheet
Size - Most adult specimens will require a 10-gallon tank or larger. Small and immature specimens can be kept in smaller enclosures such as Zilla's Micro.
[75]
[PDF] Tailless Whipscorpions (Order Amblypygi) - Specialty Serpents
Depending on the species, maintain humidity at 70 to 90% with some sphagnum moss as well for tropical species, while humidity can be lower at around 65 to 75% ...Missing: preference adaptations
[76]
https://www.thetarantulacollective.com/caresheets/whip-scorpion
[77]
https://thetyedyediguana.com/content/care-sheets/Tailless-Whip-Scorpion-Amblypygi-sp-care-sheet.pdf
[78]
The CITES Appendices
The names of species in the Appendices may be annotated to qualify the listing. For example, separate populations of a species may have different conservation ...Appendices · How CITES works · Convention text · Reservations entered by PartiesMissing: Amblypygi | Show results with:Amblypygi
[79]
Island biogeography and ecological modeling of the amblypygid ...
We used population genetics and spatioecological modeling of the Amblypygi ... marginemaculatus is collected from the wild for sale in the pet trade. While ...
[80]
https://talis-us.com/blogs/news/tailless-whip-scorpion-care-guide-best-products-for-your-exotic-pet
[81]
Making Sense of the Great Whip Spider Boom - Atlas Obscura
Jun 7, 2021 · Making sense of the great whip spider boom. Studying the arachnids reveals as much about the structure of science as it does about the creatures.
[82]
18 Creepy Facts about Arachnophobia - Mental Floss
Jul 1, 2020 · In the movie, Big Bob arrives in California and promptly mates with a house spider, creating super deadly offspring. To find the right arachnids ...
[83]
JULY 2025 - ZSI Fauna of India Checklist
Jul 1, 2025 · However, 13 fossil species under 08 genera have also been described. (World Amblypygi. Catalog, 2022). Diversity in India: So far, only 08 ...
[84]
distribution, conservation status and taxonomic update of the cuban ...
Moreover, based on its current geographic range we make a preliminary assessment of its conservation status following the IUCN criteria. Finally, the ...
[85]
Eight newly discovered species of whip spiders could soon become ...
Feb 23, 2016 · With the discovery of the eight new species, Brazil is now home to 25 species of Amblypygi, the largest diversity of this group in the world. “ ...
[86]
Collecting eco‐evolutionary data in the dark: Impediments to ...
May 1, 2021 · We discuss best practices and novel ideas for performing standardized research in subterranean ecosystems, by focusing on key impediments, ...