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Animal embryonic development

Animal embryonic development, also known as embryogenesis, is the dynamic process by which a single-celled zygote, formed through fertilization of an egg by sperm, undergoes a series of coordinated cellular divisions, migrations, and differentiations to form a multicellular organism with distinct tissues, organs, and body structures.^[1] This process typically unfolds in distinct stages—fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, gastrulation, neurulation, and organogenesis—establishing the foundational body plan and germ layers essential for the organism's survival and function.^[2] Across animal species, embryogenesis is highly conserved evolutionarily, yet exhibits variations in timing and morphology, such as holoblastic cleavage in mammals versus meroblastic cleavage in birds.^[3] Fertilization initiates development by fusing haploid gametes to restore diploidy and activate the zygote, triggering metabolic changes and preventing polyspermy through cortical reactions in the egg.^[4] Following this, cleavage consists of rapid mitotic divisions that partition the zygote's cytoplasm into smaller blastomeres without significant growth, culminating in the formation of a hollow blastula or blastocyst.^[3] These early divisions are largely controlled by maternal factors in the oocyte, with the zygotic genome activating later during the mid-blastula transition, as observed in species like the frog Xenopus where nuclear genes become active after approximately 12 cleavages.^[3] Gastrulation marks a pivotal transition, involving intricate cell rearrangements such as invagination, involution, and epiboly, which reorganize the blastula into a multilayered gastrula with three primary germ layers: the ectoderm (outer layer forming skin and nervous system), mesoderm (middle layer giving rise to muscles, bones, and circulatory elements), and endoderm (inner layer developing into digestive and respiratory linings).^[2] This stage also establishes critical body axes—anterior-posterior, dorsal-ventral, and left-right—through signaling gradients and inductions, laying the groundwork for bilateral symmetry in most animals.^[3] For instance, in vertebrates, the notochord derived from mesoderm induces neural tube formation from ectoderm during neurulation, a process essential for central nervous system development.^[2] Organogenesis follows, where cells from the germ layers interact via morphogens and transcription factors to differentiate into functional organs, involving further migrations like somite formation in mesoderm for skeletal and muscular systems.^[1] Throughout these stages, apoptosis and cell adhesion molecules regulate patterning, ensuring precise morphogenesis, while environmental factors and genetic programs influence species-specific outcomes, such as viviparity in mammals versus external development in amphibians.^[5]^[1] The culmination of embryogenesis results in a larva or fetus capable of independent existence, highlighting the precision of developmental biology in generating complex animal forms from a single cell.^[1]

Fertilization

Sperm-Egg Recognition and Fusion

In animal fertilization, sperm-egg recognition and fusion represent critical initial steps that ensure species-specific gamete interaction and the establishment of a diploid zygote. This process begins with the sperm navigating to the egg, where molecular cues trigger a series of events leading to membrane fusion. These mechanisms vary across species but share conserved principles, such as the need for precise adhesion to overcome physical barriers like the egg's extracellular coats.^[6]^[7] The acrosome reaction is a pivotal exocytotic event in sperm that enables penetration of the egg's protective layers. Upon contact with the egg coat, the sperm's acrosome—a cap-like vesicle at the anterior head—undergoes fusion with the plasma membrane, releasing hydrolytic enzymes such as acrosin and hyaluronidase. These enzymes digest the egg's extracellular matrix, facilitating sperm progression; for instance, in mammals, they degrade the zona pellucida, a glycoprotein shell surrounding the oocyte. This reaction is calcium-dependent and typically occurs after capacitation, a maturation process in the female reproductive tract that primes sperm for activation. In sea urchins, a model for studying this process, the acrosome reaction propels the sperm via actin polymerization, forming an acrosomal process that extends toward the egg surface.^[8]^[9]^[10] Species-specific recognition is mediated by complementary molecules on the sperm and egg surfaces, ensuring compatibility and preventing cross-fertilization. In mammals, the zona pellucida glycoprotein ZP3 serves as a primary sperm receptor, binding to specific carbohydrate moieties on the sperm head via O-linked oligosaccharides. This interaction not only adheres the sperm but also induces the acrosome reaction, with ZP3's structure confirmed through biochemical isolation from mouse eggs. In contrast, sea urchin eggs are surrounded by a jelly coat containing sulfated polysaccharides and peptides like speract and resact, which activate sperm motility, chemotaxis, and the acrosome reaction in a species-selective manner; for example, these factors elevate intracellular pH and cGMP levels in compatible sperm. Such recognition molecules highlight the evolutionary adaptations for reproductive isolation across phyla.^[11]^[12]^[13] Following recognition and penetration, direct fusion of the sperm and egg plasma membranes occurs through specialized fusogenic proteins. In mammals, Izumo1, a sperm-specific transmembrane protein exposed after the acrosome reaction, interacts with the egg's Juno receptor to mediate adhesion and subsequent membrane merger; knockout studies in mice demonstrate that Izumo1-deficient sperm adhere to but fail to fuse with eggs, resulting in infertility. Fertilin (also known as ADAM2), a disintegrin-like metalloproteinase on the sperm surface, contributes to earlier adhesion steps by binding integrins on the egg; its role is essential, as ADAM2-null mice are infertile.^[14] This fusion event is tightly regulated, involving lipid rearrangements and SNARE proteins to merge the gamete membranes without disrupting cellular integrity.^[15]^[16] To prevent polyspermy—the entry of multiple sperm that would lead to aneuploidy—the egg employs rapid blocking mechanisms triggered by the first sperm fusion. The fast block involves depolarization of the egg plasma membrane, altering its electrical potential from negative to positive within seconds, which repels additional sperm in species like sea urchins; this sodium influx-dependent change is transient but effective against supernumerary sperm. The slow block follows via exocytosis of cortical granules—specialized vesicles beneath the egg cortex—that release enzymes and proteins modifying the zona pellucida or vitelline envelope, rendering it impermeable; in mammals, proteases cleave ZP2 and ZP3, hardening the matrix, while in sea urchins, similar modifications elevate the fertilization envelope. These dual barriers ensure monospermy, with the cortical reaction completing shortly after fusion and contributing to early zygote activation.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Zygote Formation and Activation

Upon sperm-egg fusion in animals, the egg completes meiosis II, transitioning from metaphase II arrest to anaphase II, which results in the extrusion of the second polar body and formation of a mature haploid female gamete.^[20] This process is triggered by an increase in cytosolic calcium ions (Ca²⁺) that activates the anaphase-promoting complex, leading to the inactivation of maturation-promoting factor (MPF) and separation of sister chromatids.^[20] In vertebrates such as frogs, mice, and humans, this asymmetric cytokinesis ensures the zygote retains most cytoplasm while discarding excess chromosomes.^[20] Following meiosis completion, the sperm and egg nuclei decondense to form the male and female pronuclei, respectively, which then migrate toward the zygote center via microtubule- and actin-dependent mechanisms, culminating in syngamy where the pronuclei fuse to restore the diploid genome.^[21] In mammalian zygotes, such as those of mice, the male pronucleus forms within the fertilization cone and moves inward rapidly through actin nucleation by proteins like Spire and Formin-2, while slower central migration of both pronuclei relies on dynein-driven microtubule transport.^[21] Syngamy occurs as the pronuclei unite at the cell center, enabling DNA replication and preparing for the first mitotic division.^[21] Egg activation, initiated by sperm fusion, propagates a calcium wave across the egg that triggers key developmental events, including the onset of embryonic genome activation (EGA) and metabolic upregulation.^[22] In animals ranging from echinoderms to mammals, this Ca²⁺ wave, released from internal stores via inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) signaling, oscillates multiple times and regulates targets essential for development, such as chromatin remodeling.^[22] Zygotic genome activation follows fertilization with species-specific timing—early in zebrafish (around 3-4 hours post-fertilization) and later in mice (at the 2-cell stage, ~24-36 hours)—marking the transition from maternal to zygotic control and upregulating metabolic pathways to support rapid cell divisions.^[23] To reinforce the block to polyspermy, the calcium wave induces cortical granule exocytosis, which modifies the egg coat through enzymatic action, such as hardening the zona pellucida in mammals.^[24] In mice, proteases like ovastacin cleave zona protein ZP2, altering the coat's structure to reduce sperm binding and penetration, while zinc release creates sparks that increase zona density and stiffness within minutes to hours post-fusion.^[24] This zona reaction ensures monospermy by making the coat resistant to additional sperm, complementing the initial fast block at the plasma membrane.^[24]

Cleavage

Cleavage Patterns in Animals

Cleavage refers to the series of rapid mitotic divisions that follow fertilization, partitioning the zygote's cytoplasm into progressively smaller blastomeres without significant overall increase in embryo mass.^[25] These divisions are modulated to prioritize speed and equal or unequal distribution of cellular components, laying the foundation for cell fate specification across animal phyla.^[26] The type of cleavage is largely determined by the amount and distribution of yolk in the egg. In eggs with little to moderate yolk, such as those of sea urchins and amphibians, holoblastic cleavage occurs, where the entire zygote divides completely into blastomeres, with cleavage furrows extending from the animal to the vegetal pole.^[27] Conversely, in yolky eggs like those of birds and reptiles, meroblastic cleavage predominates, involving partial division confined to the animal pole while the vegetal yolk mass remains undivided.^[27] A subtype of meroblastic cleavage, discoidal cleavage, is characteristic of amniotes, where divisions form a blastodisc atop the uncleaved yolk.^[27] Cleavage patterns vary phylogenetically, reflecting evolutionary divergences. Radial cleavage, typical of deuterostomes such as echinoderms (e.g., sea urchins), features blastomeres aligned in tiers parallel or perpendicular to the animal-vegetal axis, allowing flexible cell fate determination.^[28] In contrast, spiral cleavage, seen in many protostomes like annelids, involves oblique divisions that offset successive tiers in a clockwise or counterclockwise spiral, often leading to determinate cell fates.^[28] These patterns arise from the geometry of spindle orientation and cytokinesis during mitosis.^[28] The rapid pace of cleavage is regulated by modifications to the cell cycle, including abbreviated or absent G1 and G2 phases, which eliminate growth periods and enable divisions every 15–30 minutes in species like Xenopus frogs.^[25] Cyclin B synthesis and degradation drive these oscillations via cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1), without the inhibitory phosphorylations typical of somatic cells.^[26] This ensures blastomeres remain small while accumulating in number.^[25] Unequal distribution of cytoplasmic determinants—maternally deposited mRNAs, proteins, and organelles—during cleavage influences early cell fates by segregating regulatory molecules to specific blastomeres. For instance, in Caenorhabditis elegans, PAR proteins establish polarity, directing asymmetric inheritance that specifies anterior-posterior fates. Such partitioning, combined with cleavage geometry, promotes developmental asymmetry and restricts potency in determinate patterns like spiral cleavage. These divisions ultimately yield a compact mass of cells poised for further morphogenesis.^[25]

Morula Formation

Following the rapid mitotic divisions of cleavage, which produce a cluster of loosely associated blastomeres, the embryo transitions into the morula stage through a process known as compaction. This occurs typically at the 8- to 16-cell stage in mammals, where individual cells flatten against one another to form a solid, spherical mass resembling a mulberry.^[29] Compaction is primarily mediated by the calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin, which localizes to sites of cell contact and promotes tight adhesion between blastomeres. In mouse embryos, E-cadherin expression begins maternally and is essential for initiating and maintaining this process; embryos depleted of both maternal and zygotic E-cadherin fail to compact and remain as dissociated cell aggregates. This adhesion mechanism not only stabilizes the embryo but also facilitates the polarization of outer cells, with basolateral E-cadherin distribution contributing to cytoskeletal reorganization via interactions with the actin cytoskeleton. Seminal studies identified E-cadherin's role in compaction through antibody blockade experiments, which reversibly inhibit cell flattening and adhesion at the 8-cell stage.^[30]90248-8.pdf) During compaction, blastomeres also establish additional intercellular junctions critical for structural integrity and communication. Tight junctions begin assembling at cell-cell contacts around the 8-cell stage, forming nascent zonula occludens that seal the paracellular space and prevent leakage, as observed in ultrastructural analyses of mouse and rabbit embryos. Concurrently, gap junctions form to enable direct cytoplasmic exchange of ions, small molecules, and signaling factors, such as cyclic AMP, between blastomeres; these connexin-based channels appear first at compaction and are necessary for synchronized cellular responses. In the absence of functional gap junctions, as shown by dye transfer assays, embryo cohesion is compromised, highlighting their role in maintaining the compacted state.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] In mammals, morula compaction marks the onset of cell fate diversification, with inner blastomeres giving rise to the inner cell mass (ICM)—the precursor of the embryo proper—and outer blastomeres differentiating into trophoblast precursors that will form extraembryonic tissues. This positioning-dependent specification is influenced by E-cadherin-mediated adhesion and Hippo signaling pathway activation in inner cells, which restricts trophoblast factors like Cdx2 to outer positions; lineage tracing in mouse chimeras confirms that early blastomere position predicts ICM or trophoblast fate with high fidelity. By preventing cell dissociation through these adhesive and communicative mechanisms, the morula stage establishes a cohesive unit poised for subsequent fluid accumulation.^[35]^[29]^[36]

Blastulation

Blastula Structure and Formation

The blastula forms from the morula stage through a process known as cavitation, in which the blastomeres undergo further divisions and secrete fluid into an intercellular space, creating a central cavity called the blastocoel.^[37] This fluid accumulation, driven by active transport mechanisms such as Na/K-ATPase pumps in the outer cells, expands the cavity and establishes the hollow spherical structure characteristic of the blastula.^[38] In most animals, this occurs after several rounds of cleavage, resulting in a single layer of cells surrounding the fluid-filled space, with the process varying by species based on yolk distribution and cell adhesion properties.^[39] The architecture of the blastula exhibits distinct polarity, particularly in yolky eggs, with the animal pole consisting of smaller, rapidly dividing cells that will contribute to ectodermal tissues, and the vegetal pole featuring larger, yolk-rich cells that divide more slowly and form endodermal precursors.^[40] This asymmetry arises during oogenesis and is reinforced during cleavage, where the animal hemisphere undergoes holoblastic cleavage to produce numerous micromeres, while the vegetal region produces fewer macromeres due to yolk impeding furrow formation.^[39] The blastocoel typically forms in the animal hemisphere, pushing cells outward and establishing a basic dorsoventral and anteroposterior orientation that prepares the embryo for subsequent signaling events.^[40] Variations in blastula structure reflect adaptations to different reproductive strategies; for instance, in amphibians like Xenopus, the blastula develops a large blastocoel that occupies much of the volume, formed progressively from the 32-cell stage onward through fluid secretion and tight junction sealing.^[39] In contrast, the mammalian blastocyst features a more compact form with an inner cell mass (ICM) clustered at one pole, which differentiates into the embryo proper, while the surrounding trophoblast layer contributes to extraembryonic structures.^[36] This ICM forms through asymmetric cell divisions and polarization during compaction, distinguishing it from the uniform blastoderm in non-mammalian vertebrates.^[37] The establishment of polarity in the blastula sets the stage for germ layer induction by positioning signaling centers, such as vegetal cells that emit morphogens to specify endoderm and mesoderm fates in adjacent animal cells.^[40] In mammals, blastocoel expansion imposes mechanical cues that orient the embryonic-abembryonic axis, enabling initial lineage restrictions without prepatterning from earlier stages.^[41] This preparatory organization ensures coordinated transitions to gastrulation across diverse animal phyla.^[36]

Role of the Blastocoel

The blastocoel, a fluid-filled cavity within the blastula, plays a critical role in maintaining the structural integrity of the early embryo and facilitating subsequent developmental processes. In many animal species, it provides mechanical support by preventing the collapse of the blastula's epithelial layer during the dynamic cellular rearrangements of gastrulation. For instance, in amphibian embryos such as those of Xenopus laevis, the blastocoel creates a spacious environment that allows mesodermal cells to migrate inward without premature adhesion or flattening of underlying tissues, thereby preserving the embryo's architecture until germ layer formation.^[39] Beyond structural support, the blastocoel compartmentalizes the extracellular matrix (ECM), which guides directed cell migration during gastrulation. The roof of the blastocoel, lined by epithelial cells, contains a fibronectin-rich fibrillar ECM that orients mesodermal cell movement along specific pathways. Experimental disruptions, such as antibodies targeting fibronectin or integrins, demonstrate that this ECM network is essential for adhesion and locomotion, as blocking it arrests gastrulation in amphibians like Ambystoma.^[42] The cavity's fluid content is maintained through active hydration mechanisms involving sodium pumps in the epithelial cells surrounding the blastocoel. In mammalian blastocysts, for example, Na+/K+-ATPase in the trophectoderm generates an osmotic gradient by pumping sodium ions into the cavity, drawing water and expanding the blastocoel to support implantation and further development.^[43] This process is analogous in other animals, ensuring the cavity's volume aids in hydraulic forces for morphogenesis. Evolutionarily, the blastocoel is conserved across diverse animal phyla, appearing in coeloblastulae of echinoderms, amphibians, and mammals, where it consistently supports pre-gastrulation organization through fluid dynamics and epithelial sealing. However, in yolk-rich species such as birds and insects, modifications occur; meroblastic cleavage often results in reduced or absent blastocoels, replaced by yolk barriers that alter cavity formation while retaining functional equivalents for cell guidance.^[44]

Gastrulation

Invagination and Germ Layer Establishment

Invagination marks the onset of gastrulation in many animal embryos, where cells of the blastula undergo coordinated morphogenetic movements to reorganize into the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. This process begins at specific sites on the blastula surface, driven by changes in cell shape and adhesion that initiate inward folding.^[45] Primary induction is mediated by signaling centers that establish germ layer fates prior to overt movements. In amphibians, the Nieuwkoop center, located in the dorsal vegetal region of the blastula, acts as a key primary inducer by secreting signals that promote endoderm and mesoderm formation in overlying cells, while sparing the animal pole for ectoderm specification.^[46] This center's activity ensures the initial segregation of fates along the animal-vegetal axis, with ectoderm specified at the animal pole through default mechanisms inhibited by vegetal signals, and endoderm committed at the vegetal pole via localized transcription factors like VegT.^[47]^[48] In deuterostomes such as amphibians and echinoderms, invagination leads to archenteron formation, the precursor to the gut, through the action of bottle cells—apical constriction-driven cells at the dorsal lip that initiate inward folding. These bottle cells, induced by signals from the Nieuwkoop center, facilitate involution, where presumptive endodermal and mesodermal cells roll inward to line the archenteron roof.^[46]^[49] In sea urchins, a model deuterostome, this process involves primary mesenchyme cells delaminating prior to invagination, followed by vegetal plate cells undergoing convergent extension to elongate the archenteron.^[50] Molecular gradients of signaling molecules orchestrate these fates and movements. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) gradients, high in ventral regions, promote ectoderm differentiation while inhibiting endoderm; antagonists like chordin from the organizer refine this to specify neural ectoderm dorsally.^[51] Wnt and Nodal signaling, emanating from vegetal centers, establish endodermal identity in a concentration-dependent manner, with high Nodal levels favoring endoderm and lower levels mesoderm along the vegetal-animal axis.^[52] These gradients interact combinatorially: for instance, Nodal activates Wnt, which in turn modulates BMP to pattern the germ layers progressively during early gastrulation.^[53]

Endoderm and Mesoderm Migration

During gastrulation in amphibians, such as Xenopus laevis, the mesendoderm undergoes involution through the blastopore, a dynamic process initiated at the dorsal lip where bottle cells invaginate to form the blastopore's leading edge, allowing marginal zone cells to roll inward and migrate along the blastocoel roof.^[39] This involution positions presumptive endoderm and mesoderm internally: marginal endoderm cells sink to line the archenteron, while chordamesoderm cells migrate anteriorly to form the notochord precursor.^[39] In amniotes, including birds and mammals, mesendoderm migration occurs via ingression through the primitive streak, where epiblast cells undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, delaminate, and ingress starting from the caudal end, with initial cells forming definitive endoderm that displaces the hypoblast and later cells contributing to mesoderm positioned between endoderm and ectoderm.^[54] Following internalization, the mesoderm splits into distinct regions along the embryonic axis: paraxial mesoderm, adjacent to the notochord and destined to form somites; intermediate mesoderm, a narrow strip giving rise to urogenital structures; and lateral plate mesoderm, which further divides horizontally into somatic and splanchnic layers enclosing the coelom.^[55] This splitting occurs post-gastrulation as mesodermal cells migrate laterally from the primitive streak or blastopore, with the process beginning around stages 7-8 of development (23-29 hours after fertilization) in chick embryos, establishing the foundational organization for body cavity and organ formation.^[55]^[56] Endoderm displacement completes the lining of the archenteron, the primitive gut cavity, as internalized endodermal cells from the subblastoporal vegetal region and marginal zone are pulled inward by migrating deep cells, forming the archenteron roof and floor while the remaining yolk plug is eventually incorporated.^[39] In vertebrates like zebrafish and mice, endodermal precursors converge at the midline and undergo radial intercalation to form a rod-like structure that cavitates into the gut tube precursor, ensuring the endoderm's role as the innermost layer for digestive organogenesis.^[57] These migrations are facilitated by convergent extension movements, where tissues narrow mediolaterally and elongate anteroposteriorly through polarized cell intercalations, driven by the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway involving non-canonical Wnt signaling components such as Wnt11, Dishevelled, and Strabismus.^[58] In Xenopus, mesodermal cells exhibit bipolar protrusions for mediolateral intercalation during gastrulation, while in zebrafish, a combination of directed migration and intercalation at the midline refines mesendoderm positioning; disruptions in PCP signaling, as seen in zebrafish silberblick mutants, impair these extensions and lead to shortened axes.^[58]

Neurulation

Neural Plate Induction

Neural plate induction is a critical early step in neurulation, where presumptive ectodermal cells are specified to adopt a neural fate, forming the foundational structure of the central nervous system in vertebrate embryos. This process is initiated by inductive signals from the dorsal mesoderm, famously identified as the Spemann-Mangold organizer in amphibian embryos. In their landmark experiments, transplantation of the dorsal blastopore lip from a donor gastrula to the ventral side of a host embryo induced a secondary neural axis, demonstrating the organizer's ability to direct ectodermal cells toward neural differentiation rather than epidermal fates.^[59] The primary mechanism underlying neural induction involves the inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling in the ectoderm, which by default promotes epidermal development. The organizer secretes BMP antagonists such as noggin, chordin, and follistatin, which bind directly to BMP ligands like BMP4, preventing their interaction with ectodermal receptors and thereby derepressing neural-specific gene expression. Noggin was the first such factor cloned from the Xenopus organizer, shown to dorsalize ventral mesoderm and induce neural markers in animal cap assays. Similarly, chordin, expressed in the organizer, inhibits BMP activity to specify anterior neural tissue, while follistatin antagonizes BMPs to support neural induction in both frog and mammalian systems. These secreted factors diffuse from the organizer to create a gradient of BMP inhibition, highest along the dorsal midline, where neural fates are specified. Following gastrulation, the notochord—derived from the organizer's midline mesoderm—further reinforces neural plate induction by secreting Sonic hedgehog (Shh), a key signaling molecule that patterns ventral neural identities and maintains neural competence. Shh from the notochord induces floor plate formation and ventralizes the neural plate, with experiments showing that notochord grafts can elicit neural markers in competent ectoderm independently of direct organizer contact. This signaling is essential for proper dorsoventral patterning, as disruptions in Shh lead to ventral neural defects. The ectoderm's ability to respond to these inductive cues, known as competence, is temporally restricted to a developmental window from the late blastula through early neurula stages, after which it loses responsiveness and defaults to epidermal fates. This competence is influenced by intrinsic factors in the ectoderm, such as its developmental history and position relative to the organizer, ensuring precise timing of neural specification. In amphibians, for instance, animal cap ectoderm is competent for neural induction only when explanted before mid-gastrulation, highlighting the dynamic regulation of this process.

Neural Tube Closure and Notochord Role

Neural tube closure represents a critical phase of neurulation in vertebrate embryos, where the neural plate, previously induced along the dorsal midline, undergoes morphological transformations to form a hollow neural tube that will develop into the central nervous system. This process begins with the elevation of the neural folds at the lateral edges of the neural plate, driven by cellular mechanisms such as apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells and convergent extension, which narrow and elongate the plate.^[60] As the folds rise, mediated by actomyosin contractility and cytoskeletal rearrangements, they converge at the dorsal midline, where their apices fuse to seal the neural tube, starting at the hindbrain-cervical boundary and progressing bidirectionally in most vertebrates.^[61] This fusion encloses the neuroepithelium, establishing the primordium of the brain and spinal cord, while the overlying ectoderm forms the skin.^[62] The notochord, a transient mesodermal rod derived from the organizer region during gastrulation, plays an essential inductive and structural role in neural tube closure and patterning. Positioned ventral to the neural plate, the notochord secretes signaling molecules, including Sonic hedgehog (Shh), which induces the overlying neuroepithelium to form the floor plate—a specialized midline structure that further patterns the ventral neural tube.^[61] This induction promotes ventral bending at the midline hinge point, facilitating fold elevation and closure by altering cell shape from columnar to wedge-like in the medial hinge point.^[63] Additionally, the notochord provides mechanical rigidity to the embryo's midline, supporting the biomechanical forces required for tube formation and preventing collapse during morphogenesis.^[64] In the absence of notochord signaling, as observed in experimental models, neural tube defects arise due to disrupted ventral patterning and insufficient structural support.^[65] Concomitant with neural tube closure, neural crest cells delaminate from the dorsal aspect of the elevating neural folds, undergoing an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to become migratory progenitors. This delamination involves downregulation of cadherins for loss of cell-cell adhesion, upregulation of integrins and matrix metalloproteinases for invasion, and cytoskeletal changes enabling motility, allowing neural crest cells to emigrate from the neuroepithelium.^[66] Once delaminated, these multipotent cells migrate extensively along defined pathways—dorsolateral, ventromedial, or circumferential—contributing to diverse derivatives including the peripheral nervous system (sensory and autonomic neurons, glia), melanocytes, craniofacial skeleton, and adrenal medulla.^[67] The timing and regulation of this migration ensure proper distribution, with disruptions leading to congenital anomalies.^[68] Failure of neural tube closure, particularly in the posterior neuropore, results in open neural tube defects such as spina bifida, where the unfused neural folds expose the spinal cord to the amniotic environment, often causing neurological impairments.^[69] These defects arise from multifactorial etiologies, including genetic mutations affecting planar cell polarity pathways (e.g., Vangl2) or folate metabolism, and environmental factors like maternal diabetes, highlighting the evolutionary conservation of closure mechanisms across vertebrates for robust neural axis formation.^[70] In animal models such as mice, such failures underscore the interplay between cellular biomechanics and molecular signaling in preventing these debilitating conditions.^[71]

Somitogenesis

Somite Segmentation Process

The somite segmentation process involves the rhythmic partitioning of the paraxial mesoderm into paired somites along the anterior-posterior axis during vertebrate embryogenesis, driven by the clock-and-wavefront model. This model posits that temporal periodicity is provided by a molecular oscillator, or "clock," within presomitic mesoderm (PSM) cells, while spatial determination of somite boundaries occurs at a regressing "wavefront" where signaling gradients intersect the clock phase. The segmentation clock manifests as oscillatory gene expression cycles in the PSM, primarily involving basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors such as Hes7 in mice and its orthologs (e.g., hairy and enhancer of split-related genes) in other vertebrates. These genes exhibit dynamic transcription-translation feedback loops, where Hes7 represses its own expression and that of downstream targets like lunatic fringe, which modulates Notch signaling to propagate oscillations across neighboring cells via Delta-Notch interactions.^[72] The period of these oscillations corresponds to the somitogenesis cycle, ensuring synchronized waves of gene activity that sweep anteriorly through the PSM. The wavefront is defined by decreasing gradients of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and Wnt signaling from posterior to anterior, highest in the posterior PSM near the tail bud. FGF8 and Wnt3a, secreted from the primitive streak and caudal tissues, inhibit anterior differentiation and maintain PSM progenitors; as cells exit the high-signaling zone, they become competent to respond to the clock, leading to boundary specification at sites where clock phase aligns with the wavefront position.^[73] This intersection triggers Mesp2 expression, which stabilizes the somite boundary through asymmetric Notch activation. Upon reaching the determination front, anterior PSM cells undergo mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET), reorganizing into a polarized epithelial ball that demarcates the nascent somite from the remaining mesenchymal PSM.^[74] This epithelialization involves upregulation of cell adhesion molecules like N-cadherin and cadherin-11, coupled with cytoskeletal remodeling via Rho GTPases, forming a cohesive somite structure that buds off sequentially. The process repeats cyclically, with somites forming in register on both sides of the midline. Timing of somite segmentation varies by species, reflecting evolutionary scaling of the clock period; in mice, pairs form every ~2 hours, while human embryonic models indicate a slower ~5-hour cycle per pair, allowing for larger body proportions.^[75] The notochord provides additional Shh signaling that influences PSM competence but is secondary to the primary FGF/Wnt wavefront.

Paraxial Mesoderm Differentiation

Following somitogenesis, the epithelial somites differentiate into distinct compartments that give rise to key musculoskeletal tissues. The ventromedial portion of the somite forms the sclerotome, which contributes to the cartilage and bone of the vertebrae and ribs. The dorsolateral region differentiates into the dermomyotome, which further subdivides into the dermatome—generating the dermis of the dorsal skin—and the myotome, which produces skeletal muscles of the body wall, limbs, and back.^[76]^[77] Along the anterior-posterior axis, Hox gene clusters establish regional identities in somites through collinear expression patterns that dictate vertebral morphology, such as cervical, thoracic, or lumbar specifications. Hox proteins act as transcription factors to regulate downstream genes involved in somite patterning, ensuring precise segmental diversity; for instance, nested Hox expression domains correlate with transformations in vertebral elements like the transition from cervical to thoracic regions.^[78]^[79] Differentiation of somite compartments is orchestrated by extrinsic signals from adjacent tissues. Sonic hedgehog (Shh), secreted by the notochord and floor plate of the neural tube, induces ventral fates by promoting sclerotome formation through a concentration-dependent gradient that activates Pax1 and other markers while repressing dorsal genes like Pax3. In contrast, signals from the lateral plate mesoderm, including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), promote dorsal and lateral identities, such as myotome and dermatome specification, by antagonizing Shh and favoring Pax3 expression.^[80]^[81]^[82] Sclerotome cells undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and migrate bidirectionally around the notochord to form the vertebral bodies and neural arches, while a subpopulation contributes to the ribs; this migration is guided by Shh and other cues to ensure proper axial skeleton assembly.^[76]^[83]

Organogenesis

Primitive Heart and Vascular Primordia

During early organogenesis in vertebrate embryos, the primitive heart and vascular system arise from the lateral plate mesoderm, which splits into somatic and splanchnic layers following gastrulation.^[84] The cardiogenic mesoderm, a subset of the splanchnic layer, emerges in the anterior region and consists of progenitor cells specified by signaling pathways such as BMP and FGF.^[85] These cells migrate medially from bilateral heart fields located in the anterior lateral plate mesoderm toward the embryonic midline.^[86] The bilateral heart primordia, formed by these migrating cardiogenic cells, initially appear as paired tubes or fields that converge and fuse at the ventral midline around the third week of human development or equivalent stages in other vertebrates.^[84] This fusion process establishes a single linear heart tube, composed of an outer myocardial layer and an inner endocardial layer, which begins primitive peristaltic contractions to circulate blood.^[85] Shortly thereafter, the straight heart tube undergoes dextral looping, a critical asymmetric morphogenesis event that repositions the future chambers and aligns the outflow and inflow tracts.^[87] This looping is driven by left-right asymmetric signals, including the Nodal signaling pathway, which regulates cardiomyocyte migration speed and direction via a Nodal-BMP cascade, ensuring proper rightward bending.^[88] Looping also initiates chamber septation by bringing endocardial cushions and myocardial ridges into apposition, setting the stage for partitioning into atrial and ventricular compartments.^[89] Parallel to heart tube formation, the vascular primordia develop from angioblasts—hemangioblast-derived precursors in the lateral plate and extraembryonic mesoderm—that differentiate into endothelial cells.^[90] These endothelial cells coalesce to form primitive vascular networks, including the aortic arches, which emerge as paired arteries ventral to the pharynx, and the anterior and posterior cardinal veins, which drain into the sinus venosus.^[91] Angioblast differentiation is guided by VEGF signaling, promoting tube formation through vasculogenesis without initial sprouting.^[90] In parallel, blood islands form in extraembryonic regions, particularly the yolk sac in amniotes such as mice and humans, where extraembryonic mesoderm aggregates into clusters of primitive erythroblasts and endothelial cells.^[92] These islands represent the earliest sites of hematopoiesis and angiogenesis, with endothelial cells lining nascent vessels that connect to the intraembryonic vasculature by embryonic day 8.5 in mice.^[93] This extraembryonic contribution ensures initial blood circulation before intraembryonic heart function fully matures.^[92]

Central Nervous System Maturation

Following neural tube closure, the central nervous system (CNS) undergoes rapid expansion and regionalization, transforming the uniform neural tube into distinct brain and spinal cord structures. This maturation process begins around the fourth week of embryonic development in vertebrates, with the anterior neural tube dilating to form three primary brain vesicles: the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). These vesicles arise through differential growth and folding of the neuroepithelium, driven by intrinsic genetic programs and extrinsic signals from surrounding tissues. The prosencephalon will later subdivide into telencephalon and diencephalon, the mesencephalon remains relatively undivided, and the rhombencephalon splits into metencephalon and myelencephalon, establishing the foundational compartments of the adult brain.^[94]^[95] Neurogenesis and gliogenesis in the maturing CNS primarily occur in the ventricular proliferation zones, which line the neural tube's lumen and serve as germinal layers. These zones consist of neural progenitor cells, including radial glia, that undergo asymmetric cell divisions to self-renew while producing postmitotic neurons and glia. In such divisions, one daughter cell retains progenitor identity and remains anchored to the ventricular surface, while the other migrates outward to differentiate, ensuring balanced expansion of the progenitor pool and generation of diverse cell types. This process peaks in the ventricular zone during mid-gestation, with progenitors transitioning from proliferative symmetric divisions to neurogenic asymmetric ones, contributing to the layered architecture of the brain and spinal cord.^[96]^[97] Regionalization of the CNS is orchestrated by morphogen gradients that pattern the neural tube along the anterior-posterior (A-P) and dorsal-ventral (D-V) axes. Along the A-P axis, transcription factors such as Otx2 define anterior domains like the forebrain, while Hox genes establish posterior identities in the hindbrain and spinal cord, with their expression refined by signals from the notochord and paraxial mesoderm. In the D-V axis, Sonic hedgehog (Shh), secreted from the notochord and floor plate, forms a ventral-to-dorsal gradient that induces distinct progenitor domains, promoting ventral motor neuron fates at high concentrations and repressing dorsal identities. This Shh-mediated patterning divides the spinal cord into alar (dorsal, sensory) and basal (ventral, motor) plates, separated by the sulcus limitans—a longitudinal groove that delineates sensory and motor functional domains throughout the brainstem and spinal cord.^[98]^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]^[103]

Limb Bud Initiation and Organ Rudiments

Limb bud initiation occurs during early organogenesis, primarily in vertebrates, where lateral plate mesoderm thickens to form paired limb buds that protrude from the body wall.^[104] This process is driven by interactions between ectoderm and mesoderm, leading to the formation of key signaling centers that coordinate outgrowth and patterning. The apical ectodermal ridge (AER), a thickened ectodermal structure at the distal tip of the limb bud, forms around embryonic day 9.5 in mice and plays a crucial role in proximal-distal limb elongation.^[105] The AER secretes fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), particularly FGF8 and FGF4, which maintain proliferation in the underlying progress zone mesenchyme, ensuring continuous outgrowth along the proximal-distal axis.^[106] Disruption of AER formation or FGF signaling, as seen in Fgf8 knockout mice, results in truncated limbs, underscoring the ridge's essential function.^[107] Anterior-posterior patterning of the limb is established by the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), a region of posterior mesoderm within the limb bud that acts as an organizer.^[108] The ZPA secretes Sonic hedgehog (Shh), a morphogen that creates a concentration gradient to specify digit identity, with high posterior levels promoting pinky-like digits and lower anterior levels forming thumb-like structures.^[109] Shh expression in the ZPA is induced by retinoic acid signaling from the flank and maintained through a feedback loop with AER-derived FGFs, which prolong Shh transcription to sustain patterning.^[110] Classic experiments grafting ZPA tissue to the anterior limb bud demonstrate mirror-image duplications, confirming Shh's role in polarity.^[108] Organ rudiments for internal structures arise from reciprocal signaling between endoderm and mesoderm, initiating budding and branching morphogenesis. In the respiratory system, lung buds evaginate from the ventral foregut endoderm around embryonic day 9 in mice, induced by mesenchymal FGF10 expression that promotes endodermal proliferation and outgrowth.^[111] FGF10-null mutants exhibit severe lung hypoplasia, highlighting its necessity for bud initiation and subsequent branching.^[112] Liver development similarly involves hepatic endoderm diverticula budding into the surrounding septum transversum mesenchyme, driven by fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signals from the mesoderm that specify hepatic fate and promote proliferation.^[113] Kidney rudiments form through intermediate mesoderm interactions, where ureteric bud outgrowth from the Wolffian duct is stimulated by GDNF from metanephric mesenchyme, initiating nephron formation via branching.^[114] The thyroid and pancreas emerge through evagination of the foregut endoderm, a process regulated by localized signaling cues that pattern the endoderm along the anterior-posterior axis. Thyroid primordium evaginates from the midline ventral foregut endoderm around embryonic day 8.5 in mice, specified by Nkx2-1 and Foxe1 transcription factors in response to BMP and FGF signals from adjacent pharyngeal mesoderm.^[115] This budding is followed by descent and follicle formation, with disruptions in Shh or BMP signaling leading to athyreosis.^[116] Pancreatic buds, dorsal and ventral, evaginate from the posterior foregut endoderm by embryonic day 9, induced by retinoic acid from the adjacent mesoderm and activin signals that activate Pdx1 expression in progenitor cells.^[117] These evaginations fuse during rotation, with Hedgehog inhibition ensuring proper endocrine and exocrine differentiation.^[118]

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Organ-Specific Branching Morphogenesis - Frontiers
In this review, we compare branching morphogenesis and its regulation in lungs and kidneys and discuss the role of signaling pathways, the mesenchyme, the ...
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From Endoderm to Progenitors: An Update on the Early Steps of ...
Jun 4, 2021 · The mechanisms underlying thyroid gland development have a central interest in biology and this review is aimed to provide an update on the ...Endoderm Formation And... · Morphogens Involved In... · Notch Signaling
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Thyroid morphogenesis is a complex process comprising endodermal precursor cell specification, thyroid bud formation and evagination from ventral foregut ...
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Intercellular signals regulating pancreas development and function
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