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Australia II

Australia II was a 12-metre designed by Australian naval architect and built in , by Steve Ward, which became the first non-American vessel to win the in 1983, ending the Yacht Club's 132-year dominance of the prestigious trophy. Owned by a led by businessman and skippered by John Bertrand, the featured a revolutionary —an inverted, broad-based appendage that enhanced and upwind performance by approximately 5%—which was kept under strict secrecy until after the victory. Launched in 1982, Australia II represented a collaborative effort involving international expertise, including Tom Schnackenberg for sail optimization, and overcame early challenges in testing to secure the win in a best-of-seven series against the American defender , skippered by . The , held off , saw trail 1–3 before mounting a dramatic comeback, clinching the final race on September 26 by 41 seconds to win 4–3 overall. This triumph, the culmination of 's sixth challenge since , not only shifted the event's power dynamics—prompting future races to adopt open international formats—but also ignited national fervor in , with millions watching live broadcasts and declaring a . The yacht's success highlighted innovations in yacht design, influencing subsequent competitions, and Australia II was later acquired by the federal government in 1984 for national preservation.

Development and Construction

Syndicate Formation

The Australia II syndicate was formally established in 1981 under the auspices of the Royal Perth Yacht Club (RPYC), marking Australia's seventh attempt to win the America's Cup. Led by prominent Western Australian businessman Alan Bond, the syndicate aimed to challenge the New York Yacht Club's longstanding dominance in the 12-metre class competition. Bond, who had previously funded unsuccessful campaigns in 1974, 1977, and 1980, assembled a team of local supporters and volunteers to pursue the 1983 event in Newport, Rhode Island. Financial backing primarily came from Bond's conglomerate, Bond Corporation, which provided the necessary resources estimated in the millions of Australian dollars to cover design, construction, and campaign logistics. This corporate sponsorship was crucial, as earlier efforts had suffered from insufficient , forcing compromises such as modifying existing yachts rather than building new ones. The syndicate also drew on community involvement from the RPYC, with hundreds of members contributing to operations, though no direct from was allocated to the project at the time. was engaged as the principal designer to lead the technical development. Key challenges included securing adequate funding amid Bond's high-risk business expansions and ensuring compliance with the and International Yacht Racing Union (IYRU) rules for international challengers. The syndicate navigated nationality requirements, measurement certifications, and selection processes for the Cup trials, all while operating from remote , which complicated logistics and testing. These hurdles were overcome through Bond's determination and strategic planning. Milestones included the syndicate's inception in early 1981, followed by the commencement of yacht construction in mid-1981 at Steve Ward's yard in Fremantle, with the vessel launched on June 3, 1982. By early 1983, the team relocated to the United States for trials, culminating in the yacht's selection as Australia's challenger after dominating the Louis Vuitton Cup series. This progression positioned the syndicate for the historic Cup matches in September 1983.

Design Team and Process

The design of Australia II was led by renowned Australian naval architect , who served as the principal designer and drew upon his extensive experience from prior challenges, including the 1974 Southern Cross and the 1977 Australia yacht, where he had collaborated initially with Dutch designer Johan Valentijn on hull and keel concepts. Lexcen's team, comprising approximately 6 to 8 members, focused on innovative adaptations to enhance performance within the constraints of the International 12-Meter rule, such as optimizing and stability while ensuring full compliance with the requirements for the . This effort was supported by the Australia II syndicate, backed by entrepreneur Alan Bond's funding, which enabled the project's continuation after earlier financial setbacks. A key collaborator in refining the design was skipper John Bertrand, whose tactical insights from previous campaigns informed decisions on maneuverability and upwind performance, helping to evolve the from the lines of earlier vessels like the 1980 challenger. The process emphasized iterative development, beginning with conceptual sketches by Lexcen in late 1980 and progressing through detailed hydrodynamic analysis. To address limitations in local testing facilities, the team secretly engaged experts, including naval architect Peter van Oossanen at the Ship Model Basin (NSMB, now MARIN) and aerodynamicist Joop Slooff at the National Aerospace Laboratory, who provided critical computational and experimental support under strict nondisclosure agreements. This international input was pivotal, yet Lexcen retained overall leadership and credit as the inventor in official documentation and a 1982 for the keel innovation. The development unfolded amid intense secrecy to protect competitive advantages, with the syndicate imposing confidentiality on all participants and limiting knowledge of key features even within the team. Initial testing commenced in March 1981 with one-third-scale tank models at the NSMB in , , where free-running experiments evaluated multiple keel configurations over 20-25 runs per model, culminating in optimized designs by August 1981 that improved drag reduction and lift. Clandestine sea trials of the prototype occurred in 1982 at , , using a modified test vessel to validate tank results under real conditions, followed by further refinements during transit and initial outings in the United States ahead of the 1983 regatta in . These phases confirmed the yacht's adherence to 12-Meter measurements—such as a maximum rated length of 12 meters and sail area limits—while adapting proven elements from prior Australia yachts, like refined hull shapes for better pointing ability, without violating class rules. The iterative approach, blending empirical testing with theoretical modeling, ultimately yielded a vessel that outperformed expectations in the Cup trials.

Design Features

Hull and Rigging

Australia II featured a measuring 19.21 in (LOA), with a of 3.64 and a draft of 2.72 (upright measurement including ), adhering to the International 12-Meter class specifications. The incorporated V-shaped midsections, low freeboard, a large , and a wide U-shaped transom, creating a powerful yet balanced form that prioritized hydrodynamic efficiency. Constructed from aluminum by boatbuilder Steve Ward in , the hull provided lightweight strength essential for high-performance racing under the 12-Meter rule, weighing approximately 3,700 kg less than earlier designs like the American yacht Courageous.) The consisted of an elliptical extruded-aluminum standing 31 meters tall, paired with a carbon fiber boom, supporting Kevlar/Mylar laminated sails with an upwind area of approximately 175 optimized for the formula. This configuration allowed for flexible sail trim, enhancing performance in varying wind conditions while complying with the rule's limits on sail dimensions and bend. Relative to the American defender Liberty, Australia II's hull offered superior hull speed through its minimized waterline length, which permitted a larger sail area allocation under the 12-Meter rating, and improved stability via its streamlined underwater profile integrated with the winged keel.

Winged Keel Innovation

The winged keel of Australia II represented a radical departure from conventional 12-Meter class designs, featuring an inverted profile with horizontal winglets attached to the bottom of the fin keel. These winglets functioned as endplates, significantly reducing tip vortices generated at the keel edges during sailing, which minimized induced drag and allowed for an effective draft of 2.72 m (upright) while maintaining structural integrity. This configuration enabled a lower center of gravity for the lead ballast, enhancing the yacht's righting moment and overall stability without increasing the overall weight. The upright draft was measured at 2.72 m, complying with the 12m rule; controversy arose over potential exceedance when heeled. Hydrodynamically, the design improved the of the by up to 35% compared to traditional fins, as determined through testing simulations, primarily by optimizing side force generation and reducing energy losses from . This efficiency translated to superior upwind performance, with the achieving higher to windward—approximately 1% improvement over baseline models—while preserving stability in moderate winds typical of the race venue. The inverted shape, with a longer at the bottom and zero sweepback, further contributed to these gains by directing more effectively around the . Ben Lexcen, the principal designer, conceived the concept in response to limitations observed in prior campaigns, particularly upwind speed deficits in the 1977 event. Development accelerated in early 1981, with Lexcen collaborating on initial sketches and model configurations at the Ship Model Basin (NSMB) during a four-month stint starting in January 1981. Key tank tests on one-third-scale models occurred between May and August 1981, evaluating multiple iterations: crude winglets were added to an inverted keel in , refined for a downsized version in July, and finalized in early August, confirming performance advantages in light-air conditions. Construction of the full-scale keel followed in late 1981, with the yacht launched in 1982. The innovation sparked immediate controversy over rule compliance under the International Yacht Racing Union (IYRU) 12-Meter specifications, with the (NYYC) protesting the design's and demanding inspections prior to the 1983 regatta. The NYYC argued that the winglets constituted a prohibited "movable peculiarity" and potentially violated maximum limits when the yacht heeled, as the effective depth could exceed 2.7 in that state, though upright complied. Australian syndicate members shrouded the keel in black during trials to maintain , prompting measurement disputes resolved only after IYRU on August 10, 1983, which upheld the design as fixed and legal.

Claims of External Influence

Following the 1983 America's Cup victory, allegations surfaced regarding the originality of Australia II's winged keel design, particularly claims of significant foreign contributions that challenged the requirement for a predominantly national design under the competition's rules. The (NYYC), defending the Cup, contested the keel's legality as a "peculiarity" not permitted by the 12-Meter Rule and raised concerns over Dutch involvement in its development, including tank testing at the (NSMB) in . These claims centered on the role of Dutch naval architect Peter van Oossanen and aerodynamicist Joop Slooff, who collaborated with Australian designer on hydrodynamic refinements, leading to suggestions that the innovative inverted keel with winglets was largely a product of their expertise rather than Lexcen's independent work. Lexcen defended the design as his own independent , rooted in his prior research on appendage and limited to early hull sketches for initial modeling, while emphasizing that any foreign input was consultative and secondary to his overall vision. He maintained that the evolved from his concepts tested in and the , and he filed a on February 5, 1982, listing himself as the sole inventor—a filing later withdrawn amid inventorship disputes but underscoring his claimed primacy. Supporters, including syndicate leader and skipper John Bertrand, echoed this, with Bond dismissing later accusations as "malicious" insults to Lexcen's memory and Bertrand crediting him as the creative force behind the breakthrough. The International Yacht Racing Union (IYRU, now ) investigated the keel's compliance in 1983, ruling on August 10 that it was legal as a fixed and confirming on August 20 that the winglets met criteria, allowing the challenge to proceed without disqualification. No formal inquiry into the design's origins or was conducted, as the focus remained on rule adherence rather than attribution. However, debates persisted into the , fueled by van Oossanen's 2009 disclosures in and his The Science of Sailing, where he estimated his and Slooff's contributions at 90-95% of the work, prompting renewed scrutiny in publications and ethical analyses. These controversies have cast a shadow over Lexcen's legacy, with critics arguing that downplaying Dutch input misrepresented the collaborative nature of yacht design and undermined transparency, though he remains enshrined in the Hall of Fame since 2006 as the keel's creator. In , the narrative of national ingenuity endures, bolstering pride in the 1983 win as a homegrown triumph, but the episode highlights tensions between innovation, credit, and international rules in sailing.

1983 America's Cup Campaign

Louis Vuitton Cup Performance

The 1983 , held in , from August to early September, served as the challenger selection series for the , featuring a stage followed by a semi-final among the top four and a final knockout match among seven international syndicates (seven yachts). , representing the Royal Yacht Club syndicate led by , entered the competition with its innovative design, quickly establishing dominance in the phases where it topped the leaderboard by winning 44 out of 49 races sailed across multiple rounds against rivals including the other Australian entries, Advance (KA-7) and Challenge 12 (KA-5). Key victories in this stage included decisive wins over the fellow Australian challengers, eliminating them early and showcasing 's superior handling in varied conditions. Performance metrics highlighted the yacht's advantages, particularly in light winds where the winged keel provided an estimated 5% speed gain over competitors, allowing Australia II to excel in the often variable breezes of Newport Harbor. Upon arrival in the U.S., the syndicate made crew adjustments, including hiring sailmaker Tom Schnackenberg to refine sail trim and tactics, which contributed to smoother operations and consistent speed across the series. These enhancements proved pivotal as Australia II advanced undefeated through the semi-finals, a round-robin among the top four qualifiers (Australia II, Victory '83, Azzurra, and Canada I) where it won all nine races to secure first place and advance to the final. The Louis Vuitton Cup final pitted Australia II against the United Kingdom's Victory '83 (K-22), where it prevailed 4-1, with the sole loss coming in the opening race before a string of commanding wins that clinched the challenger's right to face the U.S. defender . This path through the qualifiers underscored Australia II's tactical and technological superiority among the international field.

America's Cup Races

The 1983 America's Cup, the 25th edition of the event, was contested as a best-of-seven series between the Australian challenger Australia II and the American defender Liberty, held off the coast of , from September 14 to 26. After qualifying through the Cup, Australia II faced a formidable Liberty, skippered by , in races sailed on a 24.3-nautical-mile windward-leeward course under variable winds ranging from 6 to 25 knots. The series marked the first time it went the full seven races, with Australia II ultimately prevailing 4–3, ending 132 years of uninterrupted American dominance since the Cup's inception in 1851. The opening races favored Liberty amid steadier conditions that highlighted its traditional design. In Race 1 on September 14, Australia II led early but suffered a steering cable failure, allowing Liberty to overtake and win by 1 minute 10 seconds. Race 2 on September 15 saw Liberty regain the lead through a tactical "slam-dunk" , compounded by issues on Australia II, securing a 1 minute 33 second victory and putting the defender up 2–0. Race 3, restarted on September 18 after an abandonment due to light winds the previous day, proved a turning point; variable breezes allowed Australia II's to excel in upwind tacking, leading to a dominant 3 minute 14 second win that shifted momentum. Liberty responded in Race 4 on September 20 with Conner's bold port-tack start, clinching a narrow 43-second triumph and reaching match point at 3–1. With winds continuing to fluctuate and favor Australia II's innovative hull dynamics in Races 5 through 7, the challenger mounted a comeback. Race 5 on saw Australia II overcome a poor start, capitalizing on Liberty's hydraulic and sail-handling problems to win by 1 minute 47 seconds. In Race 6 on September 22, Australia II exploited a split for an early lead, extending it to a 3 minute 25 second victory and tying the series at 3–3. Race 7, delayed by abandonments on September 24 and 25 due to insufficient and shifting , unfolded dramatically on September 26; Australia II demonstrated superior downwind speed and tactical gybing, overtaking Liberty on the final leg to secure the by a mere 41 seconds in fading light. The victory triggered immediate celebrations aboard Australia II, with syndicate leader and the crew mobbed by well-wishers as the was unveiled to the crowd that evening. On September 28, a formal presentation ceremony took place in the , where U.S. President and Vice President handed the to the Australian team, marking the first non-U.S. victory in the event's history.

Crew and Operations

Key Personnel

John Bertrand served as the skipper of Australia II, providing steadfast leadership throughout the campaign. His tactical acumen and motivational skills were instrumental in rallying the crew during high-stakes moments, particularly when the team trailed 1-3 in the final series against , ultimately securing a 4-3 victory. Bertrand's post-race reflections in his autobiography detail the psychological pressures faced by the team and his role in fostering resilience. Ben Lexcen was the principal designer of Australia II, receiving sole official credit for the innovative that provided a critical performance advantage. Lexcen's vision, developed through secretive trials, transformed the yacht's hydrodynamics and was pivotal to the challenge's success. Alan Bond acted as syndicate chairman, leveraging his business expertise to secure funding exceeding AUD 7 million and promote the campaign on a national scale, turning it into a symbol of Australian ambition after previous failed challenges. His promotional efforts, including media engagements, boosted public support and team morale amid financial strains. The onboard crew consisted of 11 members, including navigator Grant Simmer, who managed precise course plotting and wind data analysis essential for race strategy, and tactician John Longley, who advised on maneuvers. Other key crew included Colin Beashel (mainsail trimmer), Grant Simmer (afterguard), and Hugh Treharne (pitman), along with Will Baillieu, , Damian Fewster, Ken Judge, Skip Lissiman, Brian Richardson, and Phil Smidmore, all contributing to seamless operations under intense scrutiny. Pre-Cup team dynamics were marked by secrecy and pressure, with the crew enduring grueling training in while concealing the keel's design, which tested unity but built unbreakable trust under Bertrand's guidance. Post-victory, morale soared as the team was celebrated as national heroes, with Bond's syndicate hosting triumphant parades that reinforced their collective achievement and inspired future sailing endeavors.

Sailing Tactics

The sailing tactics employed by Australia II's crew during the 1983 America's Cup campaign capitalized on the yacht's inherent strengths to maximize performance in match racing scenarios. Upwind, the crew leveraged the design's ability to achieve tighter sheeting angles and superior ability, allowing the boat to sail closer to the wind with reduced and greater compared to competitors. This advantage enabled Australia II to gain ground incrementally during windward legs, often converting small positional edges into leads through consistent . John Bertrand, as skipper, orchestrated aggressive pre-start maneuvers that exploited the boat's responsive handling to secure advantageous positions, such as the leeward side or the favored right-of-way tack. The crew's extensive drills for tacks and gybes, choreographed by tactician John Longley, ensured seamless execution with minimal speed loss, facilitating rapid responses in duels and tight turns. These maneuvers, including lee-bow tactics to disrupt opponents' air flow, turned potential defensive situations into offensive opportunities, emphasizing precision and synchronization honed through rigorous on-water practice. Adaptations to varying conditions were central to the strategy, with sailmakers like David Rees providing tailored inventory adjustments; lighter, larger sails were deployed in winds under 10 knots to boost speed, while heavier-air configurations used smaller, more robust sails for control in gusts up to 25 knots. The team focused on exploiting wind shifts and pressure differences without relying on external inputs, maintaining internal communication through practiced routines rather than prohibited radio links to shore. This flexibility allowed Australia II to perform reliably across the campaign's diverse weather patterns in . To counter Liberty's edge in crew experience and tactical familiarity with the venue, Bertrand's approach emphasized proactive aggression and boat-handling superiority, forcing the Americans into reactive modes during starts and upwind work. By prioritizing clean execution and leveraging Australia II's agility in maneuvers—such as quicker tacks that gained meters per turn—the Australians neutralized Liberty's traditional strengths in prolonged duels, ultimately shifting momentum through cumulative small gains rather than bold risks. This methodical counterplay, informed by Bertrand's prior campaigns, proved decisive in overcoming the defender's institutional knowledge.

Legacy and Impact

Post-Cup Retirement

Following its victory in the 1983 America's Cup, Australia II returned to Australia in late 1983, where it was greeted with widespread celebrations, including a major parade from to that drew thousands of spectators and highlighted the yacht's national significance. Ownership of the yacht transitioned from the original syndicate led by to public institutions beginning in 1984, when the Australian federal government purchased it to ensure its preservation as a . In 1988, associated material was purchased for A$2 million. In 1995, following negotiations, ownership was offered back to ; it was transferred under state government stewardship in 2000, reflecting its origins in . The yacht has since been owned and managed by the as part of its public collection. Australia II was first exhibited publicly in Fremantle shortly after its return, before being transferred in 1987 to the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) in for display in a dedicated space. It remained at the ANMM until 2000, when it was relocated back to to become the centerpiece of the Western Australian Maritime Museum's new purpose-built facility, which opened in December 2002. The museum provides ongoing maintenance to preserve the aluminum hull, rigging, and iconic , including periodic inspections to monitor structural integrity amid environmental exposure. In the , during its time at the ANMM, the underwent hull repairs to address wear from transport and display conditions, ensuring long-term stability. Keel inspections have continued into the as part of routine conservation efforts at the Western Australian Maritime Museum, focusing on the winged keel's unique design to prevent corrosion and maintain hydrodynamic features. Though primarily retired from competitive racing, Australia II has been occasionally sailed for special events, most notably in 2001 when it was refitted and transported to , , to participate in the Jubilee regatta celebrating the trophy's 150th anniversary. After the event, it returned to for permanent exhibition, with no further competitive outings recorded.

Cultural Significance

The victory of Australia II in the generated extensive media coverage, with broadcasts captivating audiences across and reaching millions of viewers for the decisive seventh race on September 26. Australian Channel 7 aired the event, featuring commentary that amplified the national tension and elation as the yacht secured the win by 41 seconds, marking a pivotal moment in sports broadcasting history for the country. This widespread exposure transformed the regatta into a shared cultural event, fostering a sense of collective anticipation and unity. The triumph symbolized a in national pride and morale for Australians, particularly amid the economic reforms and challenges of the early Hawke era, including high and structural adjustments following the 1982-83 recession. It represented ingenuity and resilience, uniting the populace in celebration and reinforcing themes of Australian determination on the global stage. The emblem, prominently displayed during the campaign, emerged as an enduring of sporting defiance and national spirit. Skippers John Bertrand detailed the campaign's emotional and strategic depths in his 1985 book , which became a seminal account of the victory's human elements and has influenced perceptions of in high-stakes endeavors. The story's cultural resonance extended to visual , including the 1984 Aussie Assault, which chronicled the preparation and race, and the 2022 Netflix production Untold: The Race of the Century, featuring archival footage and crew interviews to highlight the event's dramatic legacy. Commemorations of the victory have sustained its cultural prominence, notably through the 40th anniversary events in 2023 centered in , . A free public celebration at Victoria Quay on drew nearly 20,000 attendees with 1980s-themed music, food stalls, and displays, evoking the era's exuberance. Concurrently, the Maritime Museum hosted an exhibition of campaign artifacts, underscoring Australia II's role in Australian identity and inspiring ongoing public engagement with maritime heritage.

Influence on Sailing

The victory of Australia II in the prompted significant scrutiny and evolution in regulations, particularly under the International Offshore Rule (IOR), which governed 12-Meter class yachts at the time. The controversy surrounding the yacht's innovative led the International Yacht Racing Union (now ) to affirm on August 20, 1983, that fixed, non-adjustable winglets on keels were permissible, setting a for innovations within the existing . This ruling resolved immediate challenges from the but highlighted vulnerabilities in the IOR's measurement of stability and hydrodynamics, contributing to broader revisions in the mid-1980s that aimed to curb extreme designs by refining girth and stability measurements. These changes influenced the transition from IOR to the International Measurement System (IMS) in offshore racing by the early , emphasizing velocity prediction programs over static handicaps to better account for performance-enhancing features like advanced keels. In the specifically, Australia II's success accelerated format shifts away from the traditional 12-Meter monohulls, fostering a more innovative and contentious era. The defense retained the 12-Meter class but saw intensified design rivalries, while the 1988 event introduced multi-hull catamarans under challenges, marking a radical departure that tested the boundaries of the competition's rules. By 1992, the Cup adopted the (IACC) formula, which incorporated lessons from innovations to speed and control, leading to sleeker, more hydrodynamic yachts until further evolutions like foiling monohulls in the . The design legacy of Australia II, particularly its , profoundly shaped yacht architecture by demonstrating the advantages of low-aspect-ratio appendages for reducing and enhancing upwind . Developed through extensive tank testing at the Ship Model Basin (now MARIN), the lowered the center of gravity and improved righting moment when heeled, providing a performance edge of approximately 5% in key conditions. This innovation was widely adopted in both and yachts throughout the and , appearing on numerous designs to optimize hydrodynamics under rating rules. Although bulb and fin keels later supplanted pure winged configurations in high-level due to concerns downwind, elements of winglets and foils persist in modern appendages, including the development of keels in racers like those in the Volvo Ocean Race series starting in the early , which build on the principle of dynamic adjustment for superior . Australia II's triumph inspired a surge in non-U.S. participation in the and broader international , breaking the perception of American invincibility and encouraging challenges from diverse nations. Prior to 1983, the had defended the Cup 24 times unchallenged by outsiders; the Australian win galvanized entries from Europe and beyond, with strengthened campaigns from , , and the in subsequent events, and new entrants like in 1988. This global expansion elevated the Cup's profile, drawing corporate sponsorships and professional crews, while in , it boosted national engagement, leading to increased investment in yacht programs across Asia and Europe. By the , the event featured multiple syndicates from at least five countries per cycle, a direct contrast to the pre-1983 era dominated by U.S. teams. The 's contributions to hydrodynamics research endure, with its design serving as a foundational in literature and (CFD) analyses. Early validations through model basin testing advanced understanding of viscous flow around appendages, influencing velocity prediction tools used in optimization. As recently as 2022, researchers employed Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations to model the flow around Australia II's , confirming its efficiency in tight upwind angles and providing data for contemporary designs in foiling craft. These insights are cited in texts on hydrodynamics, underscoring the yacht's role in bridging empirical testing and modern numerical methods up to 2025.

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    AND HYDRODYNAMICS ON THE DESIGN OF SAILING YACHTS
    usual keelforms and a more difficult construction of the connection between hull and keel. The displacement of the final design, the Australia II (Fig. 21) ...