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Bedtime procrastination

Bedtime procrastination is defined as the volitional delay of going to bed at the intended time, in the absence of external circumstances that prevent doing so, often leading to insufficient sleep despite anticipating negative consequences.^[1] This behavior represents a specific form of procrastination applied to sleep onset, distinct from general procrastination yet positively correlated with it (r = 0.60).^[1] Prevalent across populations, bedtime procrastination affects more than 50% of individuals who report delaying bedtime at least two nights per week.^[2] Among university students, rates vary, with 23% to 52% exhibiting the behavior depending on assessment items, while only 18% to 37% maintain reasonably regular bedtimes.^[3] It is particularly common in young adults and those with demanding schedules, contributing to widespread sleep deficits.^[4] The practice is associated with poorer sleep health outcomes, including shorter sleep duration, reduced sleep efficiency, and increased daytime fatigue.^[2] Chronically, it exacerbates risks for conditions linked to sleep deprivation, such as glucose intolerance, obesity, and diabetes.^[5] Bedtime procrastination also correlates with higher insomnia severity, emotional dysregulation, and perceived stress, forming a cycle that hinders overall well-being.^[6] Research highlights its roots in self-regulation failures, where individuals prioritize evening activities over rest, underscoring the need for targeted interventions to improve sleep hygiene.^[1]

Definition and Origins

Definition

Bedtime procrastination refers to the volitional delay in going to bed at an intended time, despite awareness of the resulting sleep loss and in the absence of any external barriers that prevent sleep initiation.^[7] This phenomenon was first formally proposed by Kroese et al. in 2014, framing it as a distinct area of procrastination specifically targeting bedtime routines rather than a broader task avoidance.^[7] Central to bedtime procrastination are three key elements: the intentional nature of the postponement, a breakdown in self-regulatory processes that govern sleep timing, and its clear differentiation from involuntary conditions such as insomnia, where individuals actively seek sleep but fail to obtain it due to physiological or psychological impediments beyond their control.^[7] Unlike general procrastination, which encompasses delays across various life domains like work or chores, bedtime procrastination is narrowly focused on the failure to adhere to planned sleep schedules.^[7] One recognized subtype is revenge bedtime procrastination, characterized by deliberately extending wakefulness to reclaim leisure activities or personal time forfeited during overly structured or demanding daily routines. This term originated in China as "bàofùxìng áoyè" around 2020.^[8] The Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS) serves as the primary tool for measuring this behavior, consisting of nine self-report items that capture the frequency of delay tendencies, such as "I go to bed later than I had intended" or "I easily get distracted by things when I actually would like to go to bed," rated on a 5-point Likert scale from never to always.^[7] Developed by Kroese et al. in 2014, the BPS demonstrates strong internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.92) and is widely used to quantify the extent of bedtime delay despite fatigue or planned rest.^[7]

Historical Development

The concept of bedtime procrastination was first formally introduced in 2014 by Floor Kroese and colleagues in a study examining self-regulation and sleep patterns in the general population.^[9] This seminal work defined bedtime procrastination as the voluntary delay in going to bed at an intended time without external hindrances, framing it as a form of self-regulatory failure akin to other procrastination behaviors, and linked it directly to insufficient sleep duration due to low self-control.^[9] The study, published in Frontiers in Psychology, marked the initial empirical exploration of the phenomenon, drawing on survey data from 177 adults recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk to demonstrate its association with bedtime resistance and overall sleep insufficiency.^[9] Early research following the 2014 introduction expanded on prevalence and correlates, with studies from 2016 to 2018 highlighting its commonality among young adults and adolescents. For instance, a 2018 study on Polish high school students found that a majority admitted to delaying bedtime beyond planned times, contributing to widespread sleep deprivation in this demographic.^[10] These investigations, including adaptations of the Bedtime Procrastination Scale, underscored the behavior's role in disrupting sleep hygiene and linking it to chronotype and motivational factors.^[10] By 2018, research had begun integrating bedtime procrastination into broader self-regulation models, with findings indicating its predictive value for sleep quality independent of other procrastination types.^[11] Recent developments from 2022 to 2025 have integrated bedtime procrastination with personality frameworks, revealing associations with traits such as neuroticism. A 2025 study presented at the SLEEP annual meeting analyzed personality factors in bedtime procrastinators, finding significant links to higher neuroticism and lower conscientiousness and extraversion, even after controlling for demographics.^[12] Cultural adaptations have also emerged, particularly in Chinese research exploring "bàofùxìng áoyè" (revenge bedtime procrastination), where a 2020 study on undergraduates reported its prevalence and ties to poor sleep quality amid demanding schedules.^[8] This work emphasizes the behavior's motivational underpinnings as a compensatory response to daytime constraints.^[8] Early studies predominantly focused on Western samples, such as those from the Netherlands and Poland, limiting generalizability.^[9]^[10] In the 2020s, research has shifted toward global perspectives, incorporating digital influences like social media use, which exacerbate delays in bedtime through extended online engagement.^[8] This evolution reflects growing recognition of the phenomenon's cross-cultural relevance and its intersection with modern lifestyle factors.^[12]

Etiology

Psychological Factors

Bedtime procrastination is strongly linked to specific personality traits within the Big Five model. Individuals exhibiting high levels of neuroticism, characterized by emotional instability and heightened sensitivity to stress, are more prone to delaying bedtime as a maladaptive coping mechanism. Conversely, low conscientiousness, reflecting poor self-discipline and organization, contributes to difficulties in adhering to sleep schedules, while low extraversion, associated with reduced social energy regulation and preference for solitary activities, exacerbates the tendency to extend evening wakefulness. These associations were identified in a 2025 study presented at the Sleep Research Society meeting, which analyzed personality profiles among young adults and found consistent patterns after controlling for chronotype.^[13] Cognitive processes play a central role in bedtime procrastination, particularly through impaired self-control and temporal discounting. Self-control failures manifest as an inability to prioritize long-term sleep benefits over immediate evening engagements, viewing bedtime as a voluntary delay despite awareness of consequences. Temporal discounting further intensifies this by devaluing future rewards, such as restorative sleep, in favor of short-term gratifications like media consumption or leisure. Research conceptualizes bedtime procrastination as a self-regulation deficit akin to other delay behaviors, with empirical evidence from behavioral tasks showing higher discounting rates among procrastinators.^[9] Emotional factors, including stress from daily overload, drive bedtime procrastination through a "revenge" motivation, where individuals reclaim personal time after feeling deprived during waking hours. This revenge dynamic serves as an emotional outlet but perpetuates sleep debt. Bedtime procrastination also exhibits bidirectional links with anxiety, where heightened symptoms predict delayed bedtimes, and vice versa, forming reinforcing cycles. A 2025 network analysis revealed temporal symptom-to-symptom connections between bedtime delay and anxiety indicators, underscoring these reciprocal influences in cross-sectional and longitudinal data.^[14]^[15] As a domain-specific manifestation of general procrastination, bedtime procrastination shares underlying neural mechanisms, notably in the prefrontal cortex, which governs impulse control and executive function. Disruptions in prefrontal activity impair the inhibition of rewarding distractions, mirroring broader procrastination patterns rooted in self-regulatory challenges. Environmental triggers, such as access to stimulating devices, can amplify these psychological vulnerabilities but do not originate them. Seminal work positions bedtime procrastination within the procrastination spectrum, supported by correlations with general delay tendencies and shared neurocognitive pathways.^[9]^[16]

Environmental and Lifestyle Contributors

Work-life imbalance significantly contributes to bedtime procrastination, particularly through extended work hours that limit daytime leisure and personal time, leading individuals to delay sleep as a form of "revenge" to reclaim autonomy in the evening. This phenomenon is especially prevalent among those with demanding schedules, such as shift workers who experience disrupted circadian rhythms due to non-standard hours, and parents who juggle childcare responsibilities alongside professional obligations, resulting in chronic fatigue and intentional bedtime delays. A 2020 study of Portuguese high school students found distinct facets of sleep procrastination linked to sleep-wake patterns and demographics.^[17] The digital environment plays a key role in facilitating bedtime procrastination by promoting prolonged screen engagement that interferes with natural sleep cues. Excessive use of social media, streaming services, and notifications keeps individuals awake through engaging content and constant alerts, often extending into late hours despite awareness of sleep needs. Recent research highlights how blue light from these devices suppresses melatonin production, delaying sleep onset; for instance, a 2025 South Korean nationwide survey showed that daily bedtime digital media use exceeding 60 minutes increased the risk of severe insomnia by over twofold, with social networking sites being a primary culprit among young users.^[18] Lifestyle habits further enable bedtime procrastination by disrupting consistent sleep patterns and physiological readiness for rest. Irregular schedules, common in urban settings with variable daily demands, hinder the establishment of stable circadian rhythms, making it easier to postpone bedtime. Additionally, the absence of structured bedtime routines, such as winding-down rituals, allows habitual delays to persist, as evidenced by research linking inconsistent pre-sleep behaviors to poorer overall sleep quality in young adults.^[4]^[19] Demographic factors influence the prevalence of bedtime procrastination, with higher rates observed among young adults aged 18-35 facing intense academic or professional pressures that crowd out relaxation time. College students, in particular, report elevated levels due to deadlines and social demands, with one 2024 study of Chinese undergraduates showing bedtime delays mediated by reduced self-control. Cultural variations also play a role, with cross-national comparisons revealing stronger effects of work-related intrusions on sleep delays in individualist cultures like the U.S. compared to collectivist societies like China.^[20]^[21]

Characteristics

Signs and Symptoms

Bedtime procrastination manifests through distinct behavioral patterns during the evening hours, characterized by the voluntary postponement of sleep onset despite an individual's clear intention to retire earlier and the absence of external obstacles. Common indicators include repeatedly delaying bedtime to engage in leisure activities, such as watching "one more episode" of a television series or endlessly scrolling through social media, even as physical cues of tiredness emerge like yawning or heavy eyelids.^[9]^[22] This delay typically results in actual sleep onset occurring later than planned, often reducing total sleep duration by varying amounts depending on the extent of the procrastination.^[9] Subjectively, individuals experiencing bedtime procrastination often report a heightened awareness of their growing fatigue yet feel compelled to continue these activities, leading to an internal conflict between the desire for rest and the pull of immediate gratification. Upon finally retiring, many express feelings of guilt or regret for the self-imposed delay, recognizing that it undermines their well-being without providing meaningful benefits.^[22] This emotional response is particularly pronounced in cases of deliberate procrastination, where the delay is a conscious choice to reclaim personal time after a demanding day.^[22] Physiologically, the behavior involves an initial surge of alertness induced by stimulating activities, which temporarily masks underlying tiredness and perpetuates the delay. Unlike primary sleep disorders such as insomnia, bedtime procrastination stems from volitional choices rather than involuntary difficulties in falling asleep, though it can exacerbate fatigue upon eventual rest.^[9]^[4] Prevalence of bedtime procrastination is commonly assessed through self-report measures like the Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS), a 9-item questionnaire where higher scores reflect a stronger tendency toward the behavior, with average scores around 2.8 on a 5-point scale in general populations indicating moderate occurrence.^[9] Surveys using the BPS reveal that a substantial portion of respondents, such as approximately 30% in some samples, engage in this pattern frequently enough to compromise their sleep to six hours or fewer per night.^[9]

Associated Behaviors

Bedtime procrastination often co-occurs with various linked habits that serve as delay fillers during evening hours. Individuals engaging in this behavior frequently turn to nighttime snacking as a way to extend wakefulness, with 93% of U.S. adults reporting after-dinner snacking at least once a week, which is linked to later bedtimes and reduced sleep efficiency in frequent snackers.^[23] Excessive gaming similarly contributes, as prolonged sessions beyond intended bedtimes are associated with delayed sleep phases and poorer sleep quality, particularly when gaming exceeds one hour daily.^[24] Social media binges and "doomscrolling"—the compulsive consumption of negative online content—further exacerbate these patterns, with frequent evening scrolling linked to intentional postponement of rest despite known fatigue.^[25]^[26] This behavior intersects with several comorbid conditions, reflecting broader self-regulatory challenges. It shows strong associations with general procrastination, where daytime task delays lead to evening "catch-up" leisure that crowds out sleep.^[9] Ties to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are particularly notable, as ADHD symptoms like impulsivity and time blindness heighten the tendency to delay bedtime, creating overlapping sleep disturbances, with 43% to 80% of adults with ADHD experiencing insomnia or other sleep issues according to cross-sectional studies.^[27]^[28] Problematic binge-watching, akin to a behavioral addiction, also correlates with bedtime procrastination, with excessive episode consumption predicting insomnia and emotional dysregulation.^[29]^[30] Behavioral cycles amplify these associations, forming a vicious loop where daytime procrastination compresses leisure activities into the night, thereby perpetuating sleep delays.^[31] This cycle often results in insufficient rest, which in turn fuels next-day inefficiencies and further evening extensions. Gender differences emerge in prevalence, with 2025 studies indicating slightly higher rates among females.^[32] Measurement overlaps between bedtime procrastination and general procrastination are evident in shared assessment tools, such as the Pure Procrastination Scale, which validates bedtime-specific scales through correlations of approximately 0.60—indicating 36% shared variance in delay tendencies.^[33]^[9] These instruments highlight how bedtime delays represent a domain-specific manifestation of broader procrastination traits.

Effects

Short-term Consequences

Bedtime procrastination often results in reduced sleep duration, associated with sleep of less than 8 hours per night, as individuals delay their intended bedtime despite anticipating negative outcomes.^[34] This sleep restriction leads to immediate next-day drowsiness and an increased likelihood of microsleeps, brief episodes of unintentional sleep lasting seconds that impair alertness.^[35] Studies on sleep-deprived populations, including those exhibiting bedtime procrastination behaviors, confirm that such losses contribute to heightened daytime fatigue, with over 60% of affected university students reporting fatigue on multiple days per week.^[36] Cognitively, the ensuing sleep deficiency manifests as impaired concentration, slower reaction times, and memory lapses within the following 24 to 48 hours. Research indicates that even partial sleep restriction from procrastination significantly impairs performance on vigilance tasks, with effects comparable to those of total sleep deprivation equivalent to moderate alcohol intoxication (0.10% blood alcohol concentration).^[37] For instance, psychomotor vigilance tests show linear declines in attention and working memory after restricted sleep nights, directly linking bedtime delays to diminished executive functioning the next day.^[37] Emotionally, bedtime procrastination exacerbates short-term irritability, mood swings, and a heightened stress response, as sleep loss disrupts emotional regulation and increases reactivity to stressors. Meta-analyses of sleep deprivation effects reveal consistent mood disturbances, including greater emotional variability and reduced tolerance for frustration, persisting for up to 48 hours post-delay.^[37] These responses are particularly pronounced in procrastinators seeking temporary emotional relief through delayed bedtime activities, only to experience rebound negativity.^[2] In daily life, these acute effects translate to reduced productivity at work or school, with impaired focus hindering task completion and learning. Safety risks also rise, notably from drowsy driving, where reaction times slow equivalently to legal intoxication limits, elevating accident potential in the immediate aftermath.^[35] Overall, such disruptions underscore the reversible yet immediate toll on functioning following procrastination episodes.^[35]

Long-term Impacts

Repeated bedtime procrastination contributes to chronic sleep debt, which has been associated with several long-term physical health risks. Short sleep duration resulting from this behavior is positively correlated with obesity, as insufficient sleep disrupts metabolic processes and appetite regulation, leading to weight gain over time.^[38] A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies confirmed a dose-response relationship where shorter sleep durations elevate obesity risk, with short sleepers showing up to an 80% increased likelihood of obesity and related metabolic issues.^[39] Additionally, chronic sleep deprivation from bedtime procrastination heightens cardiovascular strain, including hypertension and coronary heart disease, with meta-analytic evidence indicating a 20% higher risk of cardiovascular events among those with short sleep durations.^[40] Weakened immunity is another consequence, as prolonged sleep insufficiency impairs immune function and increases susceptibility to infections and inflammatory conditions.^[31] On the mental health front, sustained bedtime procrastination exacerbates cycles of anxiety and depression by perpetuating sleep deficits that disrupt emotional regulation and cognitive processing. Longitudinal cohort studies have shown that procrastination behaviors, including bedtime delay, predict worse subsequent mental health outcomes, such as elevated depression and anxiety symptoms over time.^[41] Furthermore, repeated episodes contribute to an increased likelihood of developing clinical insomnia, as bedtime procrastination intensifies sleep effort and severity of sleep disturbances in a bidirectional manner.^[2] These effects create a reinforcing loop where poor sleep fuels emotional dysregulation, leading to persistent psychological strain across months or years. Beyond direct health repercussions, chronic bedtime procrastination leads to declined academic and professional performance due to accumulated daytime fatigue and impaired concentration. Over extended periods, individuals experience reduced productivity and cognitive efficiency, with studies linking consistent sleep delays to lower academic achievement in students and parallel declines in work output.^[29] Persistent fatigue also promotes social withdrawal, as exhaustion diminishes motivation for interpersonal interactions and exacerbates isolation, further compounding mental health challenges.^[42] Epidemiological data from longitudinal studies between 2018 and 2025 highlight the prevalence and progression of these issues, with chronic bedtime procrastinators facing an increased incidence of developing sleep disorders compared to non-procrastinators. National surveys indicate that short sleep prevalence among adults has risen to around 35%, often tied to procrastination patterns, underscoring the widespread long-term burden on public health. As of 2024, research confirms that bedtime procrastination mediates the relationship between low self-control and chronic daytime fatigue.^[31]^[36]

Interventions

Preventive Strategies

Preventive strategies for bedtime procrastination emphasize self-directed habit formation to counteract delays in sleep onset, drawing on self-regulation principles to build consistent behaviors without relying on willpower alone. These techniques target the volitional nature of the behavior by promoting structured routines and environmental cues that facilitate timely bedtimes. Research indicates that such approaches can reduce procrastination duration and improve sleep efficiency when implemented consistently.^[9]^[43] Establishing fixed wind-down schedules forms the cornerstone of routine building, such as adhering to a consistent bedtime and wake-up time across all days to regulate the circadian rhythm. Avoiding screens at least one hour before bed minimizes blue light exposure, which suppresses melatonin production and sustains alertness. Using alarms as bedtime prompts signals the transition to sleep preparation, automating the process and reducing decision fatigue at the end of the day. These practices enhance self-control by creating predictable cues for action.^[14]^[44]^[45] Environmental tweaks involve optimizing the bedroom for sleep by dimming lights to promote melatonin release and removing electronic devices to eliminate temptations for late-night engagement. Scheduling leisure activities during the daytime, such as dedicated time for hobbies or relaxation, prevents the buildup of unfulfilled personal needs that fuel evening procrastination. A cooler, darker, and quieter sleep space further reinforces these cues, making the bed associated solely with rest.^[14]^[44] Behavioral tools support accountability and gradual change, including time-blocking apps to structure daily tasks and allocate evening wind-down periods, thereby curbing spillover into bedtime. Journaling to track delay patterns identifies triggers and reinforces progress, with brief entries before bed helping to offload rumination. Advancing bedtime incrementally by 15 minutes nightly allows for adjustment without overwhelming resistance, building momentum toward earlier sleep onset over time. Implementation intentions—specific if-then plans for bedtime actions—further bolster these tools by pre-committing to behaviors like turning off lights at a set hour.^[46]^[45]^[43] Lifestyle adjustments complement these efforts by limiting caffeine intake after noon, as its half-life can extend up to six hours and disrupt sleep drive. Incorporating moderate exercise earlier in the day, ideally in the morning or afternoon, boosts endorphins and deepens subsequent sleep without the stimulating effects of evening workouts. These changes collectively strengthen natural sleep propensity, reducing the urge to delay bedtime for unwinding.^[14]^[47]

Therapeutic Approaches

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), particularly adaptations from cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), has emerged as a primary therapeutic approach for bedtime procrastination by targeting self-regulatory deficits, cognitive distortions around bedtime, and behavioral patterns that perpetuate delays. In a 2025 pilot randomized controlled trial, transdiagnostic CBT delivered over 20 weekly sessions significantly reduced Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS) scores, yielding a large effect size (Hedges' g = 1.38) that persisted at three-month follow-up.^[48] Similarly, a 2023 randomized controlled trial of a behavioral intervention incorporating CBT principles demonstrated a 35.56% decrease in BPS scores (Cohen's d = 2.19) and a 46.29-minute reduction in procrastination duration among young adults.^[49] These interventions emphasize stimulus control, sleep restriction, and cognitive restructuring to enhance bedtime adherence in persistent cases. Motivational techniques, such as mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII), promote goal commitment by juxtaposing desired outcomes (e.g., timely sleep) with obstacles and linking them to specific action plans, proving effective for self-control challenges in bedtime procrastination. A 2019 randomized trial across two studies (N=604 undergraduates) found MCII increased commitment to reduce bedtime delays and lowered average nightly procrastination minutes compared to control conditions like sleep hygiene education.^[50] More recently, a 2025 registered report experimental study showed that daily MCII over one week reduced bedtime procrastination more effectively than a single-session application, with associated gains in positive affect and reductions in negative affect.^[51] Pharmacological aids play a limited role in treating bedtime procrastination directly, as it is primarily a behavioral issue, but melatonin supplements may assist in regulating sleep onset for those with associated circadian disruptions when prescribed under medical guidance. Evidence from meta-analyses indicates melatonin shortens sleep latency by approximately 4-8 minutes in insomnia contexts, potentially complementing behavioral therapies without addressing core procrastination mechanisms. For comorbidities like anxiety, which exacerbate bedtime delays, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) can be considered to mitigate underlying emotional factors, though no trials specifically link SSRIs to bedtime procrastination outcomes; standard anxiety treatment guidelines support their use in such cases. Group and digital interventions offer accessible, scalable options for bedtime procrastination, often integrating CBT modules with motivational elements. The Sleepio app, a digital CBT-I program, has been associated with improved sleep onset and reduced pre-sleep rumination in insomnia treatment. A 2025 pilot randomized trial of the Reducing Evening Screen Time online intervention (REST-O) demonstrated feasibility and efficacy, reducing pre-sleep device use by 23.4 minutes daily and increasing sleep duration by 12.7 minutes, with sustained reductions in procrastination behaviors at follow-up.^[52] Recent randomized controlled trials from 2023-2025 report improvements in BPS scores for behavioral programs targeting self-regulation. These approaches are particularly suited for severe cases requiring clinician oversight, complementing preventive habits as first-line supports.

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