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Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is a structured, evidence-based psychological intervention designed to identify and modify the thoughts, behaviors, and habits that perpetuate sleep difficulties, particularly in chronic insomnia disorder. It typically consists of 6 to 8 sessions, each lasting 30 to 90 minutes, and incorporates core components such as stimulus control therapy (to strengthen the association between bed and sleep), sleep restriction therapy (to consolidate sleep by limiting time in bed), cognitive restructuring (to challenge unhelpful beliefs about sleep), and sleep hygiene education (to address lifestyle factors influencing sleep).^[1]^[2] CBT-I is recommended as the first-line treatment for insomnia by major health organizations, including the American College of Physicians, due to its high efficacy in reducing insomnia severity by approximately 50% and improving sleep parameters like sleep onset latency, total sleep time, and sleep efficiency. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials demonstrate large effect sizes (0.8 to 1.2) for symptom relief, with benefits persisting for up to 24 months or longer, outperforming pharmacotherapy in durability and without the side effects or risk of dependency associated with sleep medications. It is effective for both primary insomnia and insomnia comorbid with conditions such as depression, anxiety, chronic pain, or menopausal symptoms, with 70% to 80% of patients achieving clinically significant improvements.^[3]^[2]^[4]^[5] Delivery of CBT-I can occur in individual, group, or self-help formats, including in-person sessions, telehealth, or digital applications, making it accessible to diverse populations. While originally developed through behavioral sleep medicine research in the late 20th century, ongoing adaptations have expanded its reach, with high-quality evidence supporting its use across age groups, including adolescents and older adults.^[2]^[6]

Overview

Definition and principles

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is a structured, multi-component psychological intervention designed to address chronic insomnia by targeting the cognitive and behavioral factors that perpetuate sleep difficulties, such as challenges with sleep initiation and maintenance.^[2] It is delivered over a typical course of 6 to 8 sessions, each lasting 30 to 90 minutes, and can be administered individually, in groups, or via digital formats, emphasizing a non-pharmacological approach that promotes long-term sleep improvements without reliance on medications.^[7] As an evidence-based treatment, CBT-I focuses on restoring natural sleep mechanisms by modifying maladaptive patterns rather than addressing underlying medical causes of insomnia.^[8] The core principles of CBT-I revolve around interrupting the vicious cycle of insomnia through targeted changes in sleep-related behaviors and dysfunctional cognitions that sustain wakefulness and arousal.^[2] This involves enhancing sleep efficiency by consolidating sleep periods and reducing time spent awake in bed, while challenging unhelpful beliefs about sleep that contribute to anxiety and hypervigilance.^[7] As a short-term intervention, CBT-I prioritizes practical strategies to build sustainable sleep habits, distinguishing it from prolonged therapies by aiming for rapid symptom relief and relapse prevention through self-efficacy in sleep management.^[8] Unlike general cognitive behavioral therapy, which broadly treats various psychological disorders by restructuring thoughts and behaviors, CBT-I is specifically adapted for sleep disturbances, with a primary emphasis on reducing physiological and cognitive arousal to facilitate sleep consolidation.^[2] It integrates elements tailored to insomnia's unique pathophysiology, such as reconditioning the sleep environment, rather than focusing on broader emotional or interpersonal issues.^[7] Central to CBT-I are key concepts viewing insomnia as maintained by conditioned arousal—where the bed becomes associated with wakefulness due to repeated efforts to sleep—and safety behaviors, like excessive napping or irregular schedules, that inadvertently reinforce the problem.^[2] CBT-I addresses hyperarousal, a state of heightened physiological and cognitive activation, through behavioral experiments that test and modify these patterns, thereby breaking the cycle of conditioned wakefulness.^[7]

History and development

The foundations of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) emerged in the 1970s from behavioral sleep medicine, building on operant conditioning principles to address sleep-onset difficulties. In 1972, Richard Bootzin introduced stimulus control therapy, a technique designed to re-associate the bed and bedroom with sleep rather than wakefulness, marking one of the earliest targeted behavioral interventions for insomnia.^[9] This approach was followed by further developments in behavioral strategies, including the initial trials of relaxation and sleep hygiene methods in the mid-1970s. By the 1980s, Arthur Spielman advanced the field with sleep restriction therapy, formalized in his 1987 paper, which limited time in bed to consolidate sleep and was grounded in the "3P model" of insomnia predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors.^[10] The integration of cognitive elements into these behavioral techniques occurred in the late 1980s and 1990s, drawing from Aaron T. Beck's cognitive therapy framework developed in the 1970s for treating emotional disorders by challenging dysfunctional thoughts. Pioneers like Charles Morin incorporated cognitive restructuring to target sleep-related misconceptions, as evidenced in his 1993 study on cognitive-behavioral therapy for late-life insomnia and his 1993 treatment manual standardizing multi-component protocols.^[11] Similarly, Gregg Jacobs formalized CBT-I applications in the 1990s through his behavioral medicine insomnia program at Harvard, emphasizing cognitive interventions alongside behavioral ones in clinical practice.^[12] Key milestones in the 1990s included the first randomized controlled trials demonstrating CBT-I's efficacy, such as Morin's 1999 trial comparing behavioral, pharmacological, and combined therapies for older adults with insomnia.^[13] The National Institutes of Health's 2005 State-of-the-Science Conference recognized CBT-I as a first-line treatment, followed by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine's (AASM) 2006 practice parameters endorsing it as the preferred approach over pharmacotherapy. This evolved into standardized multi-component models, with the American College of Physicians' 2016 guidelines recommending CBT-I as initial therapy for chronic insomnia, reaffirmed by AASM updates in 2021 emphasizing its enduring role.^[14]^[8]

Core Components

Stimulus control

Stimulus control is a foundational behavioral technique in cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) that aims to re-establish the bed and bedroom as cues for sleep by eliminating associations with wakefulness and arousal. Developed by Richard Bootzin in the early 1970s, it involves a set of specific instructions designed to break the cycle of conditioned wakefulness, where environmental stimuli like the bed inadvertently signal alertness rather than rest.^[15]^[16] The theoretical basis of stimulus control rests on principles of classical conditioning, positing that repeated pairing of the sleep environment with prolonged wakefulness creates a conditioned arousal response, perpetuating insomnia. By enforcing strict rules to separate wakeful activities from the bed, the technique extinguishes these maladaptive associations, allowing the bedroom to regain its role as a discriminative stimulus for sleep onset. This approach contrasts with broader lifestyle modifications by focusing narrowly on environmental and temporal cues to restore natural sleep drive.^[16]^[8] The core instructions of stimulus control include: using the bed and bedroom exclusively for sleep and sexual activity, avoiding all other in-bed behaviors such as reading, watching television, or worrying; going to bed only when feeling sleepy; leaving the bed and bedroom if unable to fall asleep within approximately 20 minutes (or when feeling frustrated); returning to bed only upon renewed sleepiness; maintaining a consistent wake time each morning regardless of prior sleep duration; and avoiding daytime naps to preserve sleep pressure. These rules are intended to be permanent lifestyle changes, not temporary measures, to prevent relapse.^[8]^[17] Implementation begins with thorough patient education on the rationale and rules during therapy sessions, emphasizing the importance of adherence to rebuild sleep associations. Patients track their compliance and sleep patterns using a sleep diary, recording bedtimes, awakenings, out-of-bed episodes, and rise times to monitor progress and identify patterns. Therapists review diary entries weekly to reinforce successes, address challenges—such as clock-watching that prolongs time in bed or partner-related disruptions—and adjust strategies, like setting a predefined time limit for out-of-bed periods to avoid excessive fatigue. This iterative process ensures the technique integrates effectively within CBT-I while minimizing common violations that could undermine its benefits.^[2]^[8]

Sleep restriction therapy

Sleep restriction therapy (SRT) is a core behavioral component of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) that involves deliberately limiting the time a person spends in bed to approximate their average total sleep time, thereby increasing sleep efficiency and consolidating sleep periods. This approach targets individuals with chronic insomnia characterized by prolonged sleep latency, frequent awakenings, or early morning awakenings, where sleep efficiency—calculated as the ratio of total sleep time to time in bed—falls below 85% (or 80% in older adults), as determined from a baseline sleep diary.^[18] Developed by Arthur Spielman and colleagues, SRT was first described in a 1987 study demonstrating its efficacy in reducing wake time after sleep onset and improving overall sleep continuity in patients with chronic insomnia. The procedure begins with a 1- to 2-week sleep diary to estimate average total sleep time, excluding naps, and to establish a consistent rise time based on the patient's typical wake-up schedule. The initial prescribed time in bed is then set equal to this average total sleep time, with a minimum of 5 to 6 hours to prevent excessive deprivation, and the bedtime is calculated backward from the fixed rise time to create a rigid sleep window.^[18] Patients are instructed to remain out of bed during the day except for brief bathroom visits and to avoid naps entirely, adhering strictly to the assigned window regardless of sleep obtained.^[19] Weekly adjustments follow based on updated sleep diary data: if sleep efficiency exceeds 90% (or 85% for older adults), time in bed is increased by 15 to 30 minutes; if below 80% to 85%, it is decreased by 15 to 20 minutes; and no change occurs if efficiency is in the 85% to 90% range. This iterative process continues until sleep duration meets the patient's needs, typically 7 to 8 hours, while maintaining high efficiency.^[18] The rationale for SRT stems from the understanding that excessive time in bed perpetuates insomnia by weakening the homeostatic sleep drive and fragmenting sleep, as outlined in Spielman's 3P model of insomnia, which posits that predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors sustain the disorder.^[18] By imposing mild sleep restriction, the therapy builds sleep pressure through controlled deprivation, which reduces sleep onset latency, minimizes nocturnal awakenings, and consolidates sleep into a more contiguous block, thereby addressing issues with sleep maintenance and efficiency without relying on medication. This consolidation also helps realign the circadian rhythm over time, as consistent wake times reinforce the body's internal clock, leading to more predictable sleep patterns.^[19] Evidence from randomized controlled trials supports SRT's standalone efficacy, with meta-analyses showing significant improvements in sleep efficiency and total sleep time, comparable to full CBT-I protocols.^[19] Common adjustments to SRT include starting with a time in bed slightly longer than average total sleep time—such as adding 30 minutes—to mitigate initial fatigue and improve adherence, particularly for patients sensitive to restriction.^[18] In cases of excessive daytime sleepiness, short naps (20 to 30 minutes) may be permitted early in treatment to ensure safety, especially for older adults or those with comorbidities, while monitoring for seizure disorders or bipolar illness where restriction is contraindicated due to risks of triggering episodes.^[18] Initial aversion to the therapy often manifests as temporary fatigue or irritability, but these subside as sleep drive strengthens, yielding long-term benefits in circadian stability and reduced time awake in bed. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine conditionally recommends SRT as a single-component treatment for chronic insomnia in adults, based on low-quality evidence from six trials indicating clinically meaningful outcomes.^[19] It is frequently combined with stimulus control instructions to further enhance adherence by reinforcing the bed-sleep association.^[19]

Sleep hygiene education

Sleep hygiene education forms an integral part of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), providing patients with evidence-based strategies to optimize daily habits and sleep environments that support restorative sleep. This component emphasizes modifiable lifestyle factors that promote sleep continuity and quality, often integrated into multicomponent CBT-I protocols to address chronic insomnia without relying on it as a standalone intervention. According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM), sleep hygiene alone yields limited benefits for chronic insomnia but enhances outcomes when combined with other techniques.^[20] The core principles of sleep hygiene focus on establishing routines that align with the body's natural circadian rhythms and minimize disruptions. Patients are advised to maintain a consistent sleep schedule, retiring and rising at the same times daily, including weekends, to reinforce regular sleep-wake cycles and prevent desynchronization of the internal clock. Stimulants should be avoided, particularly caffeine intake after noon, as it blocks adenosine receptors and delays sleep onset; similarly, alcohol and nicotine consumption must be limited, especially near bedtime, since alcohol fragments sleep stages and nicotine acts as a stimulant that increases awakenings. Regular physical exercise is recommended to improve sleep efficiency, but vigorous activity should be scheduled at least three to four hours before bed to allow physiological arousal to subside.^[21]^[22]^[21] Environmental modifications play a crucial role in creating an conducive sleep setting. The bedroom should be kept cool (ideally 60-67°F or 15-19°C), dark, and quiet to signal the body for rest, with tools like blackout curtains, earplugs, or white noise machines if needed. To support circadian alignment, regular exposure to natural daylight during the day is encouraged, while bright light from screens or artificial sources should be dimmed or avoided in the evening to prevent suppression of melatonin production. Dietary and behavioral tips further include consuming light evening meals to avoid indigestion, opting for a healthy snack if hungry, and establishing a wind-down routine—such as reading or gentle stretching—free from electronic devices at least 30 minutes before bed to reduce cognitive stimulation.^[21]^[21]^[21] Education often addresses common misconceptions to empower patients, such as the myth that "catching up" on sleep during weekends compensates for weekday deficits; in reality, this irregular pattern exacerbates circadian misalignment and does not fully restore sleep debt, potentially worsening insomnia symptoms. Instead, adherence to hygiene principles builds long-term sleep resilience.^[23] In practice, sleep hygiene is taught through patient handouts outlining these strategies or digital tools like the CBT-i Coach app, which includes tracking features for habits and reminders, underscoring its role as a supportive element rather than a cure-all in CBT-I. Clinicians emphasize gradual implementation to foster sustainable changes, with resources from organizations like the AASM providing accessible materials for reinforcement.^[24]^[25]

Cognitive therapy

Cognitive therapy, a core component of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), focuses on identifying and modifying maladaptive beliefs and attitudes about sleep that perpetuate insomnia by heightening worry, arousal, and performance anxiety.^[26] According to the cognitive model of insomnia, these dysfunctional cognitions—such as safety behaviors and attentional bias toward sleep-related threats—create a cycle where worry about sleep impairs sleep onset and maintenance, leading individuals to overestimate sleep disturbances and underestimate actual sleep duration.^[26] Key targets include unrealistic sleep expectations, like the belief that one must obtain exactly eight hours of sleep nightly to function adequately, and catastrophic thinking, such as assuming that a single poor night will result in severe daytime impairment or long-term health consequences.^[27] Common sleep misconceptions addressed in this approach involve distortions like overestimating time spent awake during the night and engaging in safety behaviors, such as frequent clock-watching, which exacerbate anxiety rather than resolve it.^[28] Psychoeducation plays a foundational role by normalizing sleep variability; for instance, research indicates that healthy adults average about seven hours of sleep per night, with natural fluctuations that do not necessarily impair functioning, and that core sleep periods of around 5.5 hours can sustain performance while containing essential deep and REM stages.^[28] These educational elements help patients recognize that rigid adherence to idealized sleep norms is unhelpful and often inaccurate, as measured by tools like the Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep Scale (DBAS), which assesses agreement with statements reflecting such misconceptions.^[29] Techniques for cognitive restructuring begin with thought records, where patients log sleep-related situations, automatic thoughts, emotional responses, and their intensity to pinpoint triggers during therapy sessions.^[2] Therapists employ Socratic questioning and guided discovery to challenge these thoughts, encouraging patients to evaluate evidence for and against them, consider alternative interpretations, and decatastrophize outcomes—for example, reframing "I won't be able to handle work after a bad night" to "Most people manage on varying sleep amounts without catastrophe."^[27] Behavioral experiments further test beliefs empirically, such as deliberately varying bedtime to assess the impact of "one bad night" on the following day, fostering a shift toward acceptance of natural sleep patterns.^[27] Homework assignments, including daily journaling of restructured thoughts and DBAS monitoring, reinforce these changes outside sessions, promoting adaptive cognitions that reduce sleep-interfering anxiety.^[27] This process may briefly intersect with relaxation strategies to manage acute anxiety arising from challenged beliefs, but emphasizes cognitive shifts over physiological techniques.^[2]

Relaxation training

Relaxation training forms an integral part of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), targeting the reduction of physiological and cognitive arousal that disrupts sleep onset and maintenance.^[30] This approach addresses the heightened activation often observed in individuals with insomnia, promoting a calmer state conducive to sleep without relying on pharmacological interventions.^[31] The primary methods encompass progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), deep breathing exercises, and guided imagery. PMR involves sequentially tensing and then releasing distinct muscle groups, typically starting from the feet and progressing upward, to alleviate physical tension accumulated during the day.^[32] Deep breathing, particularly diaphragmatic or abdominal breathing, emphasizes slow, controlled inhalations through the nose and exhalations through the mouth, engaging the diaphragm to foster a sense of tranquility.^[2] Guided imagery directs individuals to vividly imagine serene environments or positive scenarios, thereby shifting focus away from sleep-related worries and reducing mental agitation.^[33] Autogenic training complements these techniques by employing autosuggestion—repetitive self-statements evoking sensations of warmth and heaviness in various body parts—to cultivate an internal state of relaxation and detachment from external stressors.^[34] Developed by Johannes Heinrich Schultz in the early 20th century, this method has demonstrated efficacy in improving sleep patterns among those with insomnia, particularly when integrated into behavioral protocols.^[35] In practice, relaxation training sessions last 20 to 30 minutes and are ideally performed shortly before bedtime in a quiet, non-bedroom setting to avoid associating the bed solely with wakefulness.^[32] Audio-guided recordings are commonly provided to support consistent home application, enabling patients to follow structured instructions independently after initial therapist-led sessions.^[36] Common barriers, such as initial frustration from imperfect execution or difficulty maintaining focus, are addressed through encouragement of regular practice and gradual mastery, as benefits accrue over time with adherence.^[31] Physiologically, these techniques diminish sympathetic nervous system activation, which is implicated in the hyperarousal subtype of insomnia characterized by elevated alertness at bedtime.^[30] This reduction is quantifiable through improvements in heart rate variability, a marker of autonomic balance that reflects enhanced parasympathetic tone following relaxation practice.^[37] Tailoring these methods to hyperarousal presentations enhances their relevance, as they directly counteract the persistent physiological vigilance that perpetuates sleep difficulties.^[38] Relaxation training is often paired with cognitive therapy within CBT-I to offer multifaceted arousal management, addressing both bodily and mental dimensions of insomnia.^[7]

Paradoxical intention

Paradoxical intention is a cognitive-behavioral technique used in the treatment of insomnia, wherein patients are instructed to deliberately attempt to remain awake while lying in bed, thereby reversing the typical pressure to fall asleep.^[39] This approach counters the counterproductive effort associated with trying too hard to sleep, which often exacerbates wakefulness.^[40] The rationale for paradoxical intention originates from Viktor Frankl's logotherapy, where it serves as a method to "prescribe the symptom" in order to diminish anticipatory anxiety and performance pressure linked to involuntary processes like sleep onset.^[39] By encouraging wakefulness, it addresses secondary insomnia arising from excessive striving, shifting focus away from sleep as an achievable goal and reducing the vicious cycle of fear-of-not-sleeping that perpetuates arousal.^[41] This technique leverages the psychological principle that heightened intention to avoid a feared outcome can paradoxically facilitate it, often resulting in unintended drowsiness as anxiety subsides.^[40] In practice, paradoxical intention is implemented selectively for individuals with severe sleep-onset insomnia, typically as a short-term intervention lasting 1-2 weeks to avoid potential paradoxical worsening of symptoms.^[39] Patients are guided to engage in the technique without sleep-incompatible activities, such as reading or using devices, and may incorporate elements like humor or thought recording to enhance acceptance; progress is closely monitored through sleep diaries to ensure it disrupts the anxiety cycle effectively.^[41] It can serve as an adjunct to core CBT-I components, such as stimulus control, to reinforce behavioral boundaries around bedtime.^[40]

Delivery and Implementation

Treatment format and duration

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is typically delivered over six to eight weekly or bi-weekly sessions, each lasting 30 to 60 minutes, plus a 60- to 90-minute pre-treatment assessment, in either individual or group formats, in-person or via telehealth.^[2] Patients maintain sleep diaries throughout treatment to establish a baseline sleep pattern during a one- to two-week pre-treatment period and to track progress, with data reviewed in each session to inform adjustments.^[2] An initial assessment often includes administration of the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) to quantify insomnia severity and guide personalization.^[2] Sessions follow a structured progression: the first treatment session focuses on education about sleep physiology and introduces core components sequentially, starting with stimulus control and sleep restriction, followed by cognitive therapy, relaxation techniques, and sleep hygiene.^[2] Subsequent sessions involve reviewing homework assignments and sleep diary entries, addressing challenges, introducing new elements, and assigning further practice to reinforce skills.^[2] Later sessions emphasize tapering interventions, relapse prevention strategies, and developing long-term maintenance plans.^[2] Adaptations for brevity include brief CBT-I protocols consisting of four to six sessions, designed for integration into primary care settings to enhance accessibility.^[42] Post-treatment booster or maintenance sessions, typically one to three as needed, can address residual symptoms and support sustained gains.^[43] Treatment success relies on active patient participation, including consistent homework completion and adherence to recommendations, which is monitored through sleep diaries and session discussions.^[2] Dropout rates range from 14% to 40%, often linked to factors like symptom severity or low motivation, underscoring the need for strategies to enhance compliance and retention.^[44]

Therapist training and access

Therapists delivering cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) must meet specific training standards to ensure competency in sleep assessment, behavioral interventions, and cognitive restructuring techniques central to the treatment. The Board of Behavioral Sleep Medicine (BBSM) offers the Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Credential (CBTI-C), which requires candidates to hold a bachelor's degree or higher from an accredited institution and maintain a current, valid healthcare license, such as those held by psychologists (PhD or PsyD), nurses (RN), physicians (MD), or licensed clinical social workers (LCSW). Eligibility pathways include the Standard Track, involving graduation from a Society of Behavioral Sleep Medicine (SBSM)-accredited CBT-I training program, or the Alternate Track, which mandates 100 hours of training completed within 24 months: 28 hours of didactic instruction (20 hours on CBT-I and 8 hours on mental health), 60 hours of clinical experience (48 hours of supervised CBT-I delivery and 12 hours in other cognitive behavioral therapies), and 12 additional hours in related activities like research or teaching. These requirements emphasize core competencies in insomnia diagnosis, treatment protocol adherence, and patient education on sleep components.^[45] A range of healthcare professionals can become qualified CBT-I providers after completing targeted training, typically spanning 20-40 hours for foundational workshops, with more extensive programs for certification. Psychologists often receive CBT-I training during internships or postdoctoral fellowships, while nurses and primary care clinicians may pursue abbreviated courses, such as 18-30 hour online or in-person modules offered by institutions like Stanford's Sleep Health and Insomnia Program or the University of Pennsylvania. Since 2020, online training options have proliferated, enabling broader dissemination through platforms accredited by SBSM, though full certification via BBSM remains the gold standard for demonstrating expertise. These programs focus on practical skills like sleep diary analysis and relaxation techniques, allowing diverse providers to integrate CBT-I into their practice without requiring prior sleep medicine specialization.^[46]^[47]^[48] Access to trained CBT-I therapists remains a significant barrier, with limited provider numbers exacerbating wait times and geographic disparities. Provider directories list over 800 CBT-I clinicians worldwide as of 2025, with the majority in the United States and several hundred in North America via professional societies, far short of the estimated 30 million adults needing treatment.^[49]^[50] Costs average around $230 to $260 per session (ranging from $75 to $530), with insurance coverage varying widely—about 56% of providers accept private insurance, and public options like Medicare often require prior authorization, leading to out-of-pocket expenses for many patients. Average wait times are about 7 weeks, though some can extend up to several months, particularly in rural and underserved regions, contributing to reliance on less effective alternatives like pharmacotherapy.^[51] To address these challenges, task-sharing models have emerged, training non-specialists such as primary care providers, community health workers, and nurses to deliver CBT-I under supervision, particularly in low-resource and global settings. Evidence from systematic reviews supports the efficacy of these approaches, showing comparable outcomes to specialist-led therapy when non-specialists receive 20-40 hours of initial training and ongoing support, as demonstrated in implementations for depression-comorbid insomnia. In low- and middle-income countries, task-sharing reduces global disparities by leveraging local personnel, with pilots in rural areas yielding sustained improvements in sleep without increasing adverse events. These strategies prioritize scalable training to expand access while maintaining fidelity to CBT-I protocols.^[52]^[53]^[54]

Digital and self-help adaptations

Digital adaptations of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) have emerged as scalable solutions to address access barriers, particularly through automated online programs and mobile applications. Prominent examples include Sleepio, an interactive web-based platform developed in collaboration with clinical researchers, and SHUTi (now known as Somryst), a fully automated digital intervention that delivers core CBT-I components via a computer-tailored interface.^[55]^[56] These programs incorporate elements such as sleep restriction, stimulus control, cognitive restructuring, and relaxation techniques through multimedia modules, with some integrating AI-driven chatbots for guided interactions and real-time support.^[57] Additionally, mobile apps like CBT-I Coach provide supplementary tools for self-monitoring and skill-building, often used alongside formal therapy.^[56] Self-help formats extend CBT-I accessibility via structured workbooks and books, enabling individuals to implement techniques independently. A seminal example is "Say Good Night to Insomnia" by Gregg D. Jacobs, a six-week, drug-free program developed at Harvard Medical School's Mind/Body Medical Institute, which guides users through cognitive and behavioral strategies with daily exercises and sleep diaries.^[58] This workbook-based approach emphasizes self-paced learning, drawing from empirically validated CBT-I principles to promote long-term sleep improvements without professional oversight.^[59] Key features of these digital and self-help tools include interactive modules that adapt content based on user input, algorithmic personalization for sleep schedules and goal-setting, and built-in progress tracking via sleep logs and quizzes.^[60] Recent advancements as of 2024-2025 incorporate virtual reality (VR) elements for enhanced relaxation training, such as immersive mindfulness environments to reduce pre-sleep arousal, as explored in pilot studies for insomnia management.^[61] These features facilitate 24/7 access, allowing users to engage at convenient times without scheduling constraints.^[33] Advantages of digital and self-help CBT-I include significantly lower costs compared to in-person therapy, typically ranging from $40 to $100 per program, and high scalability to reach underserved populations amid therapist shortages.^[62] Completion rates often range from 60% to 80%, supported by engaging interfaces that boost adherence, with meta-analyses indicating efficacy comparable to traditional formats in reducing insomnia severity.^[63]^[64] The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) has endorsed digital CBT-I platforms since 2024, recommending them as evidence-based supplementary options when traditional CBT-I is unavailable.^[55] Limitations persist, however, as these adaptations offer less individualized personalization than therapist-led sessions, potentially overlooking nuanced patient needs.^[33] Suitability screening is essential for severe or comorbid cases, where self-help alone may not suffice, and users with limited digital literacy could face barriers to engagement.^[65]

Clinical Recommendations

Indications for use

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is primarily indicated for adults with chronic insomnia disorder, defined by the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Third Edition (ICSD-3), as a persistent difficulty with sleep initiation, maintenance, or early morning awakening occurring at least three nights per week for three months or longer, despite adequate opportunity for sleep, and accompanied by daytime impairment or distress.^[66]^[67] This includes specific subtypes such as sleep-onset insomnia, where individuals struggle to fall asleep; sleep maintenance insomnia, involving frequent awakenings; and early morning awakening with inability to return to sleep.^[66] CBT-I serves as a first-line intervention for non-comorbid chronic insomnia in adults aged 18 and older, with demonstrated applicability across a broad age range up to 80 years, including older adults.^[14] It is particularly suitable for populations facing circadian rhythm disruptions, such as shift workers experiencing insomnia symptoms due to irregular schedules.^[68] In cases of comorbid insomnia—where sleep difficulties co-occur with other medical or psychiatric conditions—CBT-I is recommended when insomnia remains the primary complaint driving daytime consequences.^[8] Diagnosis of chronic insomnia warranting CBT-I requires confirmation through validated tools, such as prospective sleep diaries tracking sleep patterns over at least one to two weeks or actigraphy to objectively measure rest-activity cycles and rule out other sleep disorders.^[69]^[70] Guidelines emphasize prioritizing CBT-I over pharmacotherapy for the long-term management of chronic insomnia, as recommended by the American College of Physicians in 2016, with ongoing endorsement in subsequent behavioral treatment standards from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine.^[14]^[8]

Contraindications and precautions

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) has few absolute contraindications, but certain conditions necessitate avoiding or significantly modifying its standard components, particularly sleep restriction therapy (SRT), to prevent exacerbation of underlying health issues. Untreated bipolar disorder is a key absolute contraindication due to the risk of precipitating manic episodes through sleep deprivation induced by SRT.^[71]^[72] Similarly, severe untreated obstructive sleep apnea contraindicates SRT, as it can worsen respiratory instability and daytime sleepiness without prior diagnosis and management via polysomnography or continuous positive airway pressure therapy.^[72] Active suicidality also represents an absolute contraindication, requiring stabilization of acute psychiatric risk before initiating CBT-I to ensure patient safety and engagement.^[71] Relative precautions apply in scenarios where CBT-I can proceed with adaptations to mitigate risks. For individuals with epilepsy or seizure disorders, SRT demands close monitoring, as sleep restriction may lower the seizure threshold, potentially triggering events.^[71] In elderly patients with fall risk or mobility limitations, stimulus control therapy (SCT)—which involves leaving the bed if unable to sleep—should be adjusted, such as by reducing strict out-of-bed rules or incorporating scheduled short naps to avoid excessive daytime somnolence leading to accidents.^[71]^[72] During pregnancy, CBT-I is generally safe but requires mild adaptations, such as emphasizing relaxation and sleep hygiene over aggressive SRT to accommodate physiological changes like frequent nocturia, without evidence of harm to maternal or fetal health.^[73] Effective management of these contraindications and precautions begins with comprehensive pre-treatment screening for comorbidities, including psychiatric evaluations and sleep disorder assessments, to tailor the intervention appropriately. When SRT is contraindicated, therapy can start with sleep hygiene education and relaxation training to build foundational skills before cautiously introducing modified restriction if feasible.^[71]^[72] Multidisciplinary referrals to psychiatrists, sleep specialists, or primary care providers are recommended for patients with unstable conditions, ensuring integrated care that addresses both insomnia and co-occurring issues.^[71] CBT-I is associated with rare adverse effects, primarily transient increases in daytime sleepiness and temporary mood dips during the initial weeks of SRT or SCT, which typically resolve as sleep efficiency improves.^[72]^[74] These effects are mild and self-limiting, with no long-term harm reported in controlled studies. Recent 2025 updates on digital CBT-I implementations underscore the importance of enhanced monitoring in app-based formats, such as regular progress check-ins and safety alerts, to promptly address any emerging sleepiness or emotional changes in remote settings.^[55]^[75]

Guidelines from professional organizations

The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) established clinical practice guidelines in 2021 recommending cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) as a strong first-line treatment for chronic insomnia disorder in adults, based on high-quality evidence demonstrating its efficacy in improving sleep outcomes; this guideline remains active as of 2025.^[20] The AASM emphasizes CBT-I's long-term benefits, including sustained improvements in sleep efficiency and reduced sleep latency that surpass those of pharmacotherapy alone.^[76] The American College of Physicians (ACP) issued guidelines in 2016 recommending CBT-I as the initial treatment for chronic insomnia disorder in all adults, with a strong recommendation supported by moderate- to high-quality evidence showing improvements in sleep quality and duration.^[77] For older adults, the ACP notes moderate-quality evidence for CBT-I's benefits on insomnia severity and sleep quality indices, though the overall recommendation remains strong rather than conditional. These guidelines prioritize CBT-I over pharmacological options due to its favorable risk-benefit profile and durability. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and Department of Defense (DoD) released a clinical practice guideline in 2025 (developed in 2024) strongly recommending CBT-I as the first-line intervention for chronic insomnia disorder in veterans, citing robust evidence for its effectiveness in this population.^[78] The guideline specifies that CBT-I should incorporate key components such as sleep restriction, stimulus control, arousal reduction, and cognitive restructuring, while preferring it over pharmacotherapy; brief behavioral therapy for insomnia (BBT-I) is suggested as a weak alternative when full CBT-I is unavailable.^[78] In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) endorses digital CBT-I platforms, such as Sleepio, as an effective treatment option for adults with insomnia and insomnia symptoms, based on 2022 guidance that highlights its role in improving access to evidence-based care.^[79] NICE positions digital CBT-I as a scalable alternative to traditional delivery, particularly when face-to-face services are limited. Professional consensus, as outlined in expert reviews, defines minimal standards for CBT-I as including at least four core components: sleep restriction therapy, stimulus control therapy, sleep hygiene education, and cognitive therapy, to ensure comprehensive targeting of insomnia mechanisms.^[2] Recent updates from 2024 to 2025, including AASM guidance, emphasize expanded digital access to CBT-I and integration with telehealth platforms to address post-pandemic barriers such as geographic limitations and provider shortages, positioning these adaptations as viable supplements to in-person care.^[55]

Efficacy and Evidence

Outcomes in general populations

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) has demonstrated robust efficacy in treating uncomplicated insomnia in general populations, as evidenced by multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). A 2021 systematic review evaluating CBT-I against rigorous criteria for empirically supported treatments found high-quality evidence for clinically and statistically significant improvements in insomnia symptoms and sleep parameters, based on meta-analyses of multiple high- or moderate-quality RCTs.^[5] Similarly, a comprehensive 2015 meta-analysis of 20 RCTs confirmed moderate to large effect sizes across key sleep outcomes in adults with primary chronic insomnia.^[80] Key metrics from these studies highlight CBT-I's impact: response rates range from 70% to 80%, defined as meaningful reductions in insomnia severity.^[81] Sleep onset latency decreases by 30-50% on average (approximately 19 minutes from typical baselines of 45-60 minutes), wake after sleep onset reduces by about 40% (around 26 minutes), and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) scores improve, reflecting large effect sizes (Hedges' g ≈ 0.85).^[80]^[5] Sleep efficiency typically rises above 85%, with moderate to large effects (g ≈ 0.73).^[5] Short-term outcomes show these improvements are sustained for 6-12 months post-treatment without significant relapse in most cases. A 2019 meta-analysis of 30 randomized controlled trials reported persistent moderate effects on insomnia severity (g = 0.40 at 6 months; g = 0.25 at 12 months) and sleep efficiency (g = 0.32 at 6 months; g = 0.35 at 12 months) compared to controls.^[82] Recent 2025 research further supports this durability, indicating that gains hold without routine relapse prevention boosters in adherent patients.^[83] Factors influencing success include adherence rates above 70%, younger age, and milder baseline insomnia severity, which correlate with stronger and more sustained responses.^[82] However, limitations persist: 20-30% of individuals are non-responders, often requiring alternative interventions or follow-up assessments to address residual symptoms.^[82]

Long-term effects and relapse prevention

Studies have demonstrated that the benefits of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) are durable, with 50-88% of patients achieving and maintaining remission depending on the definition used, often extending beyond 12 months post-treatment.^[84] Longitudinal follow-up indicates that 40-41% of individuals maintain long-term remission after CBT-I, compared to only 28% for those initiating pharmacotherapy, highlighting CBT-I's superiority in preventing rebound insomnia associated with medications.^[85] A 2024 analysis of randomized controlled trials further supports this, showing sustained remission rates around 41% at extended follow-ups of 2-5 years.^[86] To prevent relapse, strategies such as booster sessions—typically 1-2 per year—have been recommended to reinforce learned skills and address emerging issues.^[87] Ongoing use of sleep diaries enables self-monitoring of sleep patterns and early identification of relapse signals, such as irregular sleep schedules or heightened sleep-related anxiety.^[2] These approaches help sustain treatment gains by promoting consistent application of CBT-I techniques. The enduring effects of CBT-I are attributed to lasting cognitive shifts, such as reduced sleep-related worry, and the formation of healthy sleep habits that buffer against future disruptions.^[88] These mechanisms provide protection against life stressors, which might otherwise exacerbate insomnia symptoms.^[89] Despite these benefits, challenges persist, with life events triggering relapse in approximately 20-33% of cases, necessitating tailored maintenance plans like periodic sleep hygiene refreshers for high-risk individuals.^[90]

Applications in Comorbid Conditions

Mood disorders

Insomnia is highly prevalent among individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD), affecting approximately 75% of patients and contributing to the bidirectional relationship between sleep disturbances and depressive symptoms.^[91] This comorbidity often exacerbates mood symptoms, with insomnia persisting as a residual issue in up to 50% of cases even after depression treatment.^[92] Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) has demonstrated efficacy in reducing depressive symptoms in comorbid cases, with meta-analyses indicating moderate to large improvements (effect size d ≈ 0.34–0.82) driven primarily by enhanced sleep quality.^[93] These reductions, often ranging from 30% to 50% in symptom severity scores, occur through mechanisms such as improved emotion regulation and decreased rumination on negative thoughts during bedtime.^[94] Additionally, CBT-I may lower systemic inflammation markers, like interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein, which are elevated in both insomnia and depression, thereby supporting overall mood stabilization.^[95] Adaptations of CBT-I for mood disorders frequently integrate elements of cognitive behavioral therapy for depression (CBT-D), such as targeting sleep-related safety behaviors and cognitive distortions that perpetuate depressive rumination.^[96] Prioritizing cognitive restructuring for bedtime worry and avoidance patterns enhances treatment outcomes when combined with standard depression protocols.^[38] A 2025 meta-analysis of seven randomized controlled trials involving 1,864 participants with comorbid insomnia and depression found that digital CBT-I significantly improved both insomnia severity (Hedges' g = 0.72) and depressive symptoms (Hedges' g = 0.45), with sustained effects at 6-month follow-up.^[65] Targeting sleep disturbances first with CBT-I can accelerate depression remission, as evidenced by studies showing that insomnia resolution precedes and predicts faster reductions in depressive episodes compared to depression-focused interventions alone.^[97] This approach not only shortens symptom duration but also enhances long-term remission rates by addressing the precipitating role of sleep in mood dysregulation.^[98] Clinical considerations for CBT-I in mood disorders include routine screening for suicidality, given insomnia's association with heightened suicidal ideation, which CBT-I can mitigate by 20–40% through sleep normalization.^[99] Combined protocols, such as behavioral activation integrated with CBT-I (BA-CBT-I), further boost efficacy by promoting activity scheduling to counter depressive withdrawal while incorporating sleep hygiene, leading to superior outcomes in severe cases.^[100]

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Insomnia is highly comorbid with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), affecting 70-91% of patients with the condition through difficulties in falling or staying asleep.^[101] Nightmares represent a key feature of this comorbidity, occurring in 50-70% of individuals with PTSD and often exacerbating sleep disruption.^[102] Within CBT-I protocols adapted for PTSD, nightmares are typically addressed through imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT), a component that involves rewriting and rehearsing non-distressing versions of recurrent nightmares to reduce their frequency and intensity.^[103] Adaptations to standard CBT-I for PTSD emphasize trauma-informed delivery to minimize re-traumatization risks, such as modifying or avoiding relaxation scripts that may evoke hyperarousal or triggering imagery.^[104] These protocols are frequently integrated with evidence-based PTSD treatments like prolonged exposure (PE) or cognitive processing therapy (CPT) to address both sleep and trauma symptoms concurrently; for instance, integrated CBT-I and PE has demonstrated superior outcomes compared to PE alone with sleep hygiene education.^[105] Recent VA trials, including those evaluating combined approaches, have shown approximately 40% reductions in nightmare frequency following such integrated interventions.^[105] CBT-I in PTSD not only improves sleep but also reduces overall PTSD severity, with studies reporting 20-30% decreases in Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) scores post-treatment.^[106] These outcomes are mediated by mechanisms that target PTSD-specific processes, including diminished hypervigilance through consolidated sleep and enhanced safety learning via reduced fear responses during exposure elements.^[107] Compared to mood disorders, where CBT-I primarily addresses depressive rumination, applications in PTSD uniquely focus on trauma-related arousal and avoidance patterns.^[108] Despite these benefits, CBT-I for PTSD faces challenges such as higher dropout rates, around 30%, particularly among veterans due to intensified emotional distress during treatment.^[109] To mitigate this, a phased approach is recommended, beginning with stabilization techniques like psychoeducation and safety-building skills to prepare patients for core CBT-I and trauma-focused components.^[110]

Cancer and chronic illness

Insomnia is highly prevalent among patients with cancer and other chronic illnesses, affecting 30% to 50% of individuals, with rates often reaching up to 54% in newly diagnosed or recently treated cases.^[111] This sleep disturbance is frequently exacerbated by physical symptoms such as pain and fatigue, as well as side effects from medications like chemotherapy agents and hypnotics.^[111] In chronic conditions like cardiovascular disease or kidney disease, similar patterns emerge, where insomnia compounds symptom burden and impairs daily functioning.^[112] Adaptations of CBT-I for these populations often include shorter sessions or briefer formats, such as 4- to 10-week programs totaling 1 to 16 hours, to accommodate fatigue and treatment schedules.^[113] Integration with pain management strategies is common, particularly in chronic pain alongside cancer, while digital delivery methods facilitate access in hospital or home settings without disrupting ongoing therapies like chemotherapy.^[112] Recent 2025 meta-analyses of randomized trials report approximately 50% remission rates for insomnia symptoms in cancer and other chronic disease patients receiving CBT-I, with no evidence of interference with medical treatments.^[114] CBT-I enhances quality of life in these groups, with improvements in Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy (FACT) scores typically ranging from 15% to 20%, as seen in shifts from baseline averages around 80 to post-treatment scores near 93.^[115] It also reduces fatigue severity through standardized mean differences of -0.29, promoting better overall symptom management.^[116] These benefits extend to mechanisms like improved adherence to medical regimens, such as endocrine therapy in breast cancer, by alleviating sleep-related barriers to compliance.^[117] Special considerations for frail patients include modifying sleep restriction components to avoid excessive daytime fatigue, potentially using alternatives like stimulus control emphasis.^[118] A multidisciplinary approach, integrating CBT-I with oncology care, ensures tailored delivery and addresses overlapping symptoms like pain and treatment side effects.^[119]

Other conditions

CBT-I has been adapted for chronic pain conditions, particularly fibromyalgia, where standard components such as sleep restriction are modified to use gentler approaches to minimize potential exacerbation of pain symptoms.^[120] In randomized trials, these adaptations have led to significant improvements in sleep efficiency, reduced wake after sleep onset, and decreased pain catastrophizing, with 78% of participants classified as treatment responders compared to 22% in control groups.^[121] Overall, CBT-I demonstrates moderate to large effect sizes in disrupting the pain-insomnia cycle, enhancing daily functioning without relying on pharmacological interventions.^[122] In neurological conditions, CBT-I emphasizes sleep hygiene and relaxation techniques to address insomnia without overloading cognitive resources. For mild traumatic brain injury (TBI), internet-guided CBT-I has shown clinical benefits, reducing Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) scores by an average of 6 points and improving associated depressive and fatigue symptoms in veterans.^[123] Similarly, in Parkinson's disease, CBT-I significantly enhances sleep efficiency, reduces total wake time, and improves daytime functioning and psychological outcomes, with effects sustained at 3-month follow-up in single-case designs.^[124] A 2023 pilot evaluation indicated promise for dementia caregivers, where web-based CBT-I adaptations yielded high adherence (over 75%) and reductions in sleep onset latency by approximately 12 minutes, alongside decreases in caregiver burden and mood disturbances.^[125] For situational comorbidities, brief tailored CBT-I protocols effectively target insomnia linked to hormonal or neurodevelopmental factors. In menopause, CBT-I reduces ISI scores by 5 to 10 points and achieves remission rates of 70-84% at 6-24 weeks post-treatment, outperforming sleep hygiene education.^[126] For attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), adjusted group-based CBT-I improves insomnia severity by 4.5 points immediately post-treatment and 6.8 points at 3-month follow-up, with small gains in ADHD symptoms and high patient satisfaction.^[127] Preliminary trials on Long COVID-related insomnia highlight CBT-I's potential in post-viral contexts, with interventions improving insomnia trajectories and reducing comorbid depressive symptoms, though larger studies are needed to confirm long-term efficacy.^[128]

Alternatives and Comparisons

Pharmacological treatments

Pharmacological treatments for insomnia primarily involve prescription medications aimed at inducing or maintaining sleep, serving as alternatives to cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I). These include benzodiazepines such as temazepam, non-benzodiazepine hypnotics like zolpidem, orexin receptor antagonists including suvorexant, and off-label use of antidepressants such as trazodone.^[129] These agents target different neurochemical pathways to reduce sleep latency and awakenings but are generally recommended for short-term use due to their risk profile.^[130] Benzodiazepines, exemplified by temazepam at doses of 15-30 mg, enhance the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to promote sedation. Non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, such as zolpidem at 5-10 mg, similarly act on GABA receptors but with greater selectivity for sleep onset. Orexin receptor antagonists like suvorexant (10-20 mg) block wake-promoting orexin neurons to improve sleep maintenance. Off-label antidepressants, including trazodone at 50 mg, are sometimes used for their sedating properties via serotonin modulation, though evidence for this application is limited.^[129]^[130] In terms of efficacy, these medications provide short-term relief, typically reducing sleep onset latency by 20-40% (approximately 10-37 minutes based on polysomnography and subjective reports) and increasing total sleep time by 20-100 minutes, with effects most pronounced in the first few weeks of use.^[131] However, tolerance develops rapidly, leading to diminished benefits over time, and discontinuation often results in rebound insomnia, where symptoms worsen beyond baseline levels. A 2023 analysis indicated that while pharmacotherapy offers acute improvements, it is inferior to CBT-I for long-term outcomes, with CBT-I achieving sustained reductions in insomnia severity without tolerance.^[132] Key risks associated with these treatments include dependence in chronic users, particularly with benzodiazepines and non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, due to their potential for tolerance and withdrawal symptoms like anxiety and worsened sleep.^[133] Daytime impairment, such as drowsiness and impaired coordination, increases the risk of falls, especially in older adults, with benzodiazepines linked to a 50-70% higher fracture incidence.^[134] Additionally, prolonged use of sedative-hypnotics has been associated with cognitive concerns in some studies, though evidence on links to dementia remains mixed.^[135] Professional guidelines from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) endorse these medications only for short-term use, typically 2-4 weeks or up to 90 days at the lowest effective dose, with weak recommendations based on moderate to low-quality evidence.^[129] They are not considered first-line treatments, as CBT-I is preferred for its efficacy and safety; pharmacotherapy is reserved for cases where behavioral interventions are inaccessible or insufficient.^[130] Monitoring for adverse effects and periodic reassessment are emphasized to mitigate long-term harms.^[135]

Other non-pharmacological options

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), an 8-week structured program involving meditation and yoga practices, has demonstrated small to moderate improvements in subjective sleep quality for adults with sleep disturbances, with a standardized mean difference (SMD) of -0.32 compared to waitlist controls, though objective measures like sleep efficiency show no significant benefit in chronic insomnia cases.^[136] However, its effects are inconsistent across populations, such as those with cancer, where subjective gains are limited by high heterogeneity in study designs.^[136] Acupuncture, including manual and electroacupuncture variants, provides mixed evidence for insomnia relief, primarily offering short-term enhancements in subjective sleep quality, with reductions in Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores by approximately 2.6 points and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) scores by 2.0 points versus sham treatments.^[137] These benefits, observed in over 750 patients across 10 trials, do not consistently extend to objective outcomes like total sleep time, and long-term durability remains uncertain due to methodological limitations in primary studies.^[137] Bright light therapy, particularly morning exposure, targets circadian rhythm disruptions in insomnia, showing moderate effectiveness for sleep maintenance by reducing wake after sleep onset (WASO) by 11-36 minutes based on actigraphy and diary measures in 685 participants from 22 studies.^[138] It advances sleep-wake cycles without broadly impacting sleep latency or efficiency, positioning it as a targeted option for delayed sleep phase issues rather than core insomnia symptoms.^[138] Emerging approaches like neurofeedback, which trains brainwave patterns such as alpha activity over 8-20 sessions, exhibit no superior benefits over sham or control interventions for insomnia severity or sleep quality, as evidenced by a 2024 meta-analysis of randomized trials indicating equivalent or inferior outcomes to active treatments.^[139] Similarly, yoga interventions, often 2-3 sessions per week for 6-8 weeks, yield small improvements in sleep quality (SMD -0.40) among specific groups like breast cancer patients, but effects are less durable and generalized than established therapies.^[140] These options generally possess a lower evidence base compared to CBT-I, with network meta-analyses of 53 trials confirming CBT-I's superior reductions in sleep latency and efficiency gains, while alternatives like acupuncture show promise only in adjunctive roles, such as combined mindfulness-based approaches.^[141] Cost-effectiveness analyses favor CBT-I due to its standardized protocols and sustained outcomes, whereas these therapies often require integration for optimal results.^[142] Limitations include variable access to trained providers, lack of standardization across protocols, and suitability mainly for CBT-I non-responders, as heterogeneity and small sample sizes undermine broader recommendations.^[141]

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Overview | Sleepio to treat insomnia and insomnia symptoms | Guidance | NICE
### Summary of NICE Recommendations on Digital CBT-I (Sleepio) for Insomnia
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We know CBT-I works, now what? - PMC - NIH
Feb 1, 2022 · Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) has been shown to be efficacious and now is considered the first-line treatment for insomnia.
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A meta-analysis of long-term effects in controlled studies
We demonstrate that although effects decline over time, CBT-I produces clinically significant effects that last up to a year after therapy.
[80]
Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Insomnia and Hypnotic Deprescribing
Sep 12, 2025 · CBT-I is the first-line treatment for chronic insomnia, with 70-80% response and 40% remission rates, offering long-term efficacy. The Spielman ...Missing: boosters | Show results with:boosters
[81]
Comparing patients treated with CBT for insomnia with healthy ...
Depending on the specific operationalization used, rates of remission are between 50% and 88%.10, 11 Moreover, the positive effects of CBT-I are robust up to a ...
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Initial treatment choices for long‐term remission of chronic insomnia ...
Aug 26, 2024 · Given the average long‐term remission rate in the pharmacotherapy‐initiating arms of 28%, CBT‐I resulted in a long‐term remission rate of 41% ( ...
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Initial treatment choices for long term remission of insomnia disorder ...
Apr 25, 2024 · Given the average long-term remission rate in the pharmacotherapy-initiating arms of 28%, CBT-I resulted in a long-term remission rate of 41% ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[84]
Utilizing Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia to Facilitate ...
Apr 30, 2012 · CBTI usually consists of 4–8 sessions and utilizes a multicomponent approach that includes sleep hygiene, sleep restriction, stimulus control, ...
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Improves Sleep and ...
The ability of CBT-I to improve both short- and long-term sleep quality has been well demonstrated. The current study indicates that such long-term improvements ...
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Mechanisms of Change and Treatment Matching in Behavior ... - NIH
Patients exhibiting high levels of both behavioral and cognitive processes achieve better outcome if they receive CBT relative to BT or CT alone.
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A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Diagnostic Remission ...
Jun 10, 2025 · Around one third of those in remission after CBT will relapse, while no relapse information was available following medication treatment.
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Prevalence and Clinical Correlates of Insomnia in Depressive ... - NIH
In patients with depression, insomnia is often under-detected and under-treated. Yet, it is estimated that around three quarters of them experience insomnia ...
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Residual insomnia in major depressive disorder: a systematic review
Jun 15, 2023 · The total prevalence of residual insomnia was higher due to the emergence of sleep onset insomnia (9.0%), mid-nocturnal insomnia (23.8%), and ...Introduction · Materials and methods · Results · Discussion
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Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia to treat major depressive ...
Dec 15, 2024 · This meta-analysis indicates that CBT-I has significant effects on depressive symptoms beyond the sleep domain among people with MDD.
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Digital cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia on depression and ...
Mar 25, 2023 · A meta-analysis found that internet-based CBT-I had significantly improved insomnia severity and sleep parameters in addition to comorbid ...
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The “Anti-Inflammatory” Properties of CBT-I - PMC - NIH
The study provides further robust evidence that CBT-I effectively improves both night and daytime symptoms of insomnia.
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia in Depression - PMC - NIH
The results indicate that those treated with face-to-face CBT-I experienced greater improvement in insomnia and depression severity.
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Prevention of Incident and Recurrent Major Depression in Older ...
Nov 24, 2021 · In patients with residual or concurrent depression, CBT-I can improve insomnia symptoms but has only mixed results for depression outcomes. In ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Sleep to Reduce Incident Depression Effectively (STRIDE) - NIH
Insomnia is a reliable precursor to depression, preceding half of all incident and relapse cases. Thus, insomnia may serve as a useful entry point for ...
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Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia prevents and alleviates ...
Emerging evidence suggests that cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBTI) may reduce suicidal ideation (SI).
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A Narrative Review of Empirical Literature of Behavioral Activation ...
This review aims to present a conceptual overview of the BA followed by reviewing empirical evidences supporting its efficacy for treatment of depression.
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Sleep disturbances in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder
Subjective reports of sleep disturbance indicate that 70-91% of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have difficulty falling or staying asleep.Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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Sleep Disturbances in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - NIH
... PTSD, with estimates of up to 80–90% of patients with PTSD experiencing insomnia symptoms and 50–70% experiencing nightmares. The average frequency ...
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Randomized Controlled Trial of Imagery Rehearsal for Posttraumatic ...
May 15, 2019 · Results: Improvement with treatment was significant (29% with reduction in nightmare frequency and 22% with remission). Overall, IR + CBT-I was ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
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0471 Identifying Trauma-Informed Adaptations to Cognitive ...
May 25, 2022 · Trauma-informed adaptations, including supplemental materials, may improve CBT-I outcomes for patients with comorbid PTSD. Future studies should ...
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[PDF] Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia With Prolonged ...
Jun 4, 2025 · This study compared the efficacy of integrated cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) and prolonged exposure (PE; CBTI-PE) therapy to ...
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A Randomized Clinical Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for ...
Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBTi) improves insomnia in individuals with PTSD, but PTSD severity remains elevated.
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[PDF] Integrated CBT-I and PE on Sleep and PTSD Outcomes (Impact Study)
However, given the possible effects of fragmented sleep on the mechanism of PE (extinction and safety learning), it is critical that CBT-I should precede PE.
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Reduces Fear of Sleep ...
Jul 15, 2018 · Interestingly, fear of sleep decreased following CBT-I, which appears to be related to a decrease in PTSD symptomatology. This suggests that ...
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Predictors of study dropout in cognitive-behavioural therapy with a ...
Nov 13, 2024 · Overall, 221 (27%) participants of 823 dropped out. Of 581 civilians, 133 (23%) dropped out, as did 75 (42%) of 178 military personnel/veterans.
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Phase-based treatment versus immediate trauma-focused ... - NIH
These results suggest that a stabilisation phase is not a necessary condition for applying a trauma-focused treatment in a sample of individuals with PTSD due ...
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Prevalence of Insomnia in an Oncology Patient Population - NIH
Jul 29, 2022 · Reported insomnia prevalence amongst newly diagnosed or recently treated cancer patients varies from 30.9–54.3%. Similarly high rates of ...<|separator|>
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https://mentalhealth.bmj.com/content/27/1/e301159
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a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials - PMC
May 14, 2025 · Compared with controls, CBT-I improved insomnia at an average magnitude greater than half of the MIC but did not reach the MCID threshold.
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CBT-I Effective for Insomnia in Patients with Chronic Diseases
Sep 24, 2025 · CBT-I improved sleep outcomes and achieved 54% remission in patients with chronic pain, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic ...
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Influence of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) on ...
May 20, 2015 · Results: For patients receiving CBT-I, mean scores at baseline, post and follow-up were: FACT-G: 80.3, 90.6 and 92.8; PSQI: 10.9, 4.5 and 4.1; ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes
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Impact and mechanisms of cognitive behavioral therapy for ...
Overall, CBT-I is a robust intervention with efficacy for improving CRF among cancer survivors with insomnia and PCI. Acknowledgments. We would like to offer ...
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Impact of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Insomnia on Endocrine ...
The aim of this study is to explore the influence of cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) on endocrine therapy adherence in breast cancer ...Missing: multidisciplinary oncology
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[PDF] adapting Cognitive-Behavior Therapy for Insomnia in Cancer patients
Nov 14, 2017 · This study found that breast cancer patients treat- ed with CBT-I also had improvements in immune functioning, with increases in interferon (IFN)- ...
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Implementation of CBT-I in Cancer Clinics | ClinicalTrials.gov
A large body of evidence supports the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) in cancer patients, but CBT-I is still not offered routinely ...
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Telehealth delivery of adapted CBT-I for insomnia in chronic pain ...
Jan 10, 2024 · Our adapted CBT-I intervention aimed to address sleep problems in the context of living and managing chronic MSK pain with preliminary evidence ...
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The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia in ...
Seventy-eight percent of the subjects who received CBT-I were designated as treatment responders (vs. 22% of the controls) and 42% were designated as in ...
[119]
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia and sleep hygiene in ...
The CBT-I group reported significant improvements at post-treatment in several sleep variables, fatigue, daily functioning, pain catastrophizing, anxiety and ...
[120]
Internet-Guided Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Among ...
Jul 9, 2024 · These findings suggest that when successfully completed, eCBT-I can provide clinical benefits in military service members and veterans with TBI and insomnia.
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Efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia comorbid to ...
Results: CBT-i was associated with significant changes in sleep variables and ID criteria. Significant positive treatment-related effects were also noted for ...
[122]
Development and Initial Evaluation of Web-Based Cognitive ...
Aug 24, 2023 · Objective: This study aimed to (1) adapt NiteCAPP for dementia caregivers to create NiteCAPP CARES, a tailored digital format with standard CBT ...
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The Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Insomnia ...
Oct 31, 2024 · The results consistently showed that CBT-I significantly improves sleep quality and reduces insomnia severity in menopausal women.
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Effects and clinical feasibility of a behavioral treatment for sleep ...
Jul 24, 2019 · CBT-i adjusted for ADHD is promising for improving insomnia severity in adult patients at specialist psychiatric out-patient clinics, who suffer from ADHD and ...
[125]
The effects of a sleep intervention in the early COVID-19 pandemic ...
We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled pilot study to evaluate whether an insomnia intervention would improve the trajectory of insomnia and depression ...
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Clinical Practice Guideline for the Pharmacologic Treatment of ...
The purpose of this guideline is to establish clinical practice recommendations for the pharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia in adults.
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[PDF] Clinical Practice Guideline for the Pharmacologic Treatment of ...
Therefore, based on these guidelines, all patients with chronic insomnia should receive CBT-I as a primary intervention.
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Comparative Meta-Analysis of Pharmacotherapy and Behavior ...
Sleep latency was reduced by 30% with pharmacological treatment, compared with 43% with behavioral interventions. Both treatments reduced number of awakenings ...
[129]
Comparative Effectiveness of Digital Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ...
Apr 11, 2023 · In this study, clinical evidence suggested that combination therapy was optimal, and dCBT-I was more effective than medication therapy, with long-term benefits ...
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A Register-Based Danish Cohort Study on Determinants and Risk of ...
Sep 20, 2023 · Long-term use for more than 7 years was lowest for anxiolytic benzodiazepines (2.5%) and slightly higher for hypnotic benzodiazepines (3%) and Z ...
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Risks Associated with Long-Term Benzodiazepine Use - AAFP
Aug 15, 2013 · Benzodiazepines increase the risk of addiction, withdrawal, cognitive decline, motor vehicle crashes, and hip fracture.Missing: rate | Show results with:rate
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Study recommends against prescription sleep drugs for older ... - UPI
Oct 31, 2025 · However, sleep drugs increase the risk of broken bones from falls, sleepwalking, night terrors and cognitive impairment, researchers said.
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Reducing the risks when using benzodiazepines to treat insomnia
May 1, 2024 · But these medications carry serious risks, including falls, fractures, overdose, misuse, and dependence, all of which increase with patient age ...
[134]
Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on adults with sleep ...
Nov 4, 2022 · The present study is a contemporary systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction interventions ...
[135]
Acupuncture for chronic insomnia disorder: a systematic review with ...
Apr 29, 2025 · Clinical studies have demonstrated that acupuncture effectively increased sleep time, reduced sleep awakenings, improved sleep quality, and ...
[136]
Light therapy in insomnia disorder: A systematic review and meta ...
Apr 1, 2023 · Light therapy shows some effectiveness for sleep maintenance in insomnia disorders, but further research is needed to refine the light parameters.
[137]
Neurofeedback to enhance sleep quality and insomnia: a systematic ...
Nov 5, 2024 · This systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrate that interventions incorporating surface neurofeedback do not produce additional benefits ...Introduction · Materials and methods · Results · Discussion
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Meta-analysis of effects of yoga exercise intervention on sleep ... - NIH
Jun 30, 2023 · The meta-analysis of yoga exercise intervention frequency showed that intervention two or three times per week was more effective in improving ...
[139]
Efficacy and safety of non-pharmacological therapies for primary ...
Jul 28, 2025 · CBT demonstrated the highest efficacy for both reducing PSQI scores (84.4% probability) and improving SE (91.5%), while ranking first for ...
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Comparative effectiveness and safety of pharmacological and non ...
Nov 15, 2019 · This review aimed to assess the existing evidence regarding the clinical effectiveness and safety of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions in ...