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CVV

Card Verification Value (CVV) is a three- or four-digit security code printed on the back or front of credit and debit cards, designed to verify that the cardholder has physical possession of the card during remote transactions, such as those made online or over the phone, thereby adding an essential layer of fraud prevention.^[1]^[2]^[3] The CVV, also referred to as Card Verification Code (CVC), Card Security Code (CSC), or Card Identification Number (CID), is typically a three-digit number located in the signature strip on the reverse side of Visa, Mastercard, and Discover cards, while American Express cards feature a four-digit code on the front near the card number.^[1]^[2]^[3] This positioning ensures the code is not encoded in the card's magnetic stripe or chip, making it unavailable to those who only obtain the card details through skimming or data breaches.^[1]^[3] Developed in the mid-1990s as a response to rising online fraud in the early days of e-commerce and adopted by major card networks starting in 1997, the CVV enhances transaction security by requiring merchants to validate the code against the issuing bank's records during authorization, though it cannot be stored by merchants after processing to minimize risks from data compromises.^[1]^[2] Unlike a Personal Identification Number (PIN), which is set by the cardholder for in-person purchases, ATM withdrawals, or chip-based verifications, the CVV is a fixed, issuer-generated value that does not require user memorization.^[1]^[2]^[3] Advanced variants, such as CVV2 (a second-generation printed version) and dynamic CVVs that periodically change, further bolster protections in high-risk environments, though users should still monitor statements and avoid sharing the code unnecessarily to maintain its effectiveness.^[1]^[2]

Introduction

Definition and Purpose

The Card Verification Value (CVV), also known as the card verification code (CVC) or card security code (CSC) depending on the payment brand, is a three- or four-digit security code printed on the front or back of credit, debit, and charge cards.^[4] This code serves as an additional layer of authentication beyond the card's primary account number (PAN), expiration date, and cardholder name.^[5] The primary purpose of the CVV is to verify that the person attempting the transaction physically possesses the card, particularly in card-not-present scenarios such as online purchases, phone orders, or mail-order transactions.^[6] By requiring the CVV, which is not shared in basic card details, it helps reduce fraud by confirming the cardholder's access to the physical card.^[7] Unlike the PAN or expiration date, the CVV is not encoded on the card's magnetic stripe or EMV chip, making it unavailable through remote data capture methods like skimming and thus suitable only for visual verification in non-present transactions.^[8] In a typical transaction, the merchant prompts the cardholder to enter the CVV during checkout, which is then transmitted to the payment processor and ultimately to the card issuer for validation against the issuer's records of the card's details.^[9] The issuer checks the provided CVV for accuracy without disclosing it, authorizing the transaction if it matches.^[10] Per Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) requirements, merchants must not retain the CVV after authorization to minimize risks from data breaches.^[11] This process complements broader card security measures, such as EMV chip technology used in card-present environments.^[6]

History and Development

The Card Verification Value (CVV), initially known as a card security code (CSC), was developed in 1995 by Michael Stone, an employee of Equifax in the United Kingdom, as an 11-character alphanumeric code designed to combat fraud in the nascent field of e-commerce transactions.^[12] This innovation emerged amid the rapid expansion of mail-order and telephone-order payments, where verifying physical possession of the card was challenging without additional authentication beyond the card number.^[12] For practicality, the UK Association for Payment Clearing Services (APACS) simplified the original alphanumeric format to a three-digit numeric code, facilitating easier implementation and verification by merchants and processors.^[13] Mastercard led the widespread adoption by introducing its CVC2 variant—a printed code for card-not-present transactions—in 1997, requiring all its cards to include it by January 1 of that year.^[14] Visa followed suit in the United States, mandating CVV2 on all cards by January 1, 2001, while the earlier CVV1 remained encoded in the magnetic stripe for in-person verifications.^[15] These developments were spurred by the surge in online shopping during the late 1990s, which exposed vulnerabilities in traditional card authentication methods.^[16] By the early 2000s, CVV usage became mandatory for many payment processors, reinforced by the establishment of the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) in 2004, which prohibited post-authorization storage of CVV data to minimize breach risks while requiring its use in card-not-present transactions.^[17]

Technical Specifications

Naming and Variations

The Card Verification Value (CVV) is known by various names across major credit card issuers, reflecting slight differences in terminology and implementation while serving the same security function. For Visa cards, the code is referred to as CVV or CVV2, consisting of three digits printed on the signature panel on the back of the card.^[10] Similarly, Mastercard uses the terms CVC or CVC2 for its three-digit code, also located on the back of the card in the signature area.^[18] American Express employs distinct nomenclature and formats: the Card Identification Number (CID) is a four-digit code printed directly above the card number on the front of the card, while some American Express cards also feature a three-digit Card Security Code (CSC) on the back.^[1] Discover cards utilize the CID designation for their three-digit code, positioned on the back of the card near the signature line.^[19] Regional variations exist, particularly in international contexts, where some cards distinguish between printed and encoded versions of the code; for instance, CVC1 refers to the version encoded on the magnetic stripe for card-present transactions, contrasting with the printed CVC2 for card-not-present use. Despite these issuer-specific names, efforts toward standardization in payment messaging, such as the ISO 8583 protocol, incorporate CVV-related data into structured elements such as additional request data fields and validation response codes to facilitate interoperability, though the proprietary terminology persists across networks.^[20]

Types and Generation

Card verification values (CVVs) are categorized into distinct types to support various transaction methods, with terminology varying by network: Visa uses CVV while Mastercard uses the equivalent CVC.^[21] CVV1, also referred to as CVC1, is a static code encoded on the card's magnetic stripe for use in card-present swipe transactions, where it is read automatically by the terminal.^[22] CVV2, or CVC2, is the static 3- or 4-digit code printed on the back of the card (or front for American Express), designed specifically for card-not-present environments like online purchases.^[22] iCVV represents a dynamic variant generated on-the-fly by the EMV chip during contactless transactions, mimicking the functionality of CVV1 but computed in real-time to enhance security.^[22] dCVV, or dynamic CVV, is a one-time-use code produced for mobile applications, allowing issuers to generate multiple temporary values (up to 24 per request) via secure APIs for enhanced protection in remote scenarios.^[23] The generation of these CVV types occurs at the card issuance stage using a cryptographic process within a hardware security module (HSM), ensuring the code cannot be easily reproduced without the card's physical elements. For static types like CVV1 and CVV2, the issuer encrypts a combination of the primary account number (PAN), padded to a fixed length, the card's expiration date, and service code using the Data Encryption Standard (DES) or more commonly Triple DES (3DES) algorithm. A unique master key, often derived from the PAN itself (via key derivation functions), serves as the encryption key, with separate keys recommended for each CVV variant (e.g., CVK1 for CVV1 and CVK2 for CVV2) to maintain isolation.^[22]^[24] The service code from the card factors into the input for CVV1, while CVV2 uses a fixed value (such as '000') in its place. The resulting ciphertext is truncated to the last 3 or 4 digits to form the final CVV.^[24] This process can be overviewed by the following formula for static CVV generation:

\text{CVV} = \text{last 3 digits of } [3\text{DES}_\text{encrypt}(\text{PAN}_\text{padded} + \text{Exp}_\text{date} + \text{Service_code}, \text{CVK})]

For Visa, the inputs include the PAN (13-19 digits), 4-digit expiration (YYMM or MMYY), and 3-digit service code, processed with single- or double-length DES/3DES keys.^[24] Mastercard employs an analogous algorithm for CVC, adhering to similar cryptographic standards. Dynamic variants like iCVV and dCVV leverage the same foundational 3DES encryption but incorporate chip-based or API-driven computation for per-session uniqueness, preventing static replication.^[22]^[23] Each card's CVV is derived independently using its unique PAN and associated data, resulting in non-sequential values that tie directly to the individual card rather than following a predictable pattern.^[22] This derivation ensures that even with knowledge of the algorithm, the CVV remains non-reproducible without access to the issuer's proprietary keys and the card's specifics.^[24]

Location and Format

The Card Verification Value (CVV), also known as the Card Verification Code (CVC) or Card Identification Number (CID), is typically located on the back of most credit and debit cards issued by major networks such as Visa, Mastercard, and Discover. For these cards, it appears as a three-digit code printed in the signature strip area, usually to the right of the card's primary account number (PAN).^[2]^[25]^[3] In contrast, American Express cards feature a four-digit CVV printed on the front of the card, positioned above the right side of the PAN.^[26] The CVV is formatted as a non-embossed, printed number to enhance security by making it difficult to replicate through mechanical imprinting methods. It is rendered in a small, unobtrusive font within the designated area, ensuring it is not raised like the embossed PAN, which reduces the risk of unauthorized copying via traditional card skimming techniques.^[27]^[28]^[29] In digital contexts, such as mobile wallets, the CVV equivalent is handled through virtual or dynamically generated codes rather than static printed values. For instance, with Apple Card in Apple Wallet, users can access a virtual CVV via the app's card information section after authentication, but this code is not persistently stored on the device and is instead provisioned securely from the issuer to support tokenized transactions.^[30] Similar approaches in other mobile wallets generate device-bound virtual CVVs on demand, avoiding exposure of the physical card's details.^[31] Variations in CVV placement exist, particularly on older cards where the code may occasionally appear on the front side instead of the back. For contactless and chip-enabled cards, transactions often utilize an integrated circuit-derived iCVV, which is computed dynamically by the card's EMV chip during the payment process rather than relying on the printed code.^[29]^[32] This iCVV serves as the printed CVV2 equivalent in chip-based environments.^[33]

Usage in Transactions

Card-Present vs. Card-Not-Present Transactions

In card-present transactions, such as in-person purchases at retail locations, the CVV1 code encoded on the magnetic stripe or iCVV generated dynamically by the EMV chip—is automatically captured and transmitted for verification during the swipe or dip process, eliminating the need for the cardholder to provide the printed CVV2.^[34] This automated handling occurs through the terminal's interaction with the card, where the CVV1 serves to authenticate the physical card itself alongside other data like the primary account number and expiration date.^[32] In contrast, card-not-present (CNP) transactions, including online, phone, or mail-order payments, require the merchant to prompt the cardholder for manual entry of the printed CVV2 (or CVC2 for Mastercard) to verify possession of the physical card, as no direct card reading is possible.^[35] This step adds a layer of confirmation since fraudsters may have stolen card details but lack the physical card to access the CVV2, which is not encoded in digital form.^[34] For CNP processing, the acquirer includes the provided CVV in the authorization request message using data element 120 of the ISO 8583 standard, which contains the CVV value along with a presence indicator; the issuer then checks for a match against its records without retaining the CVV post-verification to comply with security standards like PCI DSS.^[20] This flow ensures real-time validation while minimizing storage risks. CNP transactions accounted for over 80% of global payment fraud losses as of 2025.^[36]

Integration with Payment Systems

The Card Verification Value (CVV) is integrated into payment protocols primarily through the ISO 8583 messaging standard, which governs financial transaction card-originated interchange for authorizations. In ISO 8583 messages, such as the 0100 Authorization Request and 0110 Authorization Response, CVV data is transmitted in specific fields to facilitate verification during transaction processing. For instance, Field 120 (Additional Request Data) includes the CVV2 value with a presence indicator (e.g., 1 for present), while Field 044 (Additional Response Data, subfield 3) conveys the CVV verification status (e.g., M for match, N for no match).^[37] Additionally, encrypted CVV2 appears in Field 100.6 for secure manual entry transactions, ensuring the code is protected during transmission to the issuer.^[37] Post-authorization, the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) Requirement 3.2.1 strictly prohibits the storage of sensitive authentication data, including CVV, to mitigate breach risks, even if encrypted; this applies globally to all entities handling cardholder data. CVV enhances security when combined with complementary technologies like Address Verification Service (AVS) and 3D Secure (3DS). AVS cross-checks the billing address provided during a transaction against the issuer's records, often alongside CVV validation, to reduce fraud in card-not-present scenarios; for example, a mismatch in either can trigger a decline.^[38] Similarly, CVV supports 3DS protocols by providing an initial layer of cardholder verification before the 3DS authentication challenge, such as a one-time password, thereby aligning with multi-factor requirements in high-risk transactions.^[39] On the merchant side, integration varies by transaction type and platform. Point-of-sale (POS) terminals capture CVV1—derived from the magnetic stripe or chip data—during card-present swipes or dips, embedding it in the authorization request for real-time issuer validation.^[40] In contrast, e-commerce gateways like Stripe and PayPal handle CVV2—the printed code on the card's back—through API calls to card issuers, where the merchant submits the CVV alongside the primary account number for verification without storing it post-transaction.^[41]^[40] Since 2019, under the European Union's Revised Payment Services Directive (PSD2), CVV contributes to Strong Customer Authentication (SCA) mandates for electronic payments in the European Economic Area, requiring its use in conjunction with additional factors like biometrics or device binding to meet two-factor authentication thresholds.^[42]

Security and Limitations

Benefits for Fraud Prevention

The Card Verification Value (CVV) significantly contributes to fraud prevention in card-not-present (CNP) transactions by requiring the physical presence of the card, thereby preventing fraud attempts where only card details are known. This verification step ensures that fraudsters cannot complete purchases using stolen card numbers alone, as the CVV is not stored in merchant databases or transmitted in regular authorizations.^[34] Merchants benefit from reduced chargeback rates through CVV matching protocols. Under Visa's liability rules, merchants that successfully capture and verify the CVV during transactions can strengthen their position in disputes, avoiding financial losses and administrative burdens associated with unauthorized charges. Additionally, this reliability fosters greater consumer confidence in e-commerce platforms, encouraging higher transaction volumes without heightened risk.^[43] As a key element of layered security, the CVV functions as a "something you have" factor within multi-factor authentication frameworks for payments, complementing knowledge-based elements like passwords or one-time passcodes to verify cardholder identity more robustly. This approach aligns with industry standards from organizations like PCI SSC, enhancing overall transaction integrity without overly complicating the user experience.^[44]^[11] Empirical studies from the Federal Reserve demonstrate overall declines in U.S. card fraud rates as security measures became widespread during the rise of online shopping.^[45]

Vulnerabilities and Risks

Despite its role in enhancing security for card-not-present transactions, the CVV is susceptible to phishing attacks where fraudsters create fake websites or emails mimicking legitimate merchants to trick users into entering their full card details, including the CVV.^[46] Skimming devices installed on point-of-sale terminals or ATMs can capture card data, while integrated cameras enable shoulder-surfing to visually record the CVV as it is entered or displayed during transactions.^[46] These methods exploit human error and physical access, allowing attackers to obtain the static CVV without advanced technical breaches.^[46] Non-compliance with Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) requirements, which prohibit merchants from storing CVV data after transaction authorization, has led to significant exposures in data breaches.^[11] For instance, in the 2013 Target breach, hackers accessed stored CVV codes alongside track data from over 40 million cards, indicating illegal retention that violated card brand rules and PCI guidelines.^[47] Such incidents demonstrate how temporary or persistent storage by non-compliant merchants can compromise millions of CVVs, facilitating widespread fraudulent use in online transactions.^[47] The CVV offers limited defense against account takeover fraud, where attackers steal login credentials to merchant accounts with saved payment methods, allowing purchases without re-entering the CVV.^[48] Similarly, it provides no protection in in-person chip-and-PIN transactions, as EMV chips generate dynamic one-time cryptograms for authentication, rendering the static CVV unnecessary and ineffective against counterfeit chip fraud or skimming attempts that bypass visual verification.^[49] Evolving threats include BIN attacks, where fraudsters use known Bank Identification Numbers to generate potential card numbers and brute-force guess expiration dates and CVVs through automated low-value transactions across multiple sites.^[50] For a three-digit CVV, this requires up to 1,000 attempts, with reported success rates around 2% in high-volume testing scenarios, enabling attackers to validate thousands of cards daily despite rate-limiting measures.^[50]

Future Developments and Alternatives

Dynamic CVV (dCVV) represents a key evolution in card verification, replacing static codes with one-time, algorithmically generated values to mitigate fraud in card-not-present transactions. In Visa's dCVV2 system, issuers enable cardholders to request these codes through mobile banking apps or APIs, where the dCVV2 is computed using the primary account number, a timestamp or counter, and cryptographic keys like AES, producing a 3- or 4-digit code valid for a limited period.^[51]^[52] These codes typically rotate every 20 to 60 minutes or after each use, rendering stolen static CVVs obsolete and reducing the risk of recurring unauthorized payments without requiring merchant-side changes.^[53]^[54] Biometric integration further enhances tokenization by binding verification to user-specific traits, eliminating the need for manual CVV entry in many digital wallets. For instance, Apple Pay employs device-specific tokens stored in the Secure Enclave, combined with biometric authentication via Face ID or Touch ID for every transaction, ensuring that actual card details and CVVs are never shared with merchants.^[55] This approach aligns with EMVCo's 2025 updates to biometric payment specifications, which include performance metrics for fingerprint authentication on cards and integration with tokenization standards to support secure, device-bound verification methods under Cardholder Verification Methods (CVM).^[56] Emerging alternatives like push-to-card provisioning and FIDO2 protocols aim to streamline authentication while minimizing exposure of sensitive data such as static CVVs. Push provisioning allows issuers to digitally transfer tokenized card details directly to user wallets via apps, bypassing manual input of card numbers, expiration dates, or CVVs, thereby accelerating secure mobile payments and reducing fraud vectors during enrollment.^[57]^[58] Complementing this, FIDO2 enables passwordless authentication through passkeys—cryptographic key pairs—for payment flows, including 3-D Secure transaction authorization, where biometrics or device PINs verify users without sharing codes, offering phishing-resistant alternatives to traditional CVV or OTP methods.^[59] Under proposed EU regulations like PSD3, expected to take effect around 2027, there is increasing emphasis on robust strong customer authentication (SCA) requirements that favor dynamic or multi-factor methods over static elements, potentially accelerating the de-emphasis of manual CVV reliance in online payments.^[60] Industry trends reflect this shift, with adoption of zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) in payment systems enabling privacy-preserving verification—proving transaction legitimacy without disclosing underlying data like CVVs—though primarily in blockchain-based pilots to date.^[61] Mastercard's 2024 initiatives, including AI-driven fraud tools and tokenization expansions, have demonstrated up to 20% reductions in authorized push payment (APP) fraud, underscoring the impact of these alternatives in pilot programs.^[62]

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Oct 4, 2024 · A dynamic CVV changes periodically, making it significantly more difficult for fraudsters to exploit stolen card information.
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dCVV2: How do Cards With Dynamic CVV Codes Work?
Apr 7, 2025 · Using a dynamic CVV2 instead of a static CVV2 may significantly reduce the potential for fraud to occur on accounts following a data compromise.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[56]
How does Dynamic CVV work, and how does it improve transaction ...
Dynamic CVV is a technology designed to make online and in-store payments more secure and prevent fraudsters from making recurring payments using card ...Missing: Visa | Show results with:Visa
[57]
Apple Pay
### Summary of Apple Pay Security and Related Features
[58]
How EMVCo is Supporting the Development of Biometric Payment ...
May 14, 2025 · This EMV Insights article, originally posted in June 2023, was updated in May 2025 to reflect the progress of the Biometric on Card initiative.
[59]
What is Push Provisioning and why does it matter? | Blog
Nov 16, 2022 · Push provisioning simplifies and accelerates the card issuance process to digital wallets for the cardholder and helps wallet providers to acquire new ...
[60]
Understanding In-App Provisioning and Digital Tokenization With Visa
In-app provisioning is the process used by issuer and partner developers to implement push-provisioning of a customer's digital card to a digital wallet.
[61]
Payments | FIDO Alliance
Passkeys supplement payment authentication, are used for transaction authorization, and can be used at checkout for delegated authentication.Missing: push- provisioning
[62]
PSD3: The EU's Third Payment Services Directive - J.P. Morgan
Nov 26, 2024 · We do not expect enforcement of PSD3/PSR before 2027, but there are steps that bank and non-bank PSPs can take now to prepare. Stay ...Missing: static CVV
[63]
Zero-knowledge proof payments using blockchain - Google Patents
[0016] The zero-knowledge proof payment system and process may be used to complete transactions between a customer and a merchant without the customer needing ...
[64]
Mastercard Tackles Fraud with Digital Identity Tech
Oct 13, 2025 · The Consumer Fraud Risk system contributed to a 20% reduction in APP fraud cases in 2024. The new service enhances these capabilities by ...Missing: pilot CVV alternative