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Cadmium nitrate

Cadmium nitrate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Cd(NO₃)₂, existing most commonly as the tetrahydrate Cd(NO₃)₂·4H₂O, which forms colorless to white, deliquescent crystals that readily absorb moisture from the air.^[1]^[2] It has a molecular weight of 236.42 g/mol for the anhydrous form and 308.48 g/mol for the tetrahydrate, with a density of 2.45 g/cm³ for the tetrahydrate.^[1]^[2] The compound is highly soluble in water, ethanol, and acetone, and decomposes upon heating to produce toxic cadmium oxide fumes.^[1]^[3] Physically, the tetrahydrate form of cadmium nitrate melts at 59.5°C and boils at 132°C, though it is nonflammable yet acts as a strong oxidizing agent, potentially intensifying fires and reacting explosively with reducing agents like phosphorus or alkyl esters.^[1]^[4] Chemically, it is stable under normal conditions but hazardous in combustion, releasing toxic nitrogen oxides and cadmium oxide.^[4] Its high solubility in water facilitates rapid absorption, contributing to its acute toxicity profile.^[4] Cadmium nitrate finds applications in imparting a reddish-yellow luster to glass and porcelain, in the preparation of photographic emulsions, and as a laboratory reagent for various chemical syntheses.^[1] However, due to the inherent toxicity of cadmium, it is classified as a carcinogen, mutagen, and reproductive toxicant, with exposure routes including inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact leading to severe effects such as irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, gastrointestinal distress, kidney and liver damage, pulmonary edema, and long-term risks of emphysema and cancer.^[5]^[1] Regulatory limits restrict workplace exposure to as low as 0.005 mg/m³, and it is prohibited in cosmetics while requiring strict handling with personal protective equipment.^[1]^[5]

Properties

Physical properties

Cadmium nitrate exists primarily in two forms: the anhydrous compound with the chemical formula Cd(NO₃)₂ and the tetrahydrate Cd(NO₃)₂·4H₂O. The molar mass of the anhydrous form is 236.42 g/mol, while that of the tetrahydrate is 308.48 g/mol.^[6]^[7] The compound appears as a colorless to white hygroscopic crystalline solid in both forms, readily absorbing moisture from the air.^[8]^[9] The density of the anhydrous cadmium nitrate is 3.6 g/cm³, compared to 2.45 g/cm³ for the tetrahydrate measured at 17 °C.^[9]^[3] The anhydrous form decomposes at approximately 360 °C without a distinct melting point, whereas the tetrahydrate melts at 59.5 °C and undergoes dehydration at 132 °C before further decomposition.^[8]^[9] Cadmium nitrate exhibits high solubility in water, with the solubility increasing with temperature. The following table summarizes key solubility data for the tetrahydrate in water (approximate values in g/100 g water):

Temperature (°C)	Solubility (g/100 g water)
0	123
25	158
30	166
60	210

^[10] It is also soluble in acids, ammonia, alcohols, ether, and acetone.^[9] The tetrahydrate adopts an orthorhombic crystal structure with space group Fdd2.^[11] The anhydrous form is typically obtained as a hygroscopic powder, with limited structural characterization available.

Chemical properties

Cadmium nitrate, with the chemical formula Cd(NO₃)₂, features cadmium in the +2 oxidation state coordinated by two nitrate (NO₃⁻) anions acting as ligands.^[6] This ionic structure contributes to its characteristic reactivity as a soluble salt of a heavy metal and a strong oxidizing anion.^[4] The compound exhibits pronounced hygroscopicity, readily absorbing atmospheric moisture to form stable hydrates, most commonly the tetrahydrate Cd(NO₃)₂·4H₂O.^[9] Under ambient conditions, cadmium nitrate remains chemically stable, showing no significant decomposition or reaction with air or inert atmospheres.^[9] However, upon heating above approximately 350 °C, it undergoes thermal decomposition, yielding cadmium oxide (CdO) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ).^[12] In aqueous solutions, cadmium nitrate dissociates into Cd²⁺ and NO₃⁻ ions, resulting in acidic conditions due to the hydrolysis of the cadmium cation, which partially reacts with water to form hydroxo complexes and release H⁺ ions, typically yielding a pH of 3 or higher depending on concentration.^[9] The nitrate component endows the compound with oxidizing properties, enabling it to act as an oxidant in reactions with reducing agents, such as certain metals or organic compounds, potentially leading to vigorous or explosive interactions.^[4]

Synthesis

Laboratory methods

Cadmium nitrate is commonly prepared in laboratory settings through acid-base reactions involving cadmium precursors and nitric acid, yielding the tetrahydrate form Cd(NO₃)₂·4H₂O upon crystallization.^[6] These methods are suitable for small-scale synthesis in research or educational environments, utilizing readily available reagents and emphasizing safety due to the toxicity of cadmium compounds. One standard route involves reacting cadmium oxide with nitric acid. The balanced equation is:

\text{CdO} + 2 \text{HNO}_3 \to \text{Cd(NO}_3)_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O}

^[13] In practice, cadmium oxide is slowly added to dilute nitric acid (typically 1-2 M) with constant stirring in a fume hood to facilitate dissolution and minimize fumes. The mixture is heated gently if needed to complete the reaction, producing a clear solution. Any undissolved impurities are removed by filtration, and the filtrate is concentrated by evaporation at reduced pressure or low temperature to avoid decomposition. Cooling the concentrated solution induces crystallization of the colorless tetrahydrate crystals, which are collected by filtration, washed with cold water or ethanol, and dried in air.^[6] This oxide-based method provides high yields, often approaching quantitative conversion, owing to the complete solubility of the product.^[14] A similar procedure applies to cadmium carbonate as the precursor. The reaction proceeds as:

\text{CdCO}_3 + 2 \text{HNO}_3 \to \text{Cd(NO}_3)_2 + \text{CO}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O}

^[15] Cadmium carbonate is suspended in dilute nitric acid, where effervescence from CO₂ evolution indicates progress. Stirring ensures thorough reaction, followed by filtration to eliminate residues. Concentration and cooling then yield the tetrahydrate, with high yields comparable to the oxide route due to efficient gas evolution driving completion.^[13]^[16] For metallic cadmium, concentrated nitric acid is used to initiate oxidation:

\text{Cd} + 4 \text{HNO}_3 \to \text{Cd(NO}_3)_2 + 2 \text{NO}_2 + 2 \text{H}_2\text{O}

^[17] Small pieces of cadmium metal are added cautiously to concentrated nitric acid (∼70%) under vigorous ventilation to handle the exothermic reaction and NO₂ gas. The solution is diluted post-reaction, filtered, concentrated, and cooled to crystallize the tetrahydrate. This method is less preferred in laboratories due to the production of toxic nitrogen dioxide but remains viable for pure metal sources.^[6]

Industrial production

Cadmium nitrate is primarily obtained as a specialty chemical derived from cadmium recovered as a byproduct of zinc ore refining or cadmium metal production processes.^[18] Cadmium, present in zinc concentrates at ratios around 1:200, is separated during smelting and hydrometallurgical refining of sphalerite ores, yielding cadmium-rich intermediates like oxides or metal that serve as feedstocks.^[19] The industrial manufacturing process begins with treating these cadmium-containing slags, dusts, or aqueous solutions from refining operations with concentrated nitric acid to dissolve the cadmium and form the nitrate salt. The resulting solution undergoes purification, often involving filtration to remove insoluble impurities, pH adjustment, and sometimes solvent extraction or ion exchange to eliminate co-extracted metals like zinc or lead. Concentration via evaporation follows, leading to crystallization of cadmium nitrate tetrahydrate, which is then dried and packaged.^[6]^[20] Production occurs on a limited scale, with annual volumes typically under 10 tonnes in the European Economic Area, positioning it as a non-commodity chemical rather than a high-volume industrial product.^[5] This modest output aligns with the niche demand for cadmium compounds, constrained by regulatory restrictions on cadmium use due to its toxicity. Commercial grades include technical grade cadmium nitrate, with purities of 95-98% suitable for general industrial applications, and analytical grade exceeding 99% purity for precise uses requiring minimal contaminants.^[21]^[8] Production of cadmium nitrate expanded significantly during the 20th century, particularly from the 1920s onward, fueled by growing needs in the pigment manufacturing and electroplating sectors, where cadmium salts enabled corrosion-resistant coatings and vibrant colorants.^[18] By mid-century, these applications drove increased refining of cadmium byproducts, though overall output remained tied to zinc industry fluctuations.^[22]

Reactions

Decomposition reactions

Cadmium nitrate, particularly in its anhydrous form, undergoes thermal decomposition upon heating above its melting point of 360 °C. The process follows the balanced equation:

$2 \ce{Cd(NO3)2} \rightarrow 2 \ce{CdO} + 4 \ce{NO2} + \ce{O2}

This reaction produces cadmium oxide as the solid residue and releases nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gases, which are hazardous and require controlled conditions for handling.^[23] The decomposition initiates near the melting point and proceeds in a solid-state or liquid-phase mechanism, contrasting with its general chemical stability under ambient conditions where it remains intact without external triggers.^[12] For the tetrahydrate form, Cd(NO₃)₂·4H₂O, thermal breakdown begins with dehydration in two stages: initial melting and loss of two water molecules at 47–77 °C to form the dihydrate, followed by further dehydration to the anhydrous salt. The subsequent decomposition of the anhydrous nitrate to CdO occurs at higher temperatures, typically completing between 500–600 °C under dynamic heating conditions.^[12]^[24] Activation energies for these steps have been determined using quasi-isothermal thermogravimetry, indicating a stepwise process without intermediate gasification.^[12] In aqueous environments, cadmium nitrate exhibits partial hydrolytic decomposition, especially in hot concentrated solutions, where the Cd²⁺ ion reacts with water to form basic nitrates such as Cd(OH)NO₃·H₂O. This hydrolysis arises from the acidic nature of Cd²⁺ solutions and can lead to precipitation of hydroxy nitrates under prolonged heating.^[25] Under intense light exposure, cadmium nitrate shows limited photostability, with the nitrate ion susceptible to photodecomposition that reduces it to nitrite or other species, though this process is less pronounced compared to thermal breakdown and typically requires UV irradiation.^[26]

Precipitation and complexation reactions

Cadmium nitrate solutions react with hydrogen sulfide to form cadmium sulfide as a yellow precipitate, according to the equation:

\text{Cd(NO}_3\text{)}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{S} \rightarrow \text{CdS} \downarrow + 2\text{HNO}_3

This reaction occurs rapidly at room temperature and is used in qualitative analysis for cadmium detection due to the distinctive color of the insoluble CdS.^[27]^[28] Under boiling conditions, a red modification of the sulfide can form, altering the precipitate's appearance based on temperature and preparation method.^[29] Treatment of cadmium nitrate with alkali carbonates, such as sodium carbonate, precipitates white cadmium carbonate:

\text{Cd(NO}_3\text{)}_2 + \text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3 \rightarrow \text{CdCO}_3 \downarrow + 2\text{NaNO}_3

This precipitation is also rapid at ambient temperatures, contributing to the low solubility of CdCO₃ in aqueous media and its utility in synthetic preparations.^[28] Addition of sodium hydroxide to cadmium nitrate solutions yields a white precipitate of cadmium hydroxide:

\text{Cd(NO}_3\text{)}_2 + 2\text{NaOH} \rightarrow \text{Cd(OH)}_2 \downarrow + 2\text{NaNO}_3

The hydroxide exhibits amphoteric character, though its solubility in excess NaOH is limited compared to more strongly amphoteric hydroxides like Zn(OH)₂.^[28]^[27] This reaction proceeds quickly at room temperature, forming a gelatinous solid suitable for analytical identification. In excess aqueous ammonia, cadmium nitrate forms a soluble tetraammine complex, [Cd(NH₃)₄]²⁺, after initial precipitation of Cd(OH)₂:

\text{Cd(NO}_3\text{)}_2 + 4\text{NH}_3 \rightarrow [\text{Cd(NH}_3\text{)}_4\text{]}^{2+} + 2\text{NO}_3^-

This complexation enhances the solubility of cadmium species in ammoniacal solutions and is exploited in separation techniques. The process is efficient at room temperature, dissolving the hydroxide precipitate to yield a colorless solution.^[27]^[28]

Applications

Industrial applications

Cadmium nitrate serves as a primary precursor in the industrial synthesis of cadmium yellow pigments, which consist of cadmium sulfide (CdS) and are prized for their intense yellow coloration and high thermal stability in applications such as paints and plastics. The production process typically involves the controlled precipitation of CdS by reacting cadmium nitrate solutions with sodium sulfide, followed by filtration, washing, drying, and calcination to achieve the desired particle size and purity. These pigments offer excellent lightfastness and opacity, making them suitable for demanding environments like automotive coatings and artists' materials.^[30]^[31] In the ceramics sector, cadmium nitrate is integrated into glass and porcelain compositions to produce vibrant yellow tints, particularly for decorative and functional ware. During the high-temperature firing process, the nitrate decomposes, yielding cadmium sulfide that embeds within the glaze matrix to deliver durable, fade-resistant color. This method has enabled the creation of aesthetically appealing ceramics with consistent hues under varying production conditions.^[6]^[32] Cadmium nitrate finds application in electroplating as a soluble source of Cd²⁺ ions in electrolytic baths, facilitating the deposition of thin cadmium layers onto steel and other metals for superior corrosion protection in aerospace and marine components. The resulting coatings provide sacrificial anodic behavior, outperforming alternatives like zinc in harsh, saline environments.^[33]^[34] Historically, from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, cadmium nitrate played a significant role in ceramics manufacturing, serving as a key ingredient for formulating bright, stable yellow glazes that revolutionized decorative pottery and tiles. Its adoption stemmed from the discovery of cadmium pigments in the 1840s, leading to widespread use in European and American industries for high-quality, colorfast products until environmental regulations began curtailing cadmium compounds in the late 20th century.^[18]^[21]

Laboratory and analytical uses

Cadmium nitrate serves as a key component in the preparation of flash powder for early photographic applications, where it is mixed with other nitrates such as barium nitrate and aluminum powder to produce a bright, instantaneous light source in flash bulbs. This use leverages the compound's oxidizing properties to facilitate rapid combustion, enabling clear image capture in low-light conditions before the advent of electronic flashes.^[6] In analytical chemistry, cadmium nitrate functions as a reagent for the qualitative detection of sulfide ions in solution, forming a distinctive yellow-orange precipitate of cadmium sulfide (CdS) upon reaction. This test is particularly useful in qualitative inorganic analysis schemes, where the insoluble CdS confirms the presence of S²⁻ in neutral or weakly acidic media, distinguishing it from other anions due to the precipitate's characteristic color and low solubility. The reaction proceeds as Cd²⁺ + S²⁻ → CdS (s), providing a reliable endpoint for ion identification in laboratory protocols.^[27]^[35] As a precursor in nanotechnology, cadmium nitrate is employed in the synthesis of cadmium oxide (CdO) nanoparticles through thermal decomposition methods, such as sol-gel processes or direct calcination of the tetrahydrate form. For instance, cadmium nitrate tetrahydrate is dissolved in solvents like methanol or water, followed by gelation and heating at temperatures around 400–600°C to yield crystalline CdO nanoparticles with sizes typically in the 10–50 nm range, valued for their optoelectronic properties in thin films and sensors. This approach allows precise control over particle morphology and is favored for its simplicity and scalability in research settings.^[36]^[37] Cadmium nitrate solutions are widely used as calibration standards in atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for quantifying cadmium ions in environmental and biological samples. Prepared at concentrations such as 1000 ppm Cd²⁺ in dilute nitric acid, these standards enable accurate absorbance measurements at the 228.8 nm wavelength, ensuring instrument calibration for trace-level detection down to parts per billion. Commercial standards derived from cadmium nitrate provide high purity and stability, critical for compliance with analytical methods like ASTM D3557.^[38]^[39] In educational settings, cadmium nitrate is utilized in demonstrations to illustrate precipitation reactions and complex formation, offering visual examples of ionic equilibria. For precipitation, adding sodium sulfide or hydroxide to cadmium nitrate solutions produces vibrant yellow CdS or white Cd(OH)₂ precipitates, respectively, highlighting solubility rules and Le Châtelier's principle. Complex formation is demonstrated by reacting cadmium nitrate with ammonia to form the soluble tetraamminecadmin(II) complex [Cd(NH₃)₄]²⁺, which dissolves initially formed precipitates, underscoring coordination chemistry concepts in undergraduate labs.^[40]^[35]

Health and environmental effects

Toxicity and health hazards

Cadmium nitrate is classified under the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) as a dangerous substance, with harmonised hazard statements indicating it is toxic if swallowed (H301), toxic in contact with skin (H311), toxic if inhaled (H331), may cause genetic defects (H340), may cause cancer (H350), and causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure (H372).^[5] Acute exposure to cadmium nitrate primarily manifests through inhalation and ingestion, where it is toxic if inhaled due to severe respiratory irritation leading to pulmonary edema and pneumonitis, and toxic if swallowed, causing gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.^[1]^[4] The oral LD50 in rats is 300 mg/kg, underscoring its high acute toxicity via ingestion.^[41] Inhalation of dust or fumes from its hygroscopic crystalline form can also trigger metal fume fever, characterized by flu-like symptoms including fever, chills, and muscle aches.^[1] The primary routes of exposure to cadmium nitrate include inhalation of dust or fumes, ingestion, and skin absorption, with inhalation posing the most immediate threat due to the compound's solubility and potential for aerosolization.^[1]^[4] Skin contact may cause irritation but is less severe than respiratory or oral routes.^[4] Chronic exposure to cadmium nitrate leads to severe health effects, including carcinogenicity (particularly lung and prostate cancers), genotoxicity, kidney damage, reproductive toxicity, and bone fragility associated with itai-itai disease, a condition involving osteomalacia and renal tubular dysfunction.^[1] Prolonged exposure also results in anemia, emphysema, and liver damage.^[1]^[4] Regulatory limits for cadmium nitrate are based on cadmium content, with the NIOSH permissible exposure limit (PEL) set at 0.005 mg/m³ as an 8-hour time-weighted average and the immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) concentration at 9 mg/m³.^[42]^[1] These limits aim to prevent both acute and chronic health risks from occupational exposure.^[42]

Environmental impact

Cadmium nitrate poses significant risks to aquatic ecosystems due to the release of cadmium ions, which are highly toxic to aquatic life. It is classified under the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) as very toxic to aquatic life with long-lasting effects (H410). Acute toxicity tests on fish species, such as Channa punctatus, show a 24-hour LC50 value of approximately 1 mg/L, indicating high sensitivity in freshwater environments.^[7]^[43] Similar low LC50 ranges (1-10 mg/L) are observed across various fish, leading to disruptions in gill function, ion regulation, and overall survival in contaminated waters.^[44] Cadmium ions from cadmium nitrate exhibit strong bioaccumulation potential, concentrating in organisms at levels hundreds to thousands of times higher than in surrounding water. In aquatic food chains, this leads to biomagnification, where concentrations increase from primary producers to higher trophic levels, such as from algae to fish and predators. In plants, cadmium reduces nutrient uptake, including essential elements like iron, phosphorus, and zinc, by interfering with root absorption and transport mechanisms. Animals, including invertebrates and fish, accumulate cadmium in tissues like gills, liver, and kidneys, resulting in oxidative stress and impaired reproduction across the ecosystem.^[45]^[46] Soil contamination by cadmium nitrate, often from industrial effluents, causes phytotoxicity that manifests as stunted growth, chlorosis, and reduced biomass in crops. This leads to decreased crop yields, with studies showing up to 50% reductions in maize dry weight at elevated cadmium levels in soil.^[47] The compound's high solubility in water exacerbates contamination risks, allowing cadmium to leach into groundwater and affect agricultural lands.^[46] Cadmium from nitrate salts is non-biodegradable and persists in the environment, with long residence times in sediments—often exceeding several years—due to adsorption onto particles and low mobility under certain conditions. In aquatic sediments, concentrations can be an order of magnitude higher than in overlying water, serving as a long-term source of remobilization during disturbances like dredging.^[48] Regulatory frameworks address these impacts through restrictions on cadmium nitrate. Under the European Union's REACH regulation, it is listed as a substance of very high concern (SVHC) due to its cadmium content, with uses restricted in Annex XVII to prevent environmental release. The U.S. EPA sets ambient water quality criteria for cadmium at 1.8 μg/L (acute) and 0.72 μg/L (chronic) in freshwater to protect aquatic life, classifying cadmium compounds as hazardous under the Clean Air Act and RCRA. Remediation strategies include phytoremediation, where hyperaccumulator plants like Thlaspi caerulescens extract cadmium from soil, and chelation using agents like EDTA to enhance mobility for removal, though these methods require site-specific application to avoid secondary contamination.^[5]^[44]^[49]

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