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Caique

Caiques are a genus (Pionites) of small, stocky parrots in the family Psittacidae, native to the lowland rainforests of the Amazon and Orinoco basins in South America.^[1]^[2] These vibrant birds, measuring approximately 23 cm (9 inches) in length and weighing 150–170 grams, are distinguished by their short, square tails, rounded bodies, and colorful plumage that includes shades of green, yellow, orange, and contrasting black or white markings on the head and underparts.^[1]^[2] Two primary species are recognized: the black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus), found north of the Amazon River, and the white-bellied caique (Pionites leucogaster), distributed south of the river, though some taxonomic authorities recognize splits of the white-bellied into three species, including the yellow-tailed (P. xanthurus) and yellow-legged (P. xanthomerius) forms, while others treat them as subspecies.^[1]^[3]^[4] In their natural habitat of tropical forests, palm swamps, and seasonally flooded areas at elevations below 500 meters, caiques live in pairs or small flocks of up to 10 individuals, foraging in the canopy for fruits, seeds, flowers, and occasionally insects or clay from riverbanks.^[3]^[5] They are highly social and active, exhibiting a distinctive hopping locomotion rather than walking, and communicate with chirps, whistles, and squawks, though they rarely mimic human speech.^[2]^[1] Their playful demeanor, including acrobatic displays and "dancing" behaviors, has earned them the nickname "clowns of the bird world."^[2]^[1] Caiques are popular companion birds due to their affectionate, outgoing personalities and intelligence, but they demand substantial daily interaction, large enclosures (at least 2x2x3 feet), and a varied diet of pellets, fruits, and vegetables to thrive in captivity, where they can live 25–40 years.^[1]^[2] However, they can be nippy or territorial, particularly toward other birds, requiring experienced owners.^[1] In the wild, populations face threats from deforestation, logging, and limited hunting, leading to varied conservation statuses as of 2023: the black-headed caique is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, while the white-bellied caique is Vulnerable (with some forms at higher risk under taxonomic splits).^[6] Both species are protected under CITES Appendix II to regulate international trade.^[6]^[5]^[7]

Taxonomy and Systematics

Classification

Caiques belong to the order Psittaciformes, the family Psittacidae, the subfamily Arinae, and the genus Pionites.^[8] The genus Pionites was established by Heinrich Kuhl in 1820 in his work Nova Acta Physico-medica Academiae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae Naturae Curiosorum Exhibentia Ephemerides, initially describing Pionites leucogaster as the type species.^[9] The etymology of Pionites derives from the Greek piōn, meaning "fat" or "plump," combined with the suffix -itēs, denoting resemblance, reflecting the stocky, robust build of these parrots in comparison to related genera like Pionus.^[10] Historically, caiques have been distinguished from other Neotropical parrot genera, such as Deroptyus (the red-fan parrot), based on morphological differences including tail shape and body proportions; early classifications placed them separately, and subsequent revisions have maintained Pionites as a valid genus distinct from Deroptyus.^[8] Within the subfamily Arinae, caiques form a monophyletic clade as confirmed by phylogenomic analyses using ultra-conserved elements (UCEs) across nearly all parrot species, positioning Pionites in the tribe Arini with an early divergence from the lineage leading to Deroptyus approximately 14.5 million years ago.^[8] This molecular evidence supports their close relationship to other Neotropical parrots while underscoring their unique evolutionary history within the diverse Arinae.^[8]

Species and Subspecies

The genus Pionites includes four recognized species of caiques, following the 2014 taxonomic revision by the Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International that split the former white-bellied caique complex: the black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus), the green-thighed caique (Pionites leucogaster), the black-legged caique (Pionites xanthomerius), and the yellow-tailed caique (Pionites xanthurus). These species are monophyletic within the Arini tribe and represent an early divergence in parrot evolution, with a common ancestor estimated at approximately 14.5 million years ago.^[8]^[11] The black-headed caique (P. melanocephalus) is characterized by a distinctive black cap extending from the forehead to the nape, yellow cheeks and throat, a white breast with a yellow band, green upperparts, and gray legs. In contrast, the green-thighed caique (P. leucogaster) features a pale lemon-orange to apricot crown and nape, yellow lores and throat, white underparts with yellow on the breast and thighs, green upperparts, and orange legs. The black-legged caique (P. xanthomerius) is similar but paler overall with yellow thighs and occurs in the western Amazon. The yellow-tailed caique (P. xanthurus) has even paler colorations, yellow upper tail coverts, and a yellow-throated appearance, found in central Brazil south of the Amazon River. These morphological differences, particularly in head coloration, leg color, and tail patterns, distinguish the species.^[6]^[4]^[12]^[13] The species were previously treated as two, with the three forms of the white-bellied complex as subspecies, but were elevated to full species status in 2014 based on differences in plumage, vocalizations, and genetics. Although some hybridization occurs in contact zones such as the Ucayali River between P. xanthomerius and P. melanocephalus, restricted hybrid zones and minimal genetic divergence support their recognition as distinct species, as confirmed by 2024 phylogenomic analyses.^[8]

Physical Description

Plumage Variations

Caiques exhibit striking plumage patterns characterized by vibrant contrasts of green, white, yellow, and orange, with distinct differences between the two recognized species in the genus Pionites. The black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus) features a glossy black crown, forehead, and nape that extends to form a cap, contrasting sharply with bright yellow cheeks and throat marked by a thin green streak. The neck and upper breast display vivid orange feathering, transitioning to a clean white belly and undertail coverts, while the back, wings, and tail are predominantly emerald green with violet-blue primaries and secondaries. The thighs are orange, and the underwing coverts are white. Subspecies variations include the nominate P. m. melanocephalus with the typical orange tones, and P. m. pallida, where the orange feathering is replaced by yellow.^[14]^[6] In contrast, the white-bellied caique (Pionites leucogaster) has an apricot-orange crown and nape, with bright yellow cheeks and throat, a fluffy white breast and abdomen, and green upperparts including the back, wings, and tail, accented by dark blue wing coverts and blackish flight feathers. a white belly and green underwing coverts, and the square tail is green. Subspecies show subtle differences: the nominate P. l. leucogaster (green-thighed) has green thigh feathers; P. l. xanthomerius (yellow-thighed) features yellow thighs and a more pronounced yellow on the throat; and P. l. xanthurus (yellow-tailed) has a paler overall coloration with yellow tail feathers. The legs are grey to pinkish in white-bellied caiques.^[5]^[14] Juvenile caiques of both species display duller colors with reduced contrast compared to adults. In black-headed juveniles, the plumage is less vibrant, with a heavy orange-yellow wash suffusing the white breast and belly, and some individuals showing variable yellow or orange suffusions; the eyes are dark, and the beak is grayish. White-bellied juveniles often have dark feathering, including black patches on the head that can lead to confusion with black-headed caiques, along with a yellow wash on the abdomen; these black head feathers molt between 6 and 24 months, and full adult coloration develops gradually over multiple molts, with the head brightening to orange by around three years.^[14]^[5]^[15] Adult caiques show no sexual dimorphism in plumage, with males and females indistinguishable by color; however, males are slightly larger in overall size.^[5]

Size and Morphology

Caiques, belonging to the genus Pionites, are compact parrots characterized by their small size and robust morphology, with both the black-headed (P. melanocephalus) and white-bellied (P. leucogaster) species averaging approximately 23 cm (9 in) in total length.^[6]^[5] Their body weight typically ranges from 150 to 170 grams, contributing to a stocky, upright stance that supports their active lifestyle.^[6]^[5] This diminutive yet sturdy build distinguishes them from larger parrots, emphasizing efficiency in forested environments. The overall physical structure features a short, square-shaped tail and a rounded head, enhancing their compact form.^[5] Their wings are relatively short, with a wingspan measuring 36 to 38 cm, which facilitates quick, agile flights through dense vegetation rather than extended migrations.^[15]^[5] The skeletal framework includes robust legs adapted for perching, ground-walking, and climbing, allowing for versatile locomotion.^[5] These legs are stout and support the bird's weight during terrestrial activities, a notable trait among arboreal parrots.^[5] A prominent anatomical feature is the strong, curved beak, which is hooked and designed for cracking open nuts and seeds, enabling effective foraging on hard-shelled foods.^[5] The feet exhibit a zygodactyl arrangement, with two toes facing forward and two backward, providing a powerful grip for perching, climbing, and manipulating objects during feeding.^[5] This toe configuration, combined with the sturdy legs, allows caiques to hang upside down from branches while using one foot to grasp and deliver food to the beak.^[5] Such adaptations underscore their morphological specialization for a life spent navigating understory habitats.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Caiques, belonging to the genus Pionites, are endemic to the Amazon basin and surrounding regions of northern and western South America. The black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus) occupies the northern portion of this range, primarily north of the Amazon River. It is distributed from southeastern Colombia and southern Venezuela eastward through the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana) to northern Brazil, with records extending to northeastern Peru and Ecuador.^[16]^[17] Two subspecies are recognized: P. m. melanocephalus, which covers the eastern part of the range including the Guianas and northern Brazil, and P. m. pallidus, restricted to northwestern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela.^[6] The white-bellied caique complex south and west of the Amazon River has been taxonomically split into three species: the black-legged caique (Pionites xanthomerius), yellow-tailed caique (Pionites xanthurus), and green-thighed caique (Pionites leucogaster). P. xanthomerius is found in eastern Peru (east of the Ucayali River), northern Bolivia, and western Brazil. P. xanthurus occurs in western Brazil from the Rio Purús and Rio Juruá to the Rio Madeira. P. leucogaster is distributed in east-central Brazil from the Madeira River to Maranhão south of the Amazon.^[18]^[12]^[13]^[11]^[5] Both the black-headed caique and the white-bellied complex species exhibit limited overlap in the central Amazon region, where their parapatric distributions may converge, though they generally maintain distinct ranges separated by the Amazon River.^[17] Historical ranges align closely with current distributions, with slight contractions observed due to ongoing deforestation; for instance, tree cover within the black-headed caique's range has declined by approximately 3.9% over the past three generations (as of 2022), while P. leucogaster has experienced 16–22% loss over recent generations (as of 2021), but no major local extirpations have been reported.^[17]^[11]

Habitat Preferences

Caiques, belonging to the genus Pionites, exhibit a strong preference for lowland tropical rainforests across the Amazon and Orinoco basins, typically occurring at elevations below 1,000 m.^[3] They favor humid environments, including terra firme (non-flooded upland forests) and várzea (seasonally flooded forests along rivers), where dense vegetation provides suitable microhabitats.^[5] The black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus) is particularly associated with subtropical/tropical moist lowland forests and swamp forests, often near watercourses.^[17] Similarly, the white-bellied complex species (Pionites xanthomerius, P. xanthurus, and P. leucogaster) preferentially occupy lowland tropical rainforests, with a notable affinity for várzea habitats and terra firme areas along riverine corridors.^[13]^[18]^[12]^[11] Within these forests, caiques are closely linked to fruiting trees and vine tangles, utilizing the understory and lower canopy layers for navigation and resource access.^[19] This association supports their ecological niche in structurally complex forest environments, where such features are abundant in the humid lowlands.^[20] Caiques display nomadic tendencies, undertaking local movements in response to seasonal fruit availability, though they remain non-migratory overall.^[16] For instance, the black-headed caique shows nomadic behavior in regions like French Guiana to track food resources. They demonstrate tolerance for forest edge habitats and secondary growth but avoid open savannas and higher altitudes beyond 1,000 m, which lack the requisite canopy density and humidity.^[14]

Natural History

Behavior

Caiques are highly social parrots that inhabit the wild in small to medium-sized monospecific flocks, typically ranging from 4 to 10 individuals. These flocks often include stable pair bonds or family units, facilitating cooperative movement through the forest canopy and understory. In the Peruvian Amazon, white-bellied caiques (Pionites leucogaster) exhibit a mean flock size of 5.2 ± 3.0 individuals, with groups observed traveling together for resting, preening, and exploration.^[21]^[5]^[22] Communication within flocks relies heavily on vocalizations, including high-pitched screeches, shrieks, squawks, trills, and songlike calls that serve for maintaining contact during flight and rest. These noisy utterances are particularly prominent while flocks are perched or moving through the canopy, but caiques remain relatively silent during low-level flights to avoid detection. Alarm calls, described as piercing and similar to a smoke alarm, alert the group to potential dangers, prompting a coordinated response.^[5]^[23]^[24] In terms of locomotion, caiques are notably acrobatic and ground-oriented compared to many arboreal parrots, frequently hopping, climbing, and walking on the forest floor or low branches rather than relying solely on flight. They navigate the canopy at heights of 10-40 meters but descend to the understory for certain activities, employing deliberate movements to scan for predators. This playful demeanor includes behaviors such as hanging briefly upside down or wrestling with flockmates, contributing to their energetic group dynamics. Their short, rounded tails and strong legs support these agile maneuvers.^[3]^[22]^[25] Caiques are diurnal, with activity peaking at dawn (around 06:30-09:30) and dusk, when flocks become most vocal and active in foraging and traveling. Territorial interactions within or between flocks may involve wing-flapping and bill-popping displays, though these are less documented in wild settings compared to captive observations. For anti-predator defense, they employ alarm calls to signal threats like hawks, followed by the flock falling silent and rapidly dispersing in unison; additionally, they join mixed-species aggregations at clay licks, where the collective presence deters predators.^[21]^[5]^[24]

Diet and Foraging

Caiques, belonging to the genus Pionites, exhibit an omnivorous diet in the wild, primarily consisting of fruits, seeds, flowers, and occasional insects, which supports their high-energy lifestyle in Amazonian forests. For the white-bellied caique (P. leucogaster), dietary observations from 190 foraging events reveal a composition of approximately 34% seeds, 31% fruit pulp, 24% flowers, and 11% whole fruits, drawn from at least 44 plant species, with projections estimating up to 117 species in total.^[26] Specific examples include palm fruits such as Oenocarpus bataua and Attalea butyracea, berries, figs, and flowers from trees like Symphonia globulifera, providing essential lipids and carbohydrates for energy; caiques show a seasonal reliance on nutrient-rich palm fruits during periods of limited availability in flooded habitats.^[27] The black-headed caique (P. melanocephalus) follows a similar pattern, consuming seeds from species like Caraipa densiflora and Sloanea terniflora, fruits from Euterpe precatoria and Scheelea butyracea, and probing bark for insects, with a noted preference for flowers during the dry season.^[27] Insects, such as ants (Crematogaster sp.), supplement their protein needs, comprising a minor but vital portion of the diet.^[26] Foraging techniques among caiques are versatile, adapted to their arboreal and semi-terrestrial habits, and often occur in small flocks of 4 to 10 individuals that move through the canopy and understory. They employ canopy gleaning to pluck ripe fruits and flowers from branches, ground probing with their robust beaks to uncover seeds and insects on the forest floor, and occasional bark probing for hidden prey, spending mornings in well-lit areas for optimal visibility.^[5] Flock members engage in cooperative feeding, with some acting as sentinels to watch for predators while others forage, enhancing efficiency in resource exploitation. These activities are influenced by habitat food availability, such as greater fruit abundance in seasonally flooded forests. Daily intake approximates 10-20% of body weight, reflecting the high metabolic demands of small psittacines, with energy largely derived from lipid-rich fruits that constitute a significant caloric source despite potential plant toxins, which caiques tolerate through selective feeding on nutritious items.^[28]^[29] As frugivores, caiques play a key ecological role in seed dispersal, ingesting fruits and excreting viable seeds away from parent trees, which aids forest regeneration in the Amazon basin; for instance, P. leucogaster contributes to the propagation of terra firme species like Pourouma spp. through endozoochory.^[5] Their geophagy, or clay consumption at mineral licks, is minimal (use index of 0.3), serving to buffer dietary toxins rather than as a primary nutrient source, and shows little seasonal variation.^[26] This balanced foraging strategy underscores their adaptability to varying resource availability across habitats.

Reproduction and Breeding

Caiques typically form monogamous pairs that remain together within larger social flocks in the wild, facilitating pair formation through ongoing group interactions. These pairs engage in mutual feeding and grooming behaviors prior to mating, which occurs frequently during the breeding season. The breeding season aligns with the rainy period in the Amazon basin, generally spanning October to April, influenced by factors such as increased rainfall, humidity, and food availability.^[5] Nesting takes place in natural tree cavities situated approximately 30 meters above the forest floor, often lined with wood chips, decayed wood, and other plant material to provide insulation and cushioning for the eggs. Females lay a clutch of 2 to 4 white eggs, with one egg deposited every 2 to 3 days until the clutch is complete. Incubation is performed solely by the female and lasts 24 to 26 days, during which the male remains nearby, provisioning the incubating female with regurgitated food and defending the nest site from potential threats.^[5]^[27] Both parents share responsibilities in rearing the altricial chicks, which hatch blind and sparsely feathered; the female primarily broods and feeds the young via regurgitation, while the male continues to supply food to the family. Chicks fledge after 9 to 10 weeks, remaining dependent on parental care for foraging and protection until achieving full independence around 3 months of age. Sexual maturity is attained at 2 to 3 years, allowing pairs to participate in subsequent breeding cycles.^[5]^[30]^[24]

Aviculture

Suitability as Pets

Caiques are highly regarded as companion birds for their engaging and lively personalities, making them suitable for experienced owners who can provide ample interaction and stimulation. These small parrots, often dubbed the "clowns of the bird world," exhibit a playful and mischievous demeanor that translates well to domestic settings, though their bold nature requires consistent socialization to mitigate potential behavioral issues.^[1]^[31]^[32] The temperament of caiques is characterized by high energy, curiosity, and affection, fostering strong bonds with their human companions; however, without proper early handling, they can develop a tendency to nip or become overly assertive. In captivity, they often display clown-like behaviors such as hopping, rolling onto their backs during play, and performing acrobatic tricks, which endear them to active households but demand daily engagement to prevent boredom-induced mischief. While they typically bond closely with one primary caregiver, caiques can be trained to interact positively with multiple family members, enhancing their adaptability as family pets.^[1]^[31]^[33]^[32] With proper veterinary care and nutrition, caiques enjoy a lifespan of 25 to 40 years in captivity, allowing for long-term companionship but underscoring the commitment required from owners. Their noise levels are generally moderate, featuring chirps, whistles, and occasional squawks that are less intense than those of larger parrot species, though they may vocalize more if understimulated. Vocal mimicry abilities are limited, with caiques excelling more in imitating sounds like household noises rather than clear speech.^[1]^[2]^[31]^[32] As pets, caiques offer significant advantages for owners seeking an interactive and entertaining bird, including their sociability, trainability for tricks, and relative compactness, which suits them for homes with dedicated play spaces. Conversely, their high energy and potential for nipping make them less ideal for quiet environments or households with young children, where their boldness could lead to unpredictable interactions; they thrive best with dedicated, attentive caregivers rather than novice bird owners.^[1]^[31]^[33]

Care and Husbandry

Caiques thrive in captivity when provided with an appropriately sized enclosure that supports their energetic and climbing-oriented lifestyle. A minimum cage size of 24 x 24 x 36 inches (61 x 61 x 91 cm) is recommended for a single bird, featuring horizontal bars spaced no more than 3/4 inch apart to facilitate climbing and prevent escapes.^[1] For optimal welfare, especially in breeding setups or for multiple birds, a larger aviary measuring at least 1 m x 1 m x 1.5 m (39 x 39 x 59 inches) allows for flight and exercise.^[34] Enrichment is crucial; include a variety of toys such as swings, ropes, ladders, and destructible items like wooden blocks to combat boredom, which can lead to stereotypic behaviors if unaddressed.^[35] Dietary management is essential for preventing nutritional deficiencies and obesity in caiques. A balanced diet should comprise approximately 60% high-quality extruded pellets designed for small parrots, 30% fresh fruits and vegetables (such as apples, carrots, and leafy greens), and 10% nuts and seeds for variety and essential fatty acids.^[36] Foods toxic to parrots, including avocado and chocolate, must be strictly avoided to prevent acute poisoning.^[37] Calcium supplementation, via cuttlebone or powdered supplements added to soft foods, is recommended to support bone health, particularly in laying females. Health maintenance involves proactive monitoring and veterinary care to address caiques' vulnerabilities. Common issues include feather plucking triggered by stress or environmental inadequacy, obesity from excessive seed intake, and psittacosis (a chlamydial infection causing respiratory symptoms).^[38] Beak overgrowth can occur due to soft diets lacking abrasion, necessitating annual avian veterinarian examinations for trimming if needed.^[37] Vaccinations are not routinely administered to caiques, unlike some larger parrots, but all new acquisitions require a 30- to 45-day quarantine period with fecal and blood testing to detect pathogens like polyomavirus.^[1] Captive breeding of caiques is promoted to bolster populations amid wild habitat threats, with success depending on paired, sexed adults in spacious aviaries. Nesting boxes filled with wood shavings encourage egg-laying, and for higher hatch rates, eggs can be transferred to controlled incubators maintained at 37.5–37.8°C (99.5–100°F) with 50–60% humidity.^[39] Chicks typically hatch after 26–28 days and require hand-feeding every 2–4 hours with a high-protein formula until weaning at 8–10 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced breeder or avian specialist.^[40]

Conservation

Status and Threats

The Black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with a global population size that remains unknown but is considered large across its extensive range in northern South America.^[17] Its population trend is decreasing at a slow rate, estimated at 1-5% over the past three generations (approximately 16.2 years), primarily due to ongoing habitat pressures rather than acute declines.^[17] In contrast, the white-bellied caique complex (Pionites leucogaster s.l.) includes forms now recognized as separate species with IUCN statuses ranging from Least Concern to Vulnerable; for example, the green-thighed parrot (P. leucogaster) holds Vulnerable status under the IUCN criteria A3cd+4cd, reflecting a not-quantified but fairly common population that is undergoing a more pronounced decline of approximately 29% over the past three generations (about 17.1 years).^[11] No major disease outbreaks have been documented as significant factors affecting either species in the wild.^[17]^[11] The primary anthropogenic threats to both species stem from habitat destruction driven by logging and agricultural expansion in the Amazon Basin, where deforestation has resulted in substantial tree cover loss; for the Black-headed caique, this equates to 3.9% within its mapped range over the past three generations, while the white-bellied complex has experienced 16% loss over a similar period and 22% since 2016.^[17]^[11] Illegal pet trade exacerbates these pressures, with both species listed under CITES Appendix II to regulate international commerce, though poaching persists as a direct mortality source.^[41] Nest poaching, often tied to the pet trade, affects Neotropical parrots like caiques at an average rate of 30% across observed nests, contributing to reduced recruitment in wild populations.^[42] Regional variations intensify threats for the white-bellied complex, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, where its southern distribution overlaps with expanding small-scale gold mining operations that degrade lowland forests, pollute waterways with mercury, and fragment habitats essential for foraging and nesting.^[11]^[43] As of 2025, illegal gold mining continues to expand in Peru and Bolivia, further threatening habitats in the southern Amazon.^[44] In these areas, mining has been linked to elevated mercury levels in birds within 7 km of sites and broader biodiversity impacts near reserves like Tambopata in Peru.^[45]^[46] These combined factors have driven the ongoing population reductions, underscoring its heightened vulnerability compared to the more resilient Black-headed caique.^[11]

Protection Measures

Both species of caique, the black-headed caique (Pionites melanocephalus) and the white-bellied caique complex (Pionites leucogaster s.l.), are listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1981, which regulates international commercial trade to prevent overexploitation while allowing sustainable levels.^[47]^[48] This listing requires export permits based on non-detriment findings to ensure trade does not threaten wild populations. In range countries like Guyana and Suriname, annual export quotas for P. melanocephalus have been established under CITES to monitor and limit wild-caught exports.^[49] These quotas aim to balance economic benefits from the pet trade with population sustainability, though actual exports have varied based on enforcement and market demand. Caiques benefit from inclusion in several protected areas across their Amazonian range, where habitat preservation supports their populations. The white-bellied complex occurs in Manu National Park in Peru, a UNESCO World Heritage site that safeguards over 850 bird species through strict anti-deforestation measures and ranger patrols.^[50] Similarly, the black-headed caique inhabits Jaú National Park in Brazil, one of the largest protected forest reserves in South America, which restricts logging and mining to maintain intact lowland rainforest ecosystems essential for parrot foraging and nesting.^[51] These parks employ community-based monitoring and buffer zones to mitigate edge effects from surrounding human activities. Non-governmental organizations play a key role in caique conservation through targeted programs. The World Parrot Trust supports habitat restoration initiatives in the Amazon Basin, including reforestation projects that enhance canopy connectivity for arboreal species like caiques, and funds anti-poaching patrols to deter nest raiding in vulnerable areas.^[52] Additionally, captive breeding programs for both caique species have been established in zoological institutions and aviaries, producing offspring for potential reintroduction to supplement wild populations where local declines occur due to trade pressure.^[53] These efforts emphasize genetic diversity and health screening to avoid introducing diseases to wild flocks.^[54] Post-CITES implementation has led to successes such as reduced international trade volumes in caiques, with global exports dropping significantly after 1981 due to permit requirements and market shifts toward captive-bred birds.^[55] However, challenges persist, including enforcement gaps in remote Amazonian regions where illegal trapping continues unchecked, and ongoing habitat fragmentation from agriculture undermines protected area efficacy.^[56] Ecotourism in sites like Manu National Park offers potential for funding conservation through guided birdwatching tours that highlight caiques, fostering local stewardship while generating revenue for anti-poaching efforts.^[50]

References

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The green-thighed parrot, also known as the eastern white-bellied parrot, is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae.
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This new Dictionary owes much to R. D. Macleod's Key to the Names of British Birds. (1954) and to my well-received A Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names (1991).
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This species is suffering from the loss, degradation and disturbance of its forested habitat, and may potentially be susceptible to hunting.
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IUCN Red List assessment history ; 2014. Vulnerable. A4cd ; 2012. Not Recognised ; 2008. Not Recognised ; 2004. Not Recognised.
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[PDF] Patterns of Activity, Flocking, and Habitat Use in Parrots of the ...
Nov 1, 1998 · Pionites leucogaster preferred transi- tional forest, and Pionus menstruus was unique in this community, showing a strong association with ...
[22]
Caiques - Parrot Fun Zone
The Black-headed Caique has a black head, yellow-orange neck, white belly, yellow legs, black beak, and a green back, wings and tail. Some of their wing ...Missing: plumage variations<|control11|><|separator|>
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Caiques - Aquatic Community
Caiques are listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened species. Just like all other species of parrots, both caique species are however ...
[24]
[PDF] Black-headed Parrot (Caique) - Idaho Falls
Special Adaptations: Curved beaks to open hard shells and to aid in climbing. IUCN Conservation Status: Least concern.
[25]
[PDF] Cooperative Breeding in Parrots and Introduction to the Column ...
In Peru I have also had the pleasure of observing groups of White-bellied Caiques (Pionites leucogaster). These playful little parrots seem to always travel in ...
[26]
[PDF] Diet and Geophagy Across a Western Amazonian Parrot Assemblage
Diet and Geophagy Across a Western Amazonian Parrot Assemblage. Alan T. K. Lee1,2,3,8, Donald J. Brightsmith4, Mario P. Vargas5, Karina Q. Leon6, Aldo J ...
[27]
https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.blhpar4.01
[28]
Caique - Wikipedia
Caique refers to two to four species of parrots in the genus Pionites endemic to the Amazon Basin in South America. Caiques. Black-headed parrot (Pionites ...White-bellied parrot · Black-headed parrot · Black-legged parrot
[29]
Parrots Eat Nutritious Foods despite Toxins | PLOS One
This study investigated the foods of wild parrots in the Peruvian Amazon ... manilata); Pionites (P. leucogaster); Pyrilia (P. barrabandi); Pyrrhura (P ...
[30]
How much do birds eat each day? - All About Birds
A chickadee may eat 35 percent of its weight in food each day while a Blue Jay may eat only 10 percent of its weight and a Common Raven only 4 percent.
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Caique Hand Feeding and Weaning - Shady Pines Aviary
They generally fledge at about ten weeks of age although they will still be fed by their parents and continue to sleep in the nestbox.
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All You Need to Know About a Caique | Des Moines Vets
Oct 26, 2022 · Caique parrots can make great pets and will keep you entertained for years. They are wonderful to look at and do not get very big so they do not require a ...
[33]
[PDF] Caique Parrots - Specialized Care for Avian & Exotic Pets
WILD HISTORY: WILD HISTORY: Caiques are native to the Amazon basin region of South America. Age of sexual maturity is usually 4-. 5 years old.
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Caiques
### Summary of Caique Parrots as Pets (Source: https://birdtricksstore.com/blogs/birdtricks-blog/caiques)
[35]
Caique Cage Recommendations - Shady Pines Aviary
For pet Caiques I recommend a minimum of 24" x 24" floor space. A larger, 24" x 30" or even 36" wide is better and will accommodate a future Caique companion!Missing: enclosure | Show results with:enclosure
[36]
Meet the Caique: Here's What to Know Before Bringing One Home
Caiques (pronounced “kai-eeks”) are small, vibrant parrots known for their playful personalities, boundless energy, and bold nature. Native to the forests ...
[37]
Caique Parrot Feeding Guide
A Caique's diet should be approximately 60-80% pellets / complete food and then the remainder a mixture of fruits, nuts, seeds, sprouting seed, treats, ...
[38]
Common Conditions of Pet Birds | VCA Animal Hospitals
Amazons are commonly afflicted with upper respiratory diseases, many of which result from vitamin A deficiency associated with an all-seed diet. · Cloacal ...
[39]
Caique — Full Profile, History, and Care | Dial A Vet
Jul 7, 2025 · Known for their playful antics and clown-like behavior, these birds are a joy to watch and interact with. ... wild. Historically, caiques ...
[40]
Breeding Aspects of Caiques and Pionus Parrots - AFA Watchbird
In general, both Caiques and Pionus will breed in the same size cage. A cage that is two to three feet wide, three feet tall and three to six feet long is ...
[41]
https://cites.org/eng/taxonomy/term/3127
[42]
Pionites melanocephalus - CITES
Pionites melanocephalus ; Kingdom. Fauna ; Phylum. Chordata ; Class. Aves ; Order. Psittaciformes ; Family. Psittacidae.Missing: caiques | Show results with:caiques
[43]
Nest Poaching in Neotropical Parrots - Conservation Biology - Wiley
The average poaching rate across all studies was 30% of all nests observed. Thirteen studies reported poaching rates of ≥20%, and four reported rates openface> ...
[44]
Mining and logging threaten Bolivia's newest protected area
Oct 24, 2024 · Mining activity is destroying the 11 rivers that crisscross the Bolivian Amazon, dumping mercury in the water and tearing up riverbanks. In just ...
[45]
Gold mining spreads mercury to tropical birds, study says - Reuters
Nov 1, 2023 · Birds living within 7 km (4 miles) of such gold mining activity were found to have mercury concentrations over four times higher than those ...
[46]
Impacts of small-scale gold mining on birds and anurans near the ...
Impacts of small-scale gold mining on birds and anurans near the Tambopata Natural Reserve, Peru. June 27, 2016. Click here to download article. Go back.
[47]
Appendices | CITES
When a species is included in Appendix I, II or III, the whole, live or dead, animal or plant is always included. In addition, all parts and derivatives thereof ...Missing: Pionites leucogaster
[48]
Third meeting of the Conference of the Parties - CITES
New Delhi (India), 25 February - 8 March 1981. Proposals for amendment of Appendices I and II (all documents are provided here in PDF format)
[49]
CITES Quotas
CITES Quotas ; Pionites melanocephala. II. 600 ; Pionus fuscus. II. 780 ; Pionus menstruus. II. 900 ; Forpus passerinus. II. 600 ; Pyrrhura egregia egregia. II. 120.
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Manú National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
... Manu National Park a protected area of major and global biodiversity conservation importance. More than 200 species of mammals, 800 species of birds, 68 ...
[51]
Birds of Jaú National Park, Brazilian Amazon: species check-list ...
Aug 7, 2025 · – This article presents a detailed bird checklist of Jaú National Park (JNP) located at west bank of the lower Rio Negro, a region poorly known ...Missing: caique | Show results with:caique
[52]
Programs and Projects - World Parrot Trust
Since 1989, our efforts have aided more than 80 parrot species in 45 countries. Explore our work by regions, programs and projects.
[53]
A review of commercial captive breeding of parrots as a supply‐side ...
Sep 9, 2024 · ... (Pionites leucogaster), crimson-bellied parakeet (Pyrrhura perlata) ... The extent and impact on wild populations of laundering of wild sourced ...
[54]
[PDF] Reintroduction Considerations - World Parrot Trust
Given the approach the WPT has taken and the protocols put into place, no risk of disease to wild populations from captive- bred birds has been shown to occur.
[55]
Hidden impacts of CITES deletions on global bird trade
1A). Following the ban, the majority of trade occurred without EU involvement. Non-EU trade volumes also fell decreasing by 34.4 % from 54,598 individuals in ...Missing: caique | Show results with:caique
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[PDF] CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF PARROTS ... - CITES
The most important components of the habitat for parrot species include the habitat area required by the individuals of the species for their daily activities ...