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Parrot

Parrots are birds belonging to the order Psittaciformes, comprising approximately 400 extant species characterized by a strong, curved, hooked bill adapted for cracking seeds and nuts, zygodactyl feet with two toes directed forward and two backward for climbing and grasping, and often vibrant, iridescent plumage.^[1]^[2] These birds exhibit an upright stance and short necks, with sizes ranging from the diminutive pygmy parrots at about 8 cm in length to large macaws exceeding 100 cm.^[3] Predominantly inhabiting tropical and subtropical forests, woodlands, and savannas across South America, Australasia, Africa, and parts of Asia, parrots demonstrate remarkable cognitive abilities, including tool use, puzzle-solving, and vocal mimicry that can replicate human speech with contextual understanding in species like the African grey parrot.^[1]^[4] Their evolutionary lineage traces back to the Paleogene, with fossil evidence indicating origins potentially in the Northern Hemisphere before diversification into southern continents, though parrot fossils remain scarce and debated.^[5] Conservation challenges are acute, as habitat destruction from deforestation and agriculture, combined with illegal capture for the pet trade, have rendered about 28% of species threatened with extinction according to assessments, including 18 critically endangered taxa.^[6]^[7]

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Evolutionary Origins and Fossil Record

Molecular phylogenetic analyses estimate the origin of crown-group Psittaciformes (modern parrots) in the Late Cretaceous, between 59 and 82 million years ago, likely within Gondwana following the separation of Africa from the India-Madagascar block.^[8] These estimates align with biogeographic patterns, as parrot diversity centers in South America and Australasia, suggesting an ancestral Gondwanan radiation.^[9] The divergence of cockatoos (Cacatuidae) from other parrots (Psittacidae) is dated to approximately 40.7 million years ago during the Eocene.^[10] The fossil record of Psittaciformes is sparse and lags behind molecular divergence dates, a pattern attributed to potential undersampling or "ghost lineages" in the Paleogene. A purported parrot jaw from the Late Cretaceous has been reported but remains disputed, with most experts rejecting a Cretaceous origin for the order based on morphology.^[11] ^[9] Unequivocal stem-group representatives (Pan-Psittaciformes), exhibiting zygodactyl feet and other parrot-like traits, appear in the Early Eocene around 54 million years ago. Examples include specimens from the Mo Clay of Denmark assigned to Pseudasturidae and other indeterminate forms.^[12] Early Eocene fossils from Europe and North America further document stem parrots, such as Messelastur gratulator from the Messel Pit in Germany (circa 48 million years ago) and halcyornithids like Cyrilavis olsoni and Cyrilavis colburnorum from the Green River Formation in the United States (approximately 50 million years ago).^[13] ^[14] These taxa display convergent parrot-like cranial features but are positioned outside the crown group in phylogenetic analyses. Crown-group Psittaciformes are not confidently identified until the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, around 25 million years ago, with diversification accelerating in the Miocene.^[15] Notable Miocene fossils include the giant Heracles inexpectatus from New Zealand (16-19 million years ago), estimated at 7 kg, and a tarsometatarsus from Siberia representing the earliest Asian record of crown parrots.^[16] ^[17]

Etymology

The English word parrot first appears in records around 1525, denoting the tropical bird noted for its vocal mimicry. It derives from Middle French perrot (or perroquet), with the latter term also yielding the English "parakeet" via diminutive forms. The precise origin of perrot remains uncertain, but leading hypotheses include its formation as a diminutive of the personal name Pierre (equivalent to Peter), potentially alluding to pet parrots trained to utter "Piers" or similar phrases, or as an abbreviation of perroquet itself.^[18]^[19] An alternative derivation proposes influence from Spanish pajarote, a term for "large bird" attested from 1576–77, combining pájaro ("bird," from Latin passer, "sparrow") with an augmentative suffix.^[20] By the 1590s, "parrot" extended to the verb form meaning "to repeat mechanically or uncomprehendingly," directly inspired by the bird's ability to imitate human speech without semantic grasp, as observed in early European encounters with imported specimens from the Americas and Asia.^[18]^[21] The scientific nomenclature for parrots, the order Psittaciformes, stems from Ancient Greek ψιττακός (psittakós), a term employed by the 5th-century BCE writer Ctesias to describe the bird, though its etymological roots—possibly onomatopoeic or borrowed from non-Greek languages—remain unresolved.^[18]

Phylogenetic Relationships

Psittaciformes forms a monophyletic clade sister to Passeriformes within the Psittacopasserae group, part of the broader Telluraves radiation among Neoaves.^[22]^[23] This positioning, supported by nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses, reflects a shared evolutionary history diverging from other avian lineages around 60–70 million years ago, consistent with genomic-scale phylogenies resolving deep avian relationships.^[8] The order encompasses approximately 398 extant species across three families: Cacatuidae (cockatoos, 21 species), Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots, including the kea, kakapo, and kaka, 3 species), and the species-rich Psittacidae (true parrots, ~374 species).^[24] Multilocus molecular phylogenies indicate that Cacatuidae represents the earliest diverging lineage, separating from the ancestor of Psittacoidea (Strigopidae + Psittacidae) during the late Cretaceous, approximately 74 million years ago.^[8] Strigopidae then split from Psittacidae around 52–60 million years ago in the early Paleogene, with Psittacidae undergoing rapid diversification thereafter, yielding major subclades such as the Neotropical Arini (macaws and allies), Australasian Platycercini and Psittaculini (broad-tailed parrots and Old World parrots), and Loriinae (lorikeets).^[8]^[25] Within Psittacidae, molecular data reveal both monophyletic groups like Arini and Loriinae, alongside polyphyletic assemblages such as traditional Psittaculini and Psittacinae, necessitating taxonomic revisions based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers.^[8] Biogeographic patterns suggest an initial Gondwanan radiation, with subsequent dispersals accounting for Neotropical and Afro-Asian distributions, though some internal nodes show topological discordance due to incomplete lineage sorting or hybridization signals in phylogenomic datasets.^[8]^[26] Recent syntheses incorporating mitogenomes and nuclear loci affirm these relationships while refining divergence estimates to post-Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary timings for crown-group diversification.^[27]

Current Classification and Recent Revisions

The order Psittaciformes encompasses approximately 400 extant species distributed across roughly 100 genera, traditionally classified into three families: Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots, including the kea, kaka, and kakapo), Cacatuidae (cockatoos), and Psittacidae (true parrots, encompassing New World, African, and Australasian lineages).^[27]^[28] Within Psittacidae, numerous subfamilies such as Arinae (Neotropical parrots) and Psittaculinae (Old World parrots) reflect phylogenetic groupings supported by molecular data.^[27] A comprehensive phylogenomic study published on June 28, 2024, analyzed genome-wide data from 323 parrot species (96% of the order's diversity) using maximum likelihood and species-tree methods to infer evolutionary relationships, revealing deep divergences dating to the Oligocene (approximately 30 million years ago for Psittacoidea).^[27] This work addressed paraphyly in prior classifications by proposing splits in polyphyletic genera, such as dividing Cacatua (cockatoos) into Cacatua and Licmetis, and Psephotus into Psephotellus and Clarkona; reinstating genera like Gymnopsittacus for Aratinga weddellii and Cardeos for the cardinal lory; and reconfiguring Trichoglossus lorikeets into 10 species across multiple genera.^[27] Additional changes include elevating Probosciger to subfamily Microglossinae, restricting tribe Touitini to Touit, and introducing new tribes such as Brotogerini, Neophemini, and Bolbopsittacini to better align taxonomy with monophyletic clades supported by synapomorphies and divergence estimates (e.g., Pyrrhura radiation at 7.1 million years ago).^[27] These revisions prioritize genomic evidence over historical morphology-based groupings, resolving issues like incomplete lineage sorting and rapid radiations while maintaining diagnosable morphological traits; for instance, they retain separate species status for Pionites leucogaster and P. melanocephalus despite close relation, and elevate Philippine populations of Tanygnathus sumatranus to T. everetti.^[27] Earlier proposals, such as those from the South American Classification Committee in 2023, have similarly advocated splitting Psittacidae into additional families like Psittaculidae for certain Old World lineages, though broader adoption awaits further consensus.^[29] Ongoing refinements continue to incorporate mitochondrial DNA networks and fossil-calibrated timetrees to refine genus-level boundaries.^[27]

Anatomy and Physiology

External Morphology

Parrots exhibit a distinctive body plan characterized by an upright stance, a robust and compact build, and adaptations suited for arboreal life. Their bodies are covered in feathers except for the legs, feet, cere, and bare skin around the eyes, with no sweat glands present to regulate temperature.^[30]^[31] The head is rounded with a short neck, and the wings are typically short and rounded, enabling agile flight in forested environments. Tail length varies widely among species, from short in pygmy parrots to long and pointed in some psittacines like the rose-ringed parakeet, where it can exceed half the body length.^[32] The beak, or bill, is a defining feature, consisting of a strong, curved upper mandible (rhinotheca) that is hooked and highly mobile, overlaying a shorter, sharper lower mandible (gnathotheca). This structure, covered in keratinized rhamphotheca, features a prominent cere at the base where nostrils open, and is specialized for cracking seeds, nuts, and manipulating objects. The upper mandible's flexibility, supported by a movable quadrate bone, allows precise control, distinguishing parrots from other birds.^[33]^[2]^[34] Parrots possess zygodactyl feet, with digits II and III directed forward and digits I and IV backward, providing a strong grip for climbing, perching, and handling food. The legs are short and stout, with a thick tarsometatarsus, and the claws are sharp and curved for traction on branches. This arrangement enhances dexterity, allowing parrots to use their feet almost like hands.^[30]^[35]^[36] Plumage in parrots is often vibrant, with many species displaying predominant green tones accented by red, blue, yellow, or white patches, though some like the kakapo are more subdued. Feathers are iridescent in certain species due to structural coloration, and sexual dimorphism in plumage is rare, with most differences subtle or absent.^[33]^[37]

Internal Anatomy and Sensory Capabilities

Parrots possess a digestive system adapted for processing seeds, fruits, and nuts, featuring a crop for temporary food storage, followed by the proventriculus, a glandular stomach that secretes digestive enzymes, and the ventriculus, a muscular gizzard lined with koilin for grinding ingested material.^[38]^[39] The proventriculus in psittacine birds is positioned left dorsal and ventral relative to the ventriculus, facilitating efficient breakdown of tough, fibrous foods through mechanical and chemical means.^[39] Waste is expelled via the cloaca, which combines urinary, digestive, and reproductive outputs, with occasional formation of urate-based cloacoliths observed in species like macaws and Amazon parrots.^[40] The respiratory system employs unidirectional airflow, with small, non-expandable lungs supplemented by nine air sacs that act as bellows for continuous ventilation and gas exchange in parabronchi, enhancing oxygen efficiency during flight and vocalization.^[41] The syrinx, situated at the trachea's bifurcation near the thoracic inlet in parrots, serves as the primary vocal organ, comprising modified tracheal rings, syringeal muscles, and membranes that enable independent control of sound production from both bronchi, supporting mimicry and complex calls.^[42] Sensory capabilities emphasize vision and audition over olfaction. Parrots exhibit acute visual acuity with forward-facing eyes providing binocular depth perception, alongside tetrachromatic color vision that includes ultraviolet sensitivity for detecting ripe fruits and plumage signals.^[43] Hearing is refined, allowing localization of sounds through asymmetric ear structures and neural processing that discerns direction and distance.^[44] In contrast, olfactory bulbs are reduced in size relative to optic lobes, indicating limited smell detection suited to seed-based diets rather than foraging by scent.^[45] The brain features enlarged cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum, correlating with advanced cognitive processing, though taste and touch senses are less specialized, with taste buds concentrated in the upper mouth for basic food assessment.^[45]^[46]

Plumage, Coloration, and Sexual Dimorphism

Parrot plumage consists of feathers characterized by unique microstructures, including spongy medullary layers in the barbs that contribute to iridescent and structural coloration.^[47] These feathers incorporate both pigmentary and structural elements, with psittacofulvins—novel linear polyene pigments synthesized via a polyketide synthase enzyme—responsible for yellow, orange, and red hues.^[48]^[49] Psittacofulvins, unlike carotenoids in other birds, provide enhanced resistance to bacterial degradation, potentially aiding feather maintenance in humid tropical environments.^[50] Melanin granules produce black, gray, and brown tones, often underlying or combining with psittacofulvins and structural effects.^[51] Blue and green colors arise primarily from structural interference via light scattering in the feather's keratin matrix and air-filled spongy structures, sometimes overlaid on yellow psittacofulvins to yield green.^[52]^[53] The variation in coloration is modulated by enzymatic processes; for instance, aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) oxidizes psittacofulvins, shifting hues from yellow (carboxylic acid form) to red (aldehyde form), as identified in studies of Amazon parrots.^[54]^[55] Spectral tuning occurs through differential deposition of pigments in feather barbs and barbules, with psittacofulvins concentrated in both, enhancing vibrancy.^[47] This dual mechanism—pigmentary for warm tones and structural for cool tones—enables parrots to achieve a broad gamut of colors, though avian plumage overall spans only 26-30% of perceivable hues.^[56] Sexual dimorphism in parrot plumage is generally subtle or absent, with most species exhibiting monomorphic coloration where males and females appear similar.^[57] Exceptions include the Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus), which displays extreme dimorphism: males are predominantly bright green with orange beaks, while females are red-headed with blue underparts and black beaks, a trait so stark that early observers classified them as separate species.^[58]^[59] This dimorphism relies on psittacofulvin deposition differences, with females producing more red forms.^[60] Subtle variations occur in species like the Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), where females show marginally duller crown, nape, and wing plumage via spectrophotometry.^[61] In Australasian parrots, dichromatism correlates more strongly with structural colors than psittacofulvin- or melanin-based ones, suggesting evolutionary pressures favor monomorphism in pigment-heavy species.^[60]

Distribution and Habitat

Global Range and Biogeography

Parrots (Psittaciformes) are native to tropical and subtropical regions across the Southern Hemisphere and equatorial zones, spanning Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa (including Madagascar), South and Southeast Asia, Australasia (Australia and New Guinea), and Pacific islands extending to New Zealand. The order is absent from native populations in Europe, temperate North America north of Mexico, and Antarctica. This distribution reflects adaptations to warm climates, with approximately 398 species documented globally, concentrated in forested and woodland habitats.^[62]^[63] Species richness peaks in the Neotropics, particularly the Amazon Basin, which hosts the highest diversity, followed by southeastern Australia and the mountainous regions of New Guinea. The Neotropics alone support over 150 species, representing a major center of endemism, while Australasia harbors basal lineages such as the New Zealand parrots (Strigopidae). Afro-Malagasy and Indo-Malayan regions contribute fewer species but include unique radiations, like the vasa parrots of Madagascar. These hotspots correlate with stable tropical environments that facilitated diversification.^[62]^[64] Biogeographically, parrots exhibit Gondwanan origins, with the earliest diverging lineages in Australasian remnants of the supercontinent, dating to divergences around 50-60 million years ago. Subsequent dispersals and radiations occurred post-Gondwana breakup, with New World clades arising via vicariance or overwater colonization, and African-Asian groups reflecting Miocene connections. Phylogenetic analyses support an Australasian cradle, followed by expansion into South America and limited northward incursions limited by Pleistocene glaciations. Introduced populations, now established in over 120 countries beyond native ranges, alter local distributions but stem from pet trade escapes rather than natural biogeographic processes.^[63]^[65]^[66]

Habitat Types and Adaptations

Parrots primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical regions, with the majority of species occupying forested environments such as rainforests, dry forests, and woodland mosaics, though some exploit savannas, mangroves, and montane zones. In the Amazon basin, species show preferences for specific forest strata: large parrots like Ara macaws favor upland and high-ground forests, mid-sized species prefer transitional areas, and small Brotogeris parakeets utilize floodplain transitional forests while avoiding uplands. Dry tropical forests in inter-Andean valleys of Bolivia, spanning altitudes from 900 to 3500 meters, support diverse parrot assemblages amid thorn scrub, cacti, and scattered trees. Savanna habitats, such as the Beni region of Bolivia, host up to 23 parrot species in fragmented forest islands, while African species like the brown-necked parrot (Poicephalus fuscicollis) occur in moist savanna woodlands and riverine forests. Montane adaptations are evident in species like the thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) in highland pine forests of Mexico's Sierra Madre and the kea (Nestor notabilis) in New Zealand's alpine Southern Alps.^[1]^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] Key morphological adaptations include zygodactyl feet, with two toes forward and two backward, facilitating secure gripping of branches and manipulation of food in arboreal settings like forest canopies. The strong, hooked beak enables cracking hard seeds and fruits, climbing, and even tripedal locomotion by using the beak as a third limb for propulsion in trees. In dense forest habitats, parrots exhibit flocking behaviors, typically in small groups of 1-4 individuals correlating inversely with body size, enhancing foraging efficiency and predator detection during dawn and post-midday activity peaks. Dietary generalism allows exploitation of over 100 plant species across growth forms, including trees, shrubs, vines, and cacti, supporting survival in seasonally variable dry forests. Behavioral plasticity, such as geophagy at clay licks in Amazonian habitats, aids detoxification of dietary alkaloids from unripe fruits and seeds, a critical adaptation for frugivorous species in toxin-rich tropical ecosystems. In montane and alpine zones, species like the kea demonstrate resilience to cold through behavioral innovations, though genomic studies suggest historical colonization rather than specialized physiological cold adaptations in some cases.^[72]^[73]^[67]^[68]^[74] These adaptations underscore parrots' role as ecosystem multilinkers, influencing plant regeneration via seed dispersal and predation while enabling occupancy of heterogeneous landscapes from lowland tropics to high-altitude scrub. Urban and grassland expansions by invasive species further highlight opportunistic behavioral flexibility, allowing exploitation of human-modified environments through generalist foraging.^[68]^[75]

Population Estimates and Trends

Nearly 30% of the approximately 400 parrot species (Psittaciformes) are classified as threatened with extinction under IUCN Red List criteria, reflecting widespread population declines driven primarily by habitat destruction from deforestation and agricultural expansion, compounded by illegal capture for the international pet trade.^[76] ^[77] Global abundance estimates for individual species vary widely, with common species like the budgerigar potentially numbering in the millions in Australia, while many Neotropical and African taxa have populations below 10,000 mature individuals; precise totals remain elusive due to the challenges of surveying dense tropical forests and elusive behaviors.^[78] ^[79] Trends indicate ongoing declines for most native populations, with over half of all bird species globally decreasing, parrots disproportionately affected in biodiversity hotspots like the Amazon and Southeast Asia where logging and mining accelerate habitat loss.^[80] For example, the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) has experienced 50–79% population reductions over recent decades due to poaching and habitat degradation, leading to its Endangered status.^[81] ^[79] Similarly, many Amazonian macaws and parakeets have seen uplistings to Vulnerable or higher in recent assessments, with predation by invasives and bauxite mining exacerbating threats in regions like the Guianas.^[77] In contrast, certain non-native populations are expanding rapidly as invasives, such as rose-ringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri) in Europe and North America, where numbers have grown from introductions in the 20th century to millions, outcompeting local cavity-nesters and altering urban ecosystems without facing native pressures.^[82] Conservation efforts, including CITES Appendix I listings for over 100 species since the 1980s, have slowed some declines but failed to reverse trends for heavily traded taxa, as enforcement remains weak in source countries amid poverty and demand from affluent markets.^[83] ^[84] Recent 2023–2024 IUCN updates show several taxa, including cockatoos, shifting to declining trends, underscoring the need for habitat protection integrated with anti-poaching measures.^[85]

Behavior and Ecology

Diet and Foraging Strategies

Parrots in the order Psittaciformes exhibit diverse diets centered on plant materials, including seeds, nuts, fruits, buds, flowers, nectar, and bark, with many species classified as granivores or frugivores.^[86] ^[87] Some incorporate animal matter such as insects and small invertebrates, rendering them omnivorous, particularly certain cockatoos.^[88] Species like lories and lorikeets specialize in nectar and pollen, aided by brush-tipped tongues for efficient extraction from flowers.^[89] ^[90] Foraging strategies leverage parrots' zygodactyl feet for manipulation and powerful, hooked bills for cracking hard-shelled foods like nuts and seeds.^[91] Birds often climb or hang upside down to access resources, with some ground-foraging species like ground parrots targeting seeds in soil. Optimal foraging principles guide selection of abundant, high-nutrient items; for instance, military macaws (Ara militaris) concentrate on nutrient-rich seeds of Hymenaea polyandra during dry seasons to maximize efficiency.^[92] Wild parrots spend extensive time searching, procuring, and processing food, promoting dietary variety that supports health.^[93] ^[94] Geophagy, the consumption of clay at mineral licks, is a notable strategy among many Neotropical parrot species, particularly in Amazonian regions like Peru's Tambopata National Reserve.^[95] This behavior peaks when plant-based foods are scarce or toxin-laden, with clay hypothesized to bind alkaloids from unripe fruits and seeds, neutralizing poisons via adsorption and providing a stomach lining for protection.^[96] ^[97] Alternative explanations include mineral supplementation, especially sodium, from clay rich in such elements.^[98] Aggregations at licks facilitate mixed-species interactions but expose birds to predation risks.^[99]

Reproduction and Parental Care

Parrots in the family Psittacidae typically form socially monogamous pairs that maintain long-term bonds, often for life, which supports coordinated biparental care essential for offspring survival given the altricial nature of chicks.^[100] Courtship involves mutual allopreening, aerial displays, and food-sharing, with pairs defending nesting territories vigorously. Breeding seasons vary by species, latitude, and environmental cues like rainfall, which triggers food availability; in tropical regions such as southeastern Peru, nesting spans June to April, with smaller species starting earlier than larger ones.^[101] In equatorial Africa, gray parrots (Psittacus erithacus) lay eggs primarily from late April to late May.^[102] Pairs select nest sites in natural cavities such as tree hollows, cliffs, or arboreal termite mounds, though species like the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) build communal stick nests that persist across seasons.^[103] Females lay clutches of 1 to 9 eggs, most commonly 2 to 5, which are glossy white and elliptical; for example, yellow-crowned parrots (Amazona ochrocephala) produce 2 to 4 eggs per season, while ring-necked parakeets (Psittacula krameri) average 3 to 4 from clutches of 2 to 6.^[104] ^[105] ^[106] Eggs are laid every 1 to 3 days, with incubation commencing after the clutch is complete or partially, lasting 18 to 31 days and handled almost exclusively by the female, who leaves the nest briefly for defecation while the male provisions her.^[104] ^[106] Hatchlings emerge blind, naked, and helpless, with asynchronous hatching in many species producing size hierarchies that can influence sibling competition.^[106] Both parents feed chicks via crop milk regurgitation—a nutrient-rich secretion—initially every few hours, transitioning to solid foods like fruits and seeds as nestlings develop feathers and motor skills over 3 to 6 weeks.^[107] Fledging periods scale with body size, ranging from 4 to 6 weeks in small parakeets to 10 to 12 weeks in large macaws; in the red-tailed parrot (Amazona brasiliensis), chicks achieve first flight at 55 to 57 days and full independence at 87 to 96 days post-hatching.^[108] Post-fledging care persists for weeks to months, involving foraging tuition and predator avoidance training, with family units often cohesive until the next breeding cycle; this extended investment correlates with high juvenile mortality rates from starvation or predation if pairs separate prematurely.^[107] In some species, such as cooperative breeders like the eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus), older offspring may assist in feeding siblings, enhancing reproductive success.^[100] Parrots in the order Psittaciformes exhibit highly social behaviors, typically forming flocks that provide safety through collective vigilance against predators and facilitate cooperative foraging.^[109] Flock dynamics often involve fission-fusion structures, where groups temporarily disperse into smaller units, such as monogamous pairs, for activities like feeding before reassembling.^[110] Unlike mammalian societies, wild parrot flocks lack rigid dominance hierarchies; interactions prioritize peaceful resource access over aggressive competition.^[111] ^[112] Many parrot species form lifelong monogamous pair bonds, which persist within larger flock contexts and are supported by both social and genetic fidelity in species like the burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus).^[113] ^[114] These pairs engage in parallel activities such as synchronized foraging and preening, reinforcing flock cohesion without strict leadership structures.^[115] Variations exist; for instance, Quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus) demonstrate aggression informed by social knowledge in fission-fusion flocks.^[116] Overall, flock living enhances learning, emotional well-being, and predator avoidance through sentinel behaviors.^[117] ^[118] Communication among parrots relies on a combination of vocalizations and body language to convey needs, emotions, and social signals. Vocal repertoire includes contact calls for maintaining flock proximity, alarm squawks for threats, and chirp-reply patterns to reassure group members. ^[119] Body language encompasses eye pinning (dilating pupils indicating excitement or focus), beak grinding for contentment, raised wings or postures for displays, and tail fanning to signal aggression or courtship.^[120] ^[121] ^[122] These multimodal signals enable precise flock coordination, such as during foraging or evasion, with visual cues complementing acoustics in dense habitats.^[123] In pair bonds, subtle gestures and vocal duets further strengthen monogamous ties.^[124]

Intelligence, Cognition, and Vocalization

Parrots demonstrate cognitive abilities that surpass many avian species, with enlarged forebrain regions such as the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) and medial mesopallium (MM) facilitating complex processing akin to primate association areas.^[125] These structures are densely packed with neurons, exceeding those in some primates relative to body size, which correlates with observed problem-solving and learning capacities.^[4] Parrots also possess expanded pontine nuclei and a specialized "information superhighway" via the medial spiriform nucleus (SpM), two to five times larger than in other birds, enhancing integration between sensory and motor areas.^[126] ^[127] Such neural adaptations underpin behaviors like object permanence recognition and causal reasoning, positioning parrots cognitively above most birds and comparable to apes in select tasks.^[125] Studies on species like the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) reveal performance in cognitive tests rivaling that of human children aged 5 years, including category labeling and same-different discrimination.^[128] Long-term research by Irene Pepperberg with subject Alex demonstrated comprehension of abstract concepts such as "shape," "color," and "material," alongside basic arithmetic like counting up to six items.^[129] ^[130] Vocalization integrates with cognition, as parrots process auditory signals through specialized pathways enabling learned imitation beyond innate calls.^[131]

Mimicry and Vocal Learning

Parrots belong to the minority of animals exhibiting lifelong vocal learning, allowing imitation of environmental sounds including human speech, alarms, and conspecific calls.^[132] This capability stems from convergent evolution with songbirds and humans, involving forebrain nuclei for motor control of the syrinx (vocal organ) and precise tongue modulation.^[131] African grey parrots excel, acquiring vocabularies exceeding 100 words with contextual usage, as evidenced by Alex identifying objects absent from training and requesting novel items by name.^[129] Mimicry serves social functions, such as flock coordination or deception, though wild repertoires vary by species; for instance, some imitate predators to deter threats.^[133] Recent experiments confirm rhythmic synchronization in species like the sulphur-crested cockatoo, linking vocal flexibility to beat perception and entrainment.^[134]

Tool Use and Problem-Solving

Certain parrot species innovate tools and solve novel puzzles, indicating causal understanding and flexibility absent in most birds. Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffinii) manufacture stick tools from wood to extract food from tubes, adapting designs for efficiency in lab settings.^[135] Kea (Nestor notabilis) employ sticks as rakes or levers, succeeding in 40% of trials for inaccessible rewards despite no natural precedent.^[136] Macaws (Ara spp.) demonstrate borderline tool use, such as bending wires to retrieve nuts, with success rates improving via observation.^[137] Experiments reveal comprehension of cause-effect, as parrots abandon ineffective string-pulling upon perceiving alternative access, outperforming non-tool-using birds.^[138] Self-maintenance tools, like using objects for scratching or dipping, occur across genera, though innovation is rarer in captivity without enrichment.^[139] These abilities correlate with enlarged hyperpallia, supporting executive function.^[140]

Mimicry and Vocal Learning

Parrots exhibit vocal production learning, the ability to acquire and modify vocalizations through imitation of heard sounds, a trait shared only with songbirds, hummingbirds, and humans among vertebrates.^[141] This capacity enables many species to mimic environmental noises, conspecific calls, and human speech, with proficiency varying by taxon; African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) demonstrate particularly advanced mimicry, imitating words, phrases, and even improvising by rearranging them in contextually appropriate ways.^[132] ^[133] In a 2022 survey of 103 companion parrots across 15 species, 91% produced mimicked human speech, often combining it with original elements like whistles or altered tones.^[132] Vocal learning in parrots involves the syrinx, a dual-oscillator vocal organ at the trachea-fork, allowing independent sound production from each bronchus, combined with lingual articulation to filter and shape output for precise imitation, including human-like formants.^[142] ^[143] Unlike innate calls, learned vocalizations develop through sensory-motor phases: auditory exposure, memorization, and practice via feedback loops, often during fledging but extending lifelong in open-ended learners like parrots.^[144] Wild parrots use mimicry for social signaling, such as imitating predators to deter threats or flockmates for coordination, while captives frequently replicate household sounds or speech for attention.^[133] Notable empirical evidence comes from Irene Pepperberg's 30-year study of Alex, an African grey parrot trained from 1976 to 2007, who acquired over 100 object labels, identified colors, shapes, and materials, counted to six, distinguished "same" and "different," and grasped zero as absence—skills tested via novel combinations without rote prompting.^[145] ^[146] Alex's performance exceeded simple mimicry, showing combinatorial use (e.g., requesting "wanna go back" unprompted), though debates persist on whether this reflects conceptual understanding or advanced association.^[147] Neural substrates include the anterior forebrain pathway, distinct from songbirds' posterior pathway, supporting flexible, signature-bearing vocalizations; lesions here disrupt learned but spare innate calls in budgerigars.^[148] ^[149] Interspecific variation ties to socio-ecological factors, with flock-living species showing greater learning depth.^[150] While mimicry aids bonding or deception, it rarely conveys propositional meaning absent training, underscoring limits in wild contexts.^[132]

Tool Use and Problem-Solving

Parrots exhibit tool use primarily in captive settings, with rarer but increasing observations in the wild, often involving manipulation of objects to access food or perform self-maintenance. Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana) demonstrate flexible tool selection and sequential use, as shown in 2023 experiments where individuals accessed rewards by first employing a short tool to manipulate a box and then a longer tool to extract food, succeeding in 128 of 150 trials by adapting to task-specific geometries.^[151] These birds also innovate composite tools, combining materials to extend reach or apply leverage in novel foraging scenarios.^[152] Kea parrots (Nestor notabilis) display spontaneous and habitual tool use, including the first documented wild innovation of extractive foraging tools in 2018, where free-living individuals manipulated objects to probe for food—a behavior absent in prior field records but inducible in captivity.^[153] In a 2021 case, a disabled kea with beak damage used pebbles as self-care tools to groom inaccessible feathers, persisting in the behavior without prior training and demonstrating deliberate adaptation to physical limitations.^[154] Phylogenetic analyses estimate that 11–17% of parrot species possess latent tool-using potential, based on shared traits like encephalization and manipulative dexterity.^[139] Problem-solving capacities extend to causal reasoning and puzzle manipulation, as evidenced by string-pulling tasks solved spontaneously by Greater Vasa parrots (Coracopsis vasa), with retention after a seven-year interval.^[155] Multiple parrot species, including kea and New Caledonian crows' avian analogs, flexibly inhibit ineffective actions in contingency-shift experiments, indicating comprehension of cause-effect relations rather than rote learning.^[138] African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) manipulate tools in controlled setups, such as raking objects or solving mechanical puzzles, correlating with their enlarged nidopallial brain regions akin to those in primates.^[156] Such abilities, while not universal across the order, underscore parrots' cognitive flexibility, potentially linked to vocal learning circuits that facilitate innovation.^[157]

Lifespan, Health, and Predation

Parrots exhibit lifespans that vary markedly by species size and environmental conditions, with captive individuals generally outliving wild counterparts due to protection from predation, access to veterinary care, and controlled nutrition. Smaller species, such as budgerigars and cockatiels, typically live 5–18 years and 10–15 years in captivity, respectively, while larger species like African grey parrots reach 40–60+ years and macaws 30–50+ years.^[158] In the wild, these averages are often reduced by approximately half, as seen in Senegal parrots (up to 50 years captive versus ~25 years wild), primarily owing to threats like predation, food scarcity, and untreated injuries or illnesses.^[159] ^[158] Exceptional longevity occurs in captivity; for instance, a blue-and-gold macaw named Charlie reportedly lived to 114 years.^[159] Health challenges differ between wild and captive parrots, influenced by habitat, diet, and human intervention. Captive birds frequently suffer nutritional deficiencies, such as vitamin A shortages causing upper respiratory infections in Amazon parrots fed seed-only diets, alongside obesity from high-fat foods and stress-induced behaviors like feather plucking due to insufficient mental stimulation or space.^[160] ^[159] Infectious diseases like proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), psittacosis (parrot fever), and Pacheco's disease— a fatal herpesvirus hepatitis—also affect captives, often exacerbated by poor hygiene or overcrowding.^[161] ^[162] In the wild, parrots contend with higher parasite burdens, environmental toxins, and trauma from territorial fights, though bacterial and fungal infections may be less prevalent than in confined settings.^[163] Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD), induced by a circovirus, impacts both populations with prevalences of 7–10% in sampled groups, leading to feather loss, beak deformities, and immunosuppression since its detection in the 1970s.^[164] ^[165] Predation constitutes a primary mortality factor for wild parrots, substantially curtailing lifespans and breeding success compared to captivity. Common predators include diurnal raptors (hawks, eagles), nocturnal owls, arboreal snakes, mammals such as monkeys, wild cats, and invasive species like sugar gliders, as well as opportunistic bats targeting roosts.^[166] Nest-site selection, favoring deep tree cavities or cliffs, serves as a key anti-predator adaptation to deter access, particularly for species like macaws in predator-dense habitats.^[167] Documented impacts are severe; for example, in Tasmanian swift parrots, invasive sugar gliders killed 50.9% of incubating females in studied nests, driving population declines.^[168] Similarly, predation by rats, mongooses, and cats limits productivity in endangered Puerto Rican parrots, where even minimal losses threaten viability, underscoring predation's role alongside habitat loss in wild population dynamics.^[169] ^[170]

Human-Parrot Interactions

As Companion Animals

Numerous parrot species are maintained as companion animals due to their cognitive abilities, vocal mimicry, and capacity for social bonding with humans. Popular choices include budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), green-cheeked conures (Pyrrhura molinae), lovebirds (Agapornis spp.), African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), and macaws (Ara spp.), selected for varying sizes, temperaments, and interaction levels.^[171]^[172] In the United States, birds constitute a significant portion of pet ownership, with approximately 20.6 million pet birds reported in households as of 2017, though parrots specifically rank as the third most popular pet type while exhibiting the highest rehoming rates, estimated at 85% within 1-2 years of acquisition.^[173]^[174] Parrot ownership demands extensive daily interaction, environmental enrichment, and specialized care to prevent behavioral issues such as feather plucking, aggression, or self-mutilation arising from boredom or inadequate stimulation. Larger species like macaws and cockatoos can live 50-80 years, imposing long-term commitments that often exceed owners' initial expectations, contributing to elevated abandonment figures. Veterinary care requires avian specialists, as common health problems include vitamin A deficiencies from seed-heavy diets leading to respiratory infections, obesity, and zoonotic risks like psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci), which can transmit to humans via inhalation of contaminated dust.^[160]^[175] Proper husbandry involves spacious cages (minimum 24x24x36 inches for small species, larger for macaws), varied diets of pellets supplemented with fresh fruits, vegetables, and nuts, daily out-of-cage exercise, and toys for foraging and manipulation to mimic wild behaviors.^[176]^[177] Benefits of parrot companionship encompass mutual cognitive engagement, with owners reporting enhanced empathy and routine structure from the birds' needs, alongside entertainment from vocalizations and problem-solving displays. However, challenges include substantial noise from squawking, which can reach 100-120 decibels, mess from food dispersal and droppings, and potential for strong bites causing injury, particularly during hormonal phases in sexually mature birds. Financial costs average hundreds annually for food, toys, and vet visits, excluding initial purchases ranging from $20 for budgerigars to over $2,000 for rare macaws.^[178]^[179] Ownership of many parrot species is governed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), with Appendix I listings for species like African greys prohibiting commercial trade since 2017, necessitating documentation such as DNA certificates or breeder records for legal possession of pre-ban birds. Captive-bred individuals from reputable sources are recommended over wild-caught to mitigate depletion of natural populations and reduce mortality rates, historically exceeding 90% for imported small parrots prior to stricter regulations.^[180]^[181]^[182]

Benefits and Challenges of Pet Ownership

Owning parrots as companion animals offers benefits including emotional support and companionship, with owners reporting love and reduced depression from interactions.^[181] Time spent with pet birds fosters reciprocal bonds that build trust and transmit positive health attachments to humans.^[183] Parrots' intelligence enables problem-solving and trick-learning, enhancing owner-pet bonding.^[184] Their vocal mimicry and song provide entertainment, making them suitable for space-limited households or those with allergies to furred pets.^[185]^[185] Challenges include the extended lifespan of many species, ranging from 20 to over 100 years in captivity, necessitating decades-long commitment and outliving multiple owners in some cases.^[185]^[186] Common behavioral issues encompass excessive vocalizations (screaming), aggression such as biting, feather plucking, and destructive tendencies, often stemming from boredom, inadequate socialization, or stress.^[187]^[188] These problems contribute to high relinquishment rates, as untreated behaviors like screaming and aggression intensify over time.^[189] Parrots demand specialized care, including enriched environments, balanced diets, and avian veterinary attention, while posing zoonotic risks from germs that can sicken humans.^[175] Noise, messiness, and potential territoriality further complicate suitability for all households.^[190] Welfare concerns arise from mismatched owner expectations, with parrots' complex social needs often unmet in captivity.^[181]

Wildlife and Pet Trade

Parrots face significant pressures from the global pet trade, which drives poaching in their native habitats across tropical regions, particularly in the Neotropics, Africa, and Australasia. Of approximately 400 parrot species, over 100 are threatened with extinction, with illegal capture for the pet market cited as a primary driver alongside habitat loss.^[191] In countries like Peru and Ecuador, thousands of parrots are poached annually from wild nests and flocks, funneled through urban markets despite legal prohibitions.^[192] This extraction disrupts breeding populations and increases mortality during capture and transport, where survival rates can drop below 20% due to stress, injury, and poor handling.^[193] Legal international trade in parrots is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which lists most psittaciform species in Appendices I or II. From 1975 to 2016, CITES documented the import of 16,738,512 live parrots across 321 species, averaging roughly 400,000 individuals per year, predominantly for the pet industry.^[194] Appendix I species, such as the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), face a commercial trade ban enacted in 2017 following evidence of unsustainable wild harvests exceeding 1 million birds over prior decades; however, Appendix II species continue to be traded under quotas with export permits verifying sustainable sourcing or captive origins.^[195] Captive breeding has emerged as a key legal supply mechanism, with CITES permitting trade in specimens coded as "C" (captive-bred) from registered facilities, reducing reliance on wild stocks for popular species like budgerigars and cockatiels.^[196] Yet, illegal trade circumvents these controls, with poachers targeting high-demand species in source countries like Indonesia and Mexico, where domestic markets absorb smuggled birds before potential export.^[197] Enforcement gaps, including corruption and limited resources, sustain this shadow economy, estimated to involve millions of parrots annually beyond reported figures, exacerbating declines in vulnerable taxa.^[198] The pet trade's economic incentives amplify poaching, as wild-caught parrots fetch premium prices—up to thousands of dollars per individual for rare macaws—fueling organized networks that prioritize visually striking species.^[199] In contrast, captive-bred alternatives lower costs but struggle to meet demand in regions with weak regulatory oversight, perpetuating wild harvesting. Conservation efforts, including DNA databases for provenance tracking and stricter border controls, aim to differentiate legal from illicit specimens, though persistent demand underscores the need for reduced consumer incentives in pet markets.^[200]

Legal Trade, Captive Breeding, and Economic Impacts

The international trade in parrots is primarily regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which lists most parrot species in Appendices I or II to ensure that commercial trade does not threaten their survival in the wild.^[201] Appendix I species, such as the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), prohibit commercial trade, while Appendix II species, including many macaws and Amazon parrots, allow export with permits and quotas set by range countries to maintain sustainable offtake levels.^[201] From 1975 to 2017, over 16 million live CITES-listed parrots from 321 species were recorded in international trade, with shifts toward increased captive-bred specimens in later decades reducing reliance on wild-sourced birds.^[194] Export quotas, established by countries like Cameroon for species such as grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), allocate specific numbers to licensed traders to prevent overexploitation, though enforcement varies and quotas are periodically reviewed based on population data.^[202] Captive breeding has expanded as a legal supply mechanism, with commercial operations in countries like South Africa and the United States producing hundreds of thousands of parrots annually for the pet market, intended to alleviate pressure on wild populations.^[203] Success rates in breeding programs differ by species; for instance, conservation-oriented efforts for the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) achieved hatching rates around 36-44% in initial clutches, but first-year post-release survival for captive-reared birds hovered at 41% due to challenges in reacquiring wild behaviors.^[204] ^[205] Commercial breeding often prioritizes high-demand species like cockatoos and conures, yet it faces criticism for potentially stimulating overall demand rather than curbing wild harvests, as bred birds may not fully substitute for the appeal of wild-caught specimens in consumer markets.^[206] Economically, the legal parrot trade contributes to global exotic pet markets valued at approximately USD 1.65 billion in 2024, with parrots forming a significant portion due to their popularity as companions, generating revenue through breeding facilities, exports, and associated veterinary and feed industries.^[207] In exporting nations, quota-based systems provide income for licensed operators and support rural economies; for example, trade in African grey parrots has historically yielded millions in export fees, though declining wild populations have prompted quota reductions.^[208] However, even legal trade can indirectly impact wild stocks if quotas exceed sustainable yields, as observed in southern African species like the Roseringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri), where regulated exports correlate with population declines and heightened poaching incentives.^[209] Overall, while the trade fosters jobs in aviculture—estimated in the tens of thousands globally—it underscores tensions between short-term economic gains and long-term biodiversity costs, with studies indicating persistent threats to vulnerable species despite regulatory frameworks.^[194]^[210]

Illegal Trade and Enforcement Issues

The illegal trade in parrots persists despite international regulations under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which lists over 180 parrot species in its appendices prohibiting or restricting commercial trade to protect declining populations. Estimates indicate that hundreds of thousands of parrots are poached annually from the wild for the black market, with neotropical species like macaws and Amazon parrots comprising a significant portion; for instance, in the 1980s, smuggling from Mexico alone involved 50,000 to 150,000 individuals yearly before stricter controls.^[197] Recent data from 2020 onward highlight ongoing volumes, including over 260 detections of African grey parrots in online illegal sales monitored across platforms, underscoring the trade's adaptability to digital channels.^[211] Poaching typically targets nestlings for higher survival in transport and market value, involving techniques such as tree felling or glue traps that cause high incidental mortality and habitat disruption.^[198] Smuggling routes span porous borders in source regions like South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia, with birds concealed in luggage, vehicle compartments, or shipments; a 2024 case in Puerto Rico involved four men indicted for attempting to import hundreds of exotic birds from the Dominican Republic.^[212] Mortality rates during transit exceed 50% in some documented routes, as evidenced by a 2025 incident where 113 smuggled parrots drowned after handlers discarded them to evade detection.^[213] Consumer demand in markets like the United States and Europe fuels this, often laundered as captive-bred stock despite documentation fraud.^[214] Enforcement faces systemic hurdles, including inadequate monitoring in source countries, corruption among officials, and resource shortages for inspections; a global expert survey identified poor oversight as the primary barrier to curbing bird trade illegality.^[215] CITES implementation varies, with consumer nations like the EU imposing import bans since 2007 that reduced reported legal inflows but shifted volumes underground, while online platforms complicate traceability due to anonymous transactions and jurisdictional gaps.^[216]^[217] Domestic markets exacerbate issues, as seen in Indonesia and the Philippines where wild-caught parrots evade export bans through internal sales, prompting calls for enhanced local patrols and breeding verification.^[218] Coordinated operations yield seizures, such as a 2025 U.S. border bust of Amazon parrots, but prosecutions remain infrequent relative to trade scale, with experts noting that half of smuggled birds perish en route, underscoring enforcement's reactive nature.^[219]^[220]

Cultural and Symbolic Roles

In Hindu mythology, parrots function as the vahana, or mount, of Kamadeva, the god of love and desire, with their vivid green plumage and red beaks evoking symbols of fertility and romantic affection.^[221]^[222] This association stems from the bird's mimicry abilities, interpreted as echoing human speech in matters of the heart, a motif reinforced in Indian folklore where parrots imitate lovers' words to convey longing.^[223] Among Mesoamerican and Andean cultures, parrots, particularly macaws, held sacred status as intermediaries between humans and deities, their bright feathers used in rituals to invoke healing and solar power; the Pueblo peoples viewed macaws specifically as embodiments of the sun, linking their colors to celestial renewal and vitality.^[224] In Chinese tradition, parrots symbolized moral virtue and eloquence in Tang-era texts, appearing in poetry as emblems of wise counsel due to their vocal imitation, though often contrasted with themes of transience in folktales.^[225]^[226] European symbolism from antiquity emphasized parrots' exotic rarity, positioning them as status markers after imports via trade routes like those established by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE; by the Renaissance, they denoted fidelity—owing to many species' monogamous pairing—and the soul's immortality in Christian iconography, frequently paired with the Virgin Mary to signify purity and divine speech.^[227]^[228] In Dutch Golden Age paintings from the 17th century, parrots disrupted static compositions with their lively presence, symbolizing untamed exoticism amid domestic scenes rather than mere decoration.^[229] Across broader folklore, parrots' speech mimicry universally evoked themes of prophecy and mediation, as in ancient views of them as messengers to gods, a role amplified by their scarcity in non-tropical regions until colonial expansions.^[230] In modern media and literature, this persists as comedic tropes of verbosity, from Iago in Shakespeare's Othello (1603) representing deceitful echo to sidekicks in films like Disney's Aladdin (1992), underscoring human fascination with their cognitive mimicry over deeper mysticism.^[231]

In Mythology, Religion, and Folklore

In Hinduism, parrots serve as the vahana (vehicle) of Kamadeva, the deity of erotic love, desire, and fertility, with their vibrant green and red plumage evoking themes of romance and sensuality.^[232]^[233] This association underscores the bird's mimicry abilities, interpreted as a metaphor for echoing human emotions and words, positioning parrots as sacred messengers and storytellers in ancient Indian texts dating back millennia.^[232] In Buddhist narratives, parrots appear as symbolic messengers, such as in tales where they convey royal decrees or illustrate concepts like presumed causality, while Kamadeva's counterpart, Mara—the tempter opposing enlightenment—retains the parrot's link to worldly attachments.^[234] Among Native American peoples, particularly the Hopi, Zuni, and Pueblo tribes, parrots and macaws functioned as directional guardians aligned with the south, embodying fertility, summertime renewal, and prestige through pre-Columbian trade networks extending to Mexico's Gulf Coast by at least 1000–1450 CE.^[235] Archaeological evidence, including scarlet macaw remains and feathers in ritual contexts like kiva murals and deliberate burials, indicates their integration into religious ceremonies for spiritual communication and status signaling, with live birds kept and possibly bred in the American Southwest.^[236] In Christian religious art from medieval Europe, parrots symbolized theological virtues—white cockatoos for faith, green for hope, and red for charity—often depicted alongside the Virgin Mary due to linguistic ties between "parrot" and "Ave Maria," representing piety and divine eloquence.^[228] Greco-Roman mosaics from the Hellenistic period onward portrayed parrots in Dionysian scenes as emblems of earthly bliss, luxury, and prophetic visions, reflecting their exotic import from India and association with revelry and abundance.^[237] African folklore, such as Tanzanian Tinga Tinga tales, casts parrots as guardians of secrets and communal wisdom, with their speech mimicry highlighting themes of discretion and social harmony in oral traditions.^[238] These representations across cultures emphasize parrots' empirical traits—vivid coloration, vocal imitation, and rarity—as causal drivers for symbolic roles in conveying messages between realms, rather than arbitrary attributions.

Representations in Art, Literature, and Media

Parrots have appeared in visual art since antiquity, often symbolizing exotic wealth and global trade connections established through early explorations and conquests. In ancient Roman mosaics and frescoes from Pompeii, dated to the 1st century CE, parrots are depicted as prized imports from India and Africa, reflecting their status as luxury items transported via maritime routes.^[239] By the Renaissance, artists like Albrecht Dürer incorporated parrots into works such as his 1504 engraving Adam and Eve, where the bird represents temptation or the parrot's reputed ability to mimic human speech, drawing from biblical and natural history motifs.^[240] In Northern European art, particularly Dutch Golden Age paintings from the 17th century, parrots signified affluence and conspicuous consumption, frequently placed in domestic still lifes or alongside women to evoke the era's burgeoning spice trade with Asia and the Americas.^[229] ^[228] Religious iconography also featured parrots, as in 15th-century Italian panels associating them with the Virgin Mary due to their perceived chaste nature and vibrant plumage, interpreted as a "miracle of nature" in medieval bestiaries.^[241] Later, 18th- and 19th-century portraits depicted pet parrots as fashionable accessories among the British elite, such as in depictions of Colonel O'Kelly's renowned bird, underscoring their role in illustrating social status amid expanding colonial pet trade.^[242] In literature, parrots often embody themes of mimicry, exoticism, and human folly. Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes referenced parrot-like birds in The Birds (414 BCE), but European literary mentions surged with accounts of New World discoveries; Christopher Columbus described Caribbean parrots in his 1493 letters, likening their colors to jewels and noting their speech imitation as evidence of divine wonder.^[243] In 19th-century fiction, Gustave Flaubert's A Simple Heart (1877) centers on Loulou, a stuffed parrot venerated by a servant as the Holy Ghost, satirizing religious delusion and the sentimental attachment to pets.^[244] Chinese classical texts, such as Tang dynasty poetry, portray parrots as eloquent messengers or courtiers, like the "Prime Minister Parrot" in folklore, symbolizing wit and imperial favor.^[225] Modern literature continues this tradition, with parrots representing environmental loss or companionship; Ted Chiang's 2016 speculative essay "The Great Silence" uses a Puerto Rican parrot narrator to critique human-centric SETI searches, highlighting avian intelligence amid habitat destruction.^[245] In film and television, parrots frequently serve as comic sidekicks or symbols of adventure, amplifying their mimicry for humor or plot. Disney's Aladdin (1992) features Iago, a scarlet macaw voiced as a scheming antagonist, drawing on pirate tropes while exaggerating vocal talents for slapstick.^[246] Animated features like Rio (2011) anthropomorphize blue macaws as protagonists in tales of conservation and romance, reflecting real threats to species like Ara macao but prioritizing entertainment over ecological accuracy.^[247] Documentaries such as The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill (2003) portray feral cherry-headed conures in San Francisco realistically, emphasizing their social bonds and urban adaptation based on direct observation.^[248] These depictions, while popularizing parrots, often idealize their trainability, diverging from empirical evidence of their complex, non-domesticated behaviors.^[249]

Feral and Introduced Populations

Feral parrot populations primarily originate from escaped or deliberately released pet birds, which have established self-sustaining breeding groups outside their native ranges, often in urban and suburban environments with mild climates. At least 60 of approximately 380 parrot species worldwide now maintain breeding populations in non-native countries, facilitated by the global pet trade.^[82] In the United States, introductions began in the mid-20th century, with notable establishments in the 1950s and 1960s; for instance, monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus), imported in tens of thousands from South America, formed breeding populations by 1968 across at least 10 states, including New York, Connecticut, Illinois, Florida, Texas, Louisiana, and Oregon.^[250]^[251] Today, feral parrots are naturalized in 23 U.S. states, with monk parakeets, red-crowned Amazons (Amazona viridigenalis), and nanday parakeets (Aratinga nenday) comprising over 60% of sightings; Los Angeles County alone hosts around 15 species, such as lilac-crowned and red-crowned Amazons.^[252]^[253] In Europe, the rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri), native to Africa and South Asia, exemplifies successful introductions, with populations emerging in the mid-to-late 20th century following escapes and releases. A 2015 continent-wide survey recorded 85,220 individuals across 10 countries, supported by at least 90 breeding populations; between 1984 and 2007, over 146,000 were legally imported before an EU ban on wild bird trade.^[254]^[255] Concentrations occur in suburban London and southeast England, with rapid growth noted in recent censuses, such as from 1,200 to 6,300 individuals in select areas between earlier counts and 2022.^[256] Smaller feral groups of other species, including monk parakeets, persist but remain less widespread. Ecological effects of these introductions vary, with severe negative impacts rare and typically localized rather than systemic. Introduced parrots may compete with native cavity-nesting birds for resources, damage crops through herbivory, and disrupt electrical infrastructure via nest-building, as seen with monk parakeets' bulky communal nests.^[257] In Europe, rose-ringed parakeets have been linked to agricultural losses and biodiversity threats, earning designation as one of the top 100 worst alien species, though evidence for broad native displacement remains limited.^[258] Positive interactions include seed dispersal of native plants and occasional provision of nest sites for other species, with nine bird species observed using abandoned monk parakeet nests in some U.S. studies.^[259]^[260] Management responses include culling programs in agricultural zones, but many populations are tolerated in urban settings due to low verifiable harm and public affinity for the birds.^[253]

Establishments and Ecological Effects

Feral parrot populations have established in multiple regions through escapes and intentional releases from the pet trade, with over 60 parrot species now breeding outside their native ranges globally.^[82] In North America, the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), native to South America, first established viable populations in the United States during the 1960s in Florida following pet releases, expanding to at least 13 states by the 2010s with urban flocks numbering in the thousands.^[253] In Europe, the rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri), originating from Asia and Africa, formed self-sustaining colonies in the United Kingdom starting around 1969 from escaped cage birds, growing to an estimated 12,000–47,000 individuals by 2019, primarily in urban parks and suburbs.^[261] These establishments often occur in human-modified landscapes where parrots exploit artificial food sources, nesting sites on structures, and milder climates, facilitating rapid population growth via high reproductive rates—monk parakeets, for instance, can produce 5–12 eggs per clutch annually.^[262] Ecologically, introduced parrots exhibit mixed effects, with competition for nesting cavities and food resources documented but often limited to urban zones where native species diversity is already low. Monk parakeets in the US act as ecosystem engineers by constructing large, communal stick nests that alter habitat structure, potentially influencing arthropod communities and providing shelter for other species, though they displace some native birds like house wrens via aggressive nest takeover.^[260] Rose-ringed parakeets in Europe compete with cavity-nesting natives such as nuthatches and woodpeckers for tree holes, leading to local displacement in areas like Seville, Spain, where they also evict vulnerable bat species from roosts; however, broader biodiversity surveys in the UK report no widespread declines in native bird populations after over 50 years of establishment, suggesting niche separation through dietary specialization on exotic fruits.^[263] ^[261] Some studies indicate neutral or beneficial roles, such as seed dispersal of native plants via parrot digestion, though invasive parrots more frequently exacerbate agricultural losses by raiding orchards—estimated at significant but variable costs in southern Europe.^[259] Overall, while potential for severe impacts exists, empirical evidence shows effects are context-dependent, with urban adaptation reducing overlap with rural native ecosystems.^[264] Introduced parrots can indirectly affect ecosystems through infrastructure interactions, as monk parakeet nests on utility poles have caused over 198 power outages in one US study spanning five years, prompting localized culling without resolving establishment.^[253] In Australia, where most parrots are native, sporadic feral groups of non-indigenous species like peach-faced lovebirds (Agapornis roseicollis) have appeared but failed to establish broadly, exerting negligible ecological pressure compared to mammalian invasives.^[265] Monitoring indicates that propagule pressure from ongoing pet escapes—over 1,200 parrots reported lost in one European dataset—sustains invasion risk, but climate mismatches and predation limit many attempts.^[266] Causal assessments emphasize that while parrots alter local dynamics, systemic threats like habitat loss overshadow their contributions to biodiversity decline in most invaded areas.^[259]

Conservation Status and Threats

Approximately 398 extant parrot species are recognized, of which 111 (28%) are classified as threatened (Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered) under IUCN Red List criteria, reflecting high extinction risk driven primarily by human activities.^[267] One-third of species fall into threatened categories as of 2024 assessments by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Wild Parrot Specialist Group.^[268] Parrots exhibit disproportionate vulnerability among bird orders, with 27% threatened compared to the avian average of 13%, attributable to factors like large body size, slow reproductive rates, and specialized habitat needs that amplify susceptibility to perturbations.^[269] Habitat loss from deforestation, logging, and agricultural conversion constitutes the predominant threat, impacting over 55% of assessed populations in regions like the Neotropics and Australasia, where primary forest clearance disrupts nesting and foraging sites essential for cavity-nesting species.^[270] Illegal capture for the international pet trade exacerbates declines, with poaching targeting colorful, long-lived macaws and amazons, leading to nest raids and population crashes; for instance, species like the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) have been depleted by millions removed from the wild since the 1980s despite CITES Appendix I protections.^[271]^[272] Hunting for food or feathers, invasive predators, and emerging pressures like climate-induced droughts further compound risks, particularly for island endemics such as the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus), classified as Critically Endangered with fewer than 250 individuals remaining due to predation and habitat alteration.^[273] Notable examples include the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), Vulnerable due to palm habitat destruction for cattle ranching in Brazil; the scarlet macaw (Ara macao), Endangered from trade and deforestation across Central America; and the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), Critically Endangered from habitat loss and poaching on Luzon.^[274]^[77] Conservation efforts, including protected areas and breeding programs, have stabilized some populations, such as the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata), but ongoing enforcement gaps in trade regulation and land-use policies limit broader success.^[77]

Anthropogenic vs. Natural Threats

Anthropogenic threats pose the predominant risk to parrot populations, vastly outweighing natural factors in driving species declines and extinctions. Habitat destruction through deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization has affected 139 parrot species, reducing nesting sites and food availability for cavity-nesting species that depend on mature forests.^[275] Illegal capture for the pet trade impacts 201 species, with overexploitation removing breeding adults and juveniles from wild populations, particularly in the Neotropics where high extraction rates threaten biodiversity.^[275]^[276] Hunting for food or feathers, invasive species introduced by human activity, and pollution further compound these pressures, with nearly one-third of the 410 parrot species classified as threatened by the IUCN due to such cumulative human-induced factors.^[277]^[268] In contrast, natural threats such as predation by native raptors, mammals, or snakes, diseases, and stochastic events like storms have historically been balanced by parrot reproductive strategies, including large clutch sizes and colonial nesting in some species. Predation rates on nests remain a factor but do not independently cause widespread declines without habitat fragmentation increasing vulnerability.^[83] Epizootics and competition from native species occur endemically, yet parrot populations coevolved with these pressures; human-facilitated disease transmission via trade and reduced genetic diversity from small populations amplify their impact beyond natural baselines.^[268] Overall, empirical assessments indicate that while natural threats persist, anthropogenic alterations to ecosystems—evidenced by global trends in forest loss correlating with parrot range contractions—represent the causal primary drivers of conservation crises.^[7]^[278]

Major Species at Risk

The Spix's macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), native to Brazil's Caatinga biome, was declared extinct in the wild by the IUCN in 2019 following the death of the last known individual in 2000, with primary causes including habitat fragmentation from agriculture and intense poaching for the pet trade.^[279] Captive breeding programs have produced over 200 individuals by 2025, enabling initial reintroductions; in January 2025, a group arrived in Brazil for acclimation in protected aviaries, marking a milestone in restoration efforts despite ongoing disease risks like circovirus.^[280] ^[281] The kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus), a flightless, nocturnal parrot endemic to New Zealand, persists at critically low numbers with a total population of 237 individuals as of 2025, all subject to intensive management on predator-free islands due to historic declines from introduced mammals like rats and stoats following Polynesian and European colonization.^[282] Low reproductive rates, exacerbated by biennial mast fruiting cycles that fail to align with predator control, have necessitated genetic supplementation and parasite management, yet the species remains vulnerable to stochastic events and inbreeding.^[283] The Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), once widespread across the Philippines' mangroves and forests, is critically endangered with an estimated 430–750 mature individuals confined mostly to Palawan island, driven by rampant illegal trapping for domestic and international pet markets alongside deforestation for logging and conversion to agriculture.^[284] ^[285] Community patrols and habitat protection have stabilized local subpopulations, but enforcement gaps and poaching persistence—facilitated by high black-market demand—threaten further collapse, with an 80% range reduction documented over the past four decades.^[286] Other critically endangered parrots include the glaucous macaw (Anodorhynchus glaucus), last reliably sighted in the 1990s across South American riverine forests and possibly extinct due to habitat loss and trade, though unconfirmed reports persist; the Philippine eagle's prey base indirectly affects it via overlapping deforestation pressures. The yellow-eared parrot (Ognorhynchus icterotis) of Colombia's highland forests numbers fewer than 1,000 individuals, imperiled by wax palm harvesting for religious traditions and agricultural expansion, with captive releases aiding recovery but limited by ongoing guerrilla conflicts disrupting monitoring. These cases underscore pet trade and land-use change as dominant anthropogenic drivers, outpacing natural factors like predation in unmodified habitats.^[287]

Strategies, Policies, and Debates

International policies for parrot conservation primarily revolve around the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which lists most parrot species in Appendix I, prohibiting commercial trade in wild specimens, or Appendix II, allowing regulated trade with export quotas to prevent overexploitation.^[288] ^[289] CITES implementation varies by country; for instance, the United States enforces restrictions via the Wild Bird Conservation Act of 1992, which bans imports of most wild-caught parrots except under specific non-commercial permits, while Canada aligns imports with CITES requirements.^[290] National laws in range states, such as Peru's former allowances for limited exports until recent restrictions, highlight disparities where only Guyana and Suriname currently permit capture and trade of native parrots domestically.^[215] Conservation strategies emphasize habitat protection through expanded protected areas, though analyses indicate these cover only about 10% of parrot geographic ranges, insufficient without complementary measures like anti-poaching patrols and community-based monitoring.^[6] Captive breeding programs are promoted as alternatives to wild harvesting, with CITES viewing them as advantageous for reducing pressure on populations, yet empirical reviews question their scalability and risk of laundering illegally captured birds as "captive-bred."^[203] ^[291] Reintroduction efforts and sustainable harvest plans, such as those for African grey parrots under CITES management guidelines, incorporate population assessments and quotas to balance utilization with recovery.^[202] Debates center on trade bans versus regulated sustainable use, with critics arguing that Appendix I listings and import prohibitions inadvertently fuel illegal markets by eliminating legal outlets, potentially increasing poaching incentives without curbing demand.^[292] ^[293] Proponents of bans, including some conservation NGOs, contend that unregulated harvest lacks reliable data for sustainability, citing persistent declines in traded species despite quotas.^[194] On captive breeding, contention arises over its role in conservation; while it supplies pet markets, studies reveal high failure rates in commercial operations and ethical concerns about welfare, leading to calls for stricter verification to prevent wild-sourced substitutions.^[203] ^[294] These discussions underscore the need for evidence-based policies integrating enforcement capacity, as weak implementation in source countries undermines global frameworks.^[295]

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The nests are occupied and gradually added to for years. Nesting Facts. Clutch Size: 5-8 eggs. Egg Length: 1.1 in (2.8 cm).
[104]
Psittaculidae - Old World Parrots - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · Females generally lay 1 to 9 eggs, with incubation generally lasting between 18 and 31 days. As in other parrots, clutch sizes vary with body ...
[105]
Amazona ochrocephala (yellow-crowned parrot) | INFORMATION
The breeding period for yellow-crowned parrots is December through May. In this time, they lay clutch sizes of 2 to 4 eggs, laying only one clutch per season.
[106]
[PDF] Nestling Development of Ring-necked Parakeets (Psittacula krameri ...
Mar 31, 2013 · The clutch size ranges from 2-6, but mostly 3-4 eggs are laid. Only the female incu- bates and incubation lasts 22-24 d. Chicks hatch asynchro-.
[107]
[PDF] Reproductive behavior of the Yellow-crowned parrot (Amazona ...
Jun 1, 2006 · Clutch size ranged from 2 to 4 eggs, which were incubated only by ... The incubation period lasted 25.14 6. 1.77 days. During egg-laying ...
[108]
Reproductive parameters of the red‐tailed parrot (Amazona ...
We observed chicks perform their first flights at an age of 55–57 days. After a total nestling period of 87–96 days, the chicks were fully independent. Chick ...<|separator|>
[109]
Flock Life: Safety in Numbers - Avian Enrichment
Parrots derive security from flocks, feel unsafe alone, and sentinels watch for predators. It's harder for predators to target individuals in a group.<|separator|>
[110]
Flock Structure | Avian Avenue Parrot Forum
Jul 14, 2020 · Flocks disperse in pairs throughout the day searching for food. These bonded pairs mate for life and are monogamous.Missing: organization | Show results with:organization
[111]
[PDF] Understanding Parrot Behavior, Naturally Steve Martin
There is no evidence of social hierarchies in flocks of wild parrots that resemble social hierarchies commonly found in many mammal species. If dominance.
[112]
Why Social Dominance Theory Does Not Apply To Flocks - BirdTricks
May 9, 2014 · Flock dynamics are about who can get what, most peacefully. Wild parrots do not bite each other unless there is absolutely no other option – ...Missing: organization | Show results with:organization
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Genetic monogamy in Burrowing Parrots Cyanoliseus patagonus?
Aug 7, 2025 · Social and genetic monogamy have also been documented in long-lived high-parental-care species of parrots, including the burrowing parrot ( ...
[114]
[PDF] Advancing genetic methods in the study of parrot biology and ...
Nov 1, 2021 · The order of parrots (Psittaciformes) ... [17] found that the Burrowing Parrot is an example of both social and genetic monogamy. This social ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[115]
Avoid the Pair Bond: Social Relationships with Parrots
Apr 10, 2018 · They enjoy parallel activities which serve to cement the integrity of the flock. They all forage at the same time, preen at the same time, nap at the same time.Pair Bonds In The Wild · What Do They Want (need)? · Parrot TrainingMissing: organization | Show results with:organization
[116]
Social Live & Aggression in Quaker Parrots (Monk Parakeets)
Jan 15, 2025 · These birds are capable of strategically directing their aggression based on an understanding of the social hierarchy within their flock.Social Hierarchy And... · Cognitive Skills And Social... · Implications For Parrot Care...
[117]
The Optimal Social Environment For Your Parrot - Lafeber Company
Sep 29, 2013 · The flock provides opportunity for frequent and variant social interaction, learning skills, and just good fun. The emotional and physical ...The Social Climate · Elements of Wild Society · The Flock DynamicMissing: organization | Show results with:organization
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Social Bird Behavior: How Birds Cooperate and Help Each Other
Aug 14, 2025 · Being in a flock gives them safety in numbers, with more eyes to watch out for predators or other dangers. We could say that their degree of ...
[119]
Bird Body Language - The Parrot Club
Mar 4, 2012 · Most birds are highly vocal and many times may be trying to communicate with you. Singing, talking, and whistling: These vocalizations are often ...
[120]
Reading Bird Body Language - Mickaboo
Using their body language and vocalizations they can "tell" us when they are happy, content, frightened, sick, hungry, tired, angry, or ready to be held and ...
[121]
[PDF] Body Language of Birds: Ways Parrots Communicate
Observing your bird's eyes, vocalizations, wings, tail, beak, and overall posture can be very telling. Eyes. Unlike humans, birds are able to control their ...
[122]
How to Decode Your Bird's Body Language | myBird
Beak grinding is a soft, repetitive sound parrots make by rubbing their upper and lower beaks together. This behavior typically occurs as they're settling down ...
[123]
How Parrots Communicate in a Flock - Bird Street Bistro
May 25, 2023 · In addition to vocalizing, parrots also use their bodies and movements to communicate, this is known as Avian Body Language. ABL is a very ...
[124]
A Guide to Understanding Parrot Body Language and Vocalizations
Oct 18, 2024 · In this guide, we'll take an in-depth look at how parrots use body language and vocalizations to express their needs, feelings, and even their thoughts.
[125]
Cognitive ornithology: the evolution of avian intelligence - PMC
In reviewing the evidence for avian intelligence, corvids and parrots appear to be cognitively superior to other birds and in many cases even apes.
[126]
Neuroscientists uncover secret to intelligence in parrots
Jul 3, 2018 · "An area of the brain that plays a major role in primate intelligence is called the pontine nuclei," explained Cristian Gutierrez-Ibanez, ...
[127]
Parrot's unique brain structure explains why they're so smart - CBC
Jul 13, 2018 · The "highway" is called the medial spongiform nucleus or SpM. Researchers found it's two to five times larger in parrots than the other birds ...
[128]
Harvard study shows parrots can pass classic test of intelligence
Feb 25, 2019 · A new study shows that African grey parrots can perform some cognitive tasks at levels beyond those of 5-year-old humans.
[129]
Cognitive and communicative abilities of Grey parrots - ScienceDirect
These studies have demonstrated that Grey parrots can solve various cognitive tasks and acquire and use English speech in ways that often resemble those of ...
[130]
How Irene Pepperberg Revolutionized Our Understanding of Bird ...
Mar 27, 2018 · With help from her African Grey parrot, Pepperberg found that some birds have cognitive abilities on par with primates.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[131]
Study Hints at Why Parrots are Great Vocal Imitators - Duke Today
Jun 24, 2015 · Parrots are one of the few animals considered 'vocal learners,' meaning they can imitate sounds. Researchers have been trying to figure out why ...
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A survey of vocal mimicry in companion parrots | Scientific Reports
Dec 5, 2022 · Parrots are one of the rare animal taxa with life-long vocal learning. Parrot vocal repertoires are difficult to study in the wild, ...
[133]
Why do parrots have the ability to mimic? | Scientific American
Dec 5, 2007 · Parrots are not equally vocal, and many species likely imitate for different reasons. For example, African grey parrots in the wild are known to imitate other ...
[134]
Examining the capability for rhythmic synchronization and music ...
Nov 1, 2023 · Therefore, this study demonstrated that at least one parrot species possesses both the capabilities for vocal learning and rhythmic ...
[135]
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[136]
Clever tool use in parrots and crows - ScienceDaily
Jun 13, 2011 · The most difficult solution for the kea was the use of a stick-like object as a tool. This is not surprising since the kea is not a natural tool ...
[137]
Innovative problem solving in macaws - PMC - PubMed Central
Dec 7, 2020 · A few parrot species are capable of innovating tool-use and borderline tool-use behaviours. We tested this capacity in two species of macaw (Ara ...
[138]
Problem-Solving Parrots Understand Cause and Effect - WIRED
Oct 17, 2013 · Several members of all species adapted their problem-solving strategies by stopping string-pulling behavior and obtaining the food from the ...
[139]
Evidence of self-care tooling and phylogenetic modeling reveal ...
Apr 18, 2025 · Instead, the most commonly observed form of tool use in captive parrots is self-scratching. It could be argued that self-scratching is a more ...
[140]
Tool Use in Parrots - Avian Enrichment
Parrots use tools to scratch their heads, position nuts for cracking, use leaves to prevent slipping, and use cups to dip water.
[141]
Learned Birdsong and the Neurobiology of Human Language - PMC
Here I present a hypothesis on the relationships and evolution of brain pathways for vocal learning among birds and humans. The three vocal learning bird groups ...
[142]
Vocal-Tract Filtering by Lingual Articulation in a Parrot - ScienceDirect
We suggest that lingual articulation may thus in part explain the well-known ability of parrots to mimic human speech, and, even more intriguingly, may also ...
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[PDF] Vocal Learning in Grey Parrots: A Brief Review of Perception ...
This chapter briefly reviews what is known—and what remains to be understood—about Grey parrot vocal learning. I review Greys' physical capacities—issues of ...
[145]
Known as one of the most famous African Grey ... - Alex Foundation
Alex had over 100 vocal labels, could count up to six, had math skills, and was learning to read sounds of letters.
[146]
Alex the African Grey parrot | BrandeisNOW - Brandeis University
Sep 10, 2007 · Her research with Alex shattered the generally held notion that parrots are only capable of mindless vocal mimicry. In 1973, Dr. Pepperberg ...
[147]
Alex the Parrot's final experiment
Mar 19, 2012 · Alex had gained renown for his ability to learn and voice labels for dozens of different objects and concepts. He could categorize objects by ...<|separator|>
[148]
Parrots, songbirds have evolved distinct brain mechanisms
Dec 8, 2023 · The study provides a clue into how parrot – and human – brains allow continuous, flexible vocal learning.
[149]
Parrots, songbirds have evolved distinct brain mechanisms, Klarman ...
Dec 8, 2023 · The experiment showed that parrots need the anterior forebrain pathway to produce learned vocalizations with individual signatures.
[150]
Evolution of vocal production learning in parrots - bioRxiv
Nov 7, 2024 · This study provides the first insights into interspecific variation in vocal learning across all parrot species and reveals potential socio-ecological drivers ...
[151]
Goffin's cockatoos able to use toolset to complete tasks - The Guardian
Feb 10, 2023 · Crucially, while both tools were available, the first tool required depended on the box. The results revealed that in 128 out of 150 attempts in ...
[152]
Innovative composite tool use by Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua ...
Jan 27, 2022 · The innovative strategies underlying the innovation and spread of tool manufacture and associative tool use (using > 1 tools) across tool using ...
[153]
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Sep 17, 2018 · We report here the first documented case of habitual tool use innovated in the wild by a bird species only known to have used tools in captivity.
[154]
Self-care tooling innovation in a disabled kea (Nestor notabilis)
Sep 10, 2021 · Our study provides novel and empirical evidence for deliberate self-care tooling in a bird species where tooling is not a species-specific behaviour.
[155]
String-pulling in the Greater Vasa parrot (Coracopsis vasa)
An individual is found to spontaneously solve the string-pulling problem, and to be able to re-solve it after seven years.
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Vocal learning linked to problem solving skills and brain size - News
Sep 14, 2023 · Statistical analyses revealed a strong correlation between problem solving abilities and vocal learning abilities.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
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Parrot Lifespan: Understanding How Long These Colorful Birds Live
Jun 4, 2025 · Parrots usually live longer in captivity than in the wild because ... 30 to 50 years, or more (up to 70) depending on the species.
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How Long Do Parrots Live? - PetMD
Oct 15, 2024 · Typically, parrots don't live as long—even half of the time—in the wild as in captivity. This shortened lifespan is primarily due to predators, ...
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Common Conditions of Pet Birds | VCA Animal Hospitals
Amazon Parrots · Amazons are commonly afflicted with upper respiratory diseases, many of which result from vitamin A deficiency associated with an all-seed diet.
[161]
Common Diseases in Pet Birds
Feb 1, 2022 · Common Diseases in Pet Birds · Proventricular Dilatation Disease (PDD) · Psittacosis (Parrot Fever) · Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD).
[162]
Common Diseases of Parrots
A common herpes virus causes an acute, rapidly fatal, hepatitis in parrots, and is known as Pacheco's Disease. This is most frequently encountered in recently ...
[163]
Diseases In Captive, Wild, And Trafficked Birds - Faunalytics
Jun 25, 2024 · For example, captive birds were more frequently affected by bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases— some of which are transmissible to humans. In ...
[164]
Beak and feather disease virus in wild and captive parrots
May 5, 2016 · Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) has been detected in both wild and captive parrot populations since the mid-1970s. The disease has ...
[165]
Prevalence, genotypes, and infection risk factors of psittacine beak ...
Apr 5, 2024 · PBFDV was found in 7.17% of samples, BFDV in 0.58%. PBFDV was higher in pet shops, and PBFDV was found in non-parrot species.
[166]
Parrots and Predators - Avian Enrichment
Raptors (hawks, eagles, owls); Snakes; Cats (jaguars, ocelots); Monkeys; Bats. Some predators pose risks only during the day while others are night stalkers ( ...
[167]
[PDF] What Eats Parrots?
Parrot nests also seem to be chosen to reduce the risk of predation. Most species in predator rich environments, especially the macaws I work with, prefer to ...
[168]
Invasive predators, deforestation driving Tasmanian parrot over the ...
May 29, 2015 · The research showed that 50.9 percent of female swift parrots nesting on the main island of Tasmania were killed by sugar gliders while incubating eggs.
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An economic assessment of the potential for predator management ...
Predation has been identified as one of the factors limiting Puerto Rican parrot productivity in the wild, and the loss of a very few birds can have a great ...
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"An economic assessment of the potential for predator management ...
... predator management for protecting Puerto Rican parrots. The median and ... cost-effective if 1.8 parrots/year are saved from predation. Use of median ...Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
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13 Types of Parrots You Can Have As Companions [+ Care Tips]
May 26, 2022 · 1. Amazon Parrot · 2. Caique Parrot · 3. Cockatiel · 4. Cockatoo · 5. Conure Parrot · 6. Eclectus Parrot · 7. Lovebird · 8. Macaw ...Amazon Parrot · Conure Parrot · Eclectus Parrot · Pionus Parrot
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7 Types of Parrot Breeds to Keep as Pets - A-Z Animals
Jul 1, 2024 · 7 Types of Parrot Breeds to Keep as Pets · 1. Cockatiel · 2. African Grey · 3. Cockatoo · 4. Senegal Parrot · 5. Parakeet · 6. Macaws · 7. Love Birds.
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Sad Statistics | Avian Avenue Parrot Forum
Nov 30, 2018 · Parrots are the 3rd most popular pet in the US but the number one most rehomed pet, with 85% of birds being rehomed within 1-2 years of ownership.
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Birds | Healthy Pets, Healthy People | CDC
Apr 15, 2024 · Birds can have a long lifespan and require special care and commitment. Birds require special care and can sometimes carry germs that can make people sick.
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Parrot Care Tips | Parrot Vet | Long Island Avian and Exotic Pet Vet
Dumping food and water daily and washing bowls before replacing food is a key part in preventing mold exposure to your parrot. Putting in smaller amounts of ...
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Management of Pet Birds - Exotic and Laboratory Animals
Birds have a much higher metabolism than mammals, and oxygen deprivation can occur during restraint, treatment, or diagnostic sampling.Budgerigar Skeleton · Nutrition Of Pet Birds · Transitioning A Bird To A...
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The Pros and Cons of Owning Parrots | Feisty Feathers
Mar 14, 2016 · Birds make great pets! They are playful, cuddly and sweet. Unlike dogs, they don't have to be taken for walks or played with.
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The Benefits of Adopting a Parrot as a Pet
Aug 27, 2023 · Adopting a parrot provides companionship, a chance to help a bird, a long-term bond, and is an eco-friendly choice.
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African grey and Timneh grey parrots - CITES Appendix 1
Oct 26, 2018 · What bird ownership evidence can I provide for CITES? · A DNA certificate or micro chipping certificate · Written confirmation from the vet with ...
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The Sustainability of Keeping Birds as Pets: Should Any Be Kept?
Feb 23, 2021 · When small birds were captured in the wild for sale as pets, 90% were dead before reaching an owner and even for high-value birds such as the ...<|separator|>
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Parrots on the CITES List | Choosing a Parrot - Omlet
If the seller does not have these legally-required documents, it is a criminal offence. It is also an offence to purchase such a bird. Some of the commonest ...
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[PDF] Blue And Gold Macaws As Pets
These birds are intelligent problem solvers and enjoy learning new tricks, which also strengthens the bond between owner and pet.
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Selecting a pet bird | American Veterinary Medical Association
Birds can make wonderful companions. Birds are beautiful to look at, and many species have a remarkable ability for song and speech. They can be entertaining ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
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Survival on the ark: life history trends in captive parrots - PMC
In contrast, the Ara clade had the highest mean of median adult lifespan at 14.31 years. Overall, the Cacatua clade included some of the longest-lived ...
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Common Behavior Problems in Parrots and Other Pet Birds
May 12, 2022 · Pet Bird Behavior Problems · Biting · Screaming · Destructive Behavior · Territoriality · Feather Plucking · More from The Spruce Pets. Parrot.
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The Parrot–Owner Relationship and Problem Behaviors in Parrots
Jul 31, 2023 · A PCA of the behavioral problems exhibited by the parrots in the present study showed that these problems can be explained by three components.
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[PDF] Avian Behavior Problems - ASPCApro
Most pet birds are relinquished due to behavior problems. • Screaming. • Aggression. The longer they go untreated, the more difficult they become to treat. Many ...
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Feathers, Fins or Fur | Synergy Magazine / School of Veterinary ...
May 5, 2021 · Colorful, interesting to watch, and interactive, birds can also be a challenge. Some can be trained to talk or whistle. They can also be noisy, ...<|separator|>
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Poaching - Bagelparrot Conservation Alliance
Wild parrot populations are being devastated by poaching, which primarily occurs to fuel the pet trade. Of the 350+ known parrot species, 100 are listed on the ...
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Poaching sources and trade routes in Peru and Ecuador warn of the ...
Apr 12, 2023 · Illegal wildlife trade remains highly active in the Neotropics, as indicated by the thousands of parrots annually sold in illicit city ...
[193]
Tackling the illegal trade and trafficking of birds - BirdLife International
Statistics indicate that illegal wildlife trade globally generates between $7- $23 billion annually. This trade is a vast criminal enterprise. Additionally ...
[194]
Global trade in parrots – Influential factors of trade and implications ...
These six states imported parrots from a large number of states (84 states) and each of the six states imported 118–161 parrot species in the same period.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Status and trade assessment of parrots listed in CITES Appendix I
Dec 10, 2020 · The Norwegian Environment Agency asks VKM for a scientific risk assessment of trade in parrots (Psittaciformes spp.) listed in CITES Appendix I ...
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[PDF] Strengthening CITES processes for reviewing trade in captive-bred ...
Aug 3, 2019 · Introduction. • The live bird trade in CITES is dominated by parrot species, with almost 90% of all live birds traded being.
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[PDF] The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico: A Comprehensive Assessment
the biological, economic and social challenges of the illegal parrot trade. Page 9. 9. Chapter 1 - Introduction. Mexico harbors 22 species of parrots ...
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The hidden dimension of poaching: A novel survey method shows ...
Our country-wide poaching estimates, although raw, dwarf those previously obtained for the illegal domestic and legal international parrot trade, pointing to ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Parrot poachers striking while the market's hot
May 20, 2021 · "Pretty" parrots are more likely to be snatched up for Indonesia's illegal wildlife trade, a new study reveals.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics<|separator|>
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New Parrot DNA Database To Track Illegal Trading
May 21, 2024 · Parrots are, by number, among the most trafficked bird in the illegal wildlife trade, motivating Dr. Olah, from the Fenner School of Environment ...
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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild ...
Trade in specimens of these species must be subject to particularly strict regulation in order not to endanger further their survival and must only be ...Missing: parrots | Show results with:parrots
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[PDF] English SC62 Doc. 27.3 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL ...
MINFOF works with CITES to determine exploitation quotas of parrots for a given period, determines individual quotas to be exploited by legal traders and ...<|separator|>
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A review of commercial captive breeding of parrots as a supply‐side ...
Sep 9, 2024 · The volume and scale of commercial captive breeding of parrots have grown dramatically in recent decades. Although it has been proposed, ...<|separator|>
[204]
Identifying factors affecting captive breeding success in a critically ...
Apr 26, 2023 · The hatching rate of first clutches was lower for females who went on to lay a second clutch (36.5% CI: 29.9–43.6%) compared to females that ...
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SURVIVAL OF CAPTIVE-REARED PUERTO RICAN PARROTS ...
The overall first-year survival estimate for the 34 parrots was 41% (CI 5 22%–61%). Only one parrot died within the first week postrelease, with most (94%) ...
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Jul 3, 2025 · Captive breeding may fuel, not curb, trade in parrots. As researchers unpacked the evidence for whether captive breeding could offset demand on ...
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The global exotic pets market size was estimated at USD 1.65 billion in 2024 and is expected to reach USD 2.49 billion by 2030, registering a CAGR of 7.3% ...
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Feb 4, 2021 · Over 1.2 million wild-sourced African Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) have reportedly been traded internationally since the 1970s, the ...Missing: size | Show results with:size<|separator|>
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Southern African Parrot Species Threatened by Legal Trade
Jun 6, 2024 · Southern African parrot species face significant threats due to legal trade, leading to declining populations and increased poaching.
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Fighting Wildlife Trade | World Parrot Trust
The trade in wild-caught parrots poses a significant threat, leading to population declines and local extinctions.
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[PDF] MONITORING ONLINE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE - CITES
Several enforcement challenges and legal loopholes contribute to the persistence of the illegal ivory trade, particularly through online platforms. As noted ...
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Four men indicted attempting to smuggle exotic birds from Puerto ...
May 13, 2024 · A federal grand jury indicted four men from the Dominican Republic who attempted to smuggle hundreds of exotic birds into the Dominican Republic and were ...
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Victims of the Illegal Pet Trade: 113 Parrots Drowned
Mar 11, 2025 · In the worst cases, such as this one, smugglers resort to desperate measures when they fear detection—resulting in the unnecessary loss of life.
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[PDF] Parrot Smuggling Across the Texas-Mexico Border - Traffic.org
Chicks are easier to smuggle and launder as captive-bred hatchlings and more highly valued than adult birds in the trade. Adult macaws are smuggled across the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Disparities in Law Regulation on Domestic and International Parrot ...
May 12, 2022 · Although there continues to be significant figures of illegal parrot trade at the international level [11,12], these numbers are no longer ...
[216]
Hidden impacts of CITES deletions on global bird trade
Parrots (Psittaciformes), 354, 1, 353. Total, 617, 114, 503. Songbirds were the most commonly traded order, representing 71 % of the total trade volume in CITES ...
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[PDF] ILLEGAL - Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime
Sep 3, 2018 · This report aims to address how the illegal parrot trade is conducted online, and to what extent the use of internet-.
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Wild parrots illegally captured for pets, Indonesia and Philippines ...
May 30, 2024 · Asia · Preventing Extinctions: bringing the world's most threatened birds back from the brink · Tackling the illegal trade and trafficking of ...
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Exotic Bird Smuggler Busted at the Border - Department of Justice
Jun 10, 2025 · The arrest follows the recent prosecution of another individual caught smuggling Amazon parrots through the same port of entry, highlighting a ...
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Parrots as valuable as cocaine - True Story Award
Feb 9, 2023 · Then they are transported along risky smuggling routes through Serbia. According to Europol's estimates, half of the smuggled birds do not ...
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Parrots in Culture - Parrot Fun Zone
The parrot in Hindu mythology is associated with Kama, the god of love. The reason for this could be its green feathers and red beak which associates it with ...
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The Magic of the Macaw - Volunteer Latin America
The Pueblo people saw the macaw as a symbol of the sun. For many of the tribes of Central and South America, they believe the macaw brings healing through color ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Squawking Through History: Parrots in Ancient Chinese Literature
Feb 25, 2023 · In Chinese poetry, folktales, and tradition, birds often symbolized certain qualities: the magpie for happiness, cuckoo for sorrow, crane for ...Missing: art | Show results with:art
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Asiatic Parrots and Parakeets in Chinese Art - Taaye
Parrots in Chinese cultures and their meanings · The second meaning of parrots in Chinese culture was the suggestion of morality. At the beginning of the Tang ...
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Of Parrots, kings and other things! - Melanie V Taylor
May 11, 2022 · Parrots emerged as symbols of status in Europe after Alexander the Great brought them from India. Initially viewed as divine for their ...
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Some Notes on Parrot Symbolism in Poetry and Religious Art
Feb 4, 2021 · Because of their miraculous ability to talk, gorgeous plumage and rarity, parrots were highly valued and used as gifts between kings and ...
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The Vivacious Presence of Parrots in Dutch Golden Age Painting
Nov 17, 2017 · Parrots are not docile, not completely tamed, and their depictions in these paintings cannot be perceived simply as static symbols.
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PARROTS: A Look into Their Presence and Meaning - Talking Objects
Dec 5, 2016 · In mythology, parrots were viewed as messengers or intermediaries to communicate from humanity to the gods. Because the parrot has the unique ...
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Our 2500-Year-Long Fascination with the World's Most Talkative Bird
Exploring their presence and meanings in the art, literature, and history of Western civilization, Parrot Culture also celebrates the beauty, intelligence ...
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The Parrot's Erotic Secret - Devdutt Pattanaik
Jan 19, 2025 · The bird is the symbol of Kama, the god of love, lust and sensuality. The same god who in Buddhist works is called Mara, the enemy of Buddha.
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Parrot: Significance and symbolism
Oct 11, 2025 · In Jainism, "Parrot" symbolizes King's affectionate interactions. He spoke to boys like parrots, reflecting his fondness and caring treatment ...
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Native American Indian Parrot Legends, Meaning and Symbolism ...
The Hopi see the parrot as a directional guardian, associated with the south, and some Pueblo tribes consider parrots a symbol of fertility.<|separator|>
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The Parrot Talks: Complex Pueblo Society Older Than Previously ...
Jun 22, 2015 · The rare birds, which probably came from the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, were a sign of prestige and their feathers used in religious ritual, ...
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[PDF] A MOTIF OF PARROTS IN DIONYSIAN CONTEXTS ON SELECTED ...
Parrots in mosaics represent earthly happiness, eternal bliss, and tryphé, and are linked to Alexander's success and Dionysus, communicating visions of luxuria.
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Monkeys Help Parrot Speak 🗣️ | 1 Hour of African Animal Folk Tales
Feb 15, 2025 · There was a time when Parrot was the best keeper of secrets in the whole of Tinga Tinga. In fact, Parrot couldn't open his beak at all.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Where Did That Cockatoo Come From? - The New Yorker
Jun 28, 2021 · Soon enough, parrots began showing up in European art. There are several representations of the bird in frescoes and mosaics found in the ruins ...
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The colors of parrots: Albrecht Dürer, the nude and the contemporary
May 28, 2023 · The parrot, which is present, with related symbolic meanings, within his engraving of Adam and Eve of 1504, a masterpiece aimed at immortalizing the ...<|separator|>
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Parrot | Kimbell Art Museum
This image of a parrot may symbolize the virginal motherhood of Mary; in antiquity, the parrot was considered a miracle of nature.<|control11|><|separator|>
[242]
The Pet Parrot: As Depicted in 18th and 19th Century Art, Literature ...
Jul 9, 2015 · Parrots were, in fact, quite popular as pets during the 18 th and 19 th centuries. One of the most famous parrots belonged to Colonel O'Kelly.
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Parrots in History
Aristotle (385-322 BC) described a bird which he called Psittacae whose name was the basis for the scientific name for the parrot family – Psittacine. The ...
[244]
My Parrot, My Self - The New York Times
Oct 11, 2008 · The most celebrated parrot in 19th-century literature was itself apparently mistaken for God. This is Loulou, in Flaubert's story “A Simple ...
[245]
The Great Silence - Electric Literature
Oct 12, 2016 · The Fermi paradox is sometimes known as the Great Silence. The universe ought to be a cacophony of voices, but instead it's disconcertingly quiet.<|separator|>
[246]
Parrots in Media (movies, etc_ — MAEBS
MOVIES. Aladdin - Lago. Donald and Daisy Duck, Daffy Duck. Elana of Avalor = Grand Macaw. Enchanted Tiki Room - Fritz and Micheal.
[247]
https://substack.com/home/post/p-149090632
[248]
'Wild Parrots' Filmmaker Surfaces With Heartwarming 'Cold Refuge'
Apr 14, 2023 · It's been almost 20 years since Judy Irving's The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill made her something of a local folk hero.<|separator|>
[249]
Do movies/shows represent a true parrot? - Reddit
Oct 5, 2023 · I realize everyone has had different experiences, but media parrots typically have a large vocabulary and respond appropriately to context.Why are movies like this with birds? : r/parrots - RedditParrots and Movies - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[250]
Escaped pet parrots are now naturalized in 23 U.S. states, study finds
May 16, 2019 · In the 1950s and 60s, tens of thousands of monk parakeets were imported from South America as pets. Inevitably, many of them escaped or were ...
[251]
Monk Parakeet Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Monk Parakeets, native to South America but long popular in the pet trade, established wild populations here in the 1960s.
[252]
A Field Guide to The Feral Parrots of the US - Cool Green Science
Monk Parakeet, Red-Crowned Parrot, and Nanday Parakeet — make up 61 percent of all sightings ...
[253]
Exotic Parrot Colonies Are Flourishing Across the Country | Audubon
Jun 5, 2019 · Los Angeles County, for example, is home to around 15 parrot species, including the Red-crowned Amazon, Lilac-crowned Amazon, and Nanday ...
[254]
Rose-ringed Parakeet Populations and Numbers in Europe
Apr 27, 2016 · The RRP is well established in Europe with at least 90 breeding populations in 10 countries, and a total population size of at least 85,000 ...<|separator|>
[255]
Wild parakeets on track for world domination - CNN
Aug 17, 2016 · Between 1984 and 2007 a staggering 146,539 ring-necked parakeets (PDF) were imported to Europe, before an EU ban on the trade of wild birds. The ...
[256]
Annual Censuses and Citizen Science Data Show Rapid Population ...
Mar 8, 2022 · Our censuses showed a rapid population growth of both species: rose-ringed parakeets increased from 1200 to 6300 individuals, while monk parakeets increased ...
[257]
Invasive parrots have varying impacts on biodiversity, people and ...
Jul 16, 2019 · Invasive parrots can cause agricultural damage and threaten biodiversity, though severe impacts are rare and localized, mainly linked to ring- ...
[258]
Ancestral origins and invasion pathways in a globally invasive bird ...
As one of Europe's top 100 worst alien species (DAISIE, 2008), breeding populations of ring-necked parakeets have become established in a number of European ...
[259]
Assessing the ecological and societal impacts of alien parrots in ...
Jul 15, 2019 · Evidence of beneficial impacts relating to herbivory reported that parrots can disperse seeds of native species or feed on and damage alien ...
[260]
Interactions between Invasive Monk Parakeets (Myiopsitta ...
Nov 5, 2019 · We observed positive and negative interactions, and herein, we describe parakeets' nest occupancy by nine bird species, two invasive and seven native.
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Wild parakeets in the UK: exotic delights or a potential problem?
'They have been here for around 50-plus years now and there are no obvious and significant impacts to UK wildlife reported so far. Many feel they have found ...
[262]
[PDF] Monk Parakeets - usda aphis
Monk parakeets are an invasive species that thrive in urban areas, build nests on man-made structures, and cause damage to electric facilities and fruit crops.Missing: feral ecological
[263]
[PDF] Invasive Parakeets in Europe: Problems & Solutions
Parakeet impacts can locally be severe. For example, in Seville, ring-necked parakeets are displacing a rare and vulnerable bat species. • Parakeet invasions ...Missing: ecological | Show results with:ecological
[264]
Invasive parrots have varying impacts on European biodiversity ...
Jul 15, 2019 · Invasive parrots can cause agricultural damage and threaten biodiversity, but severe impacts are rare and localized, with competition being a ...
[265]
https://press.princeton.edu/ideas/stephen-pruett-jones-on-naturalized-parrots-of-the-world
[266]
Cumulative propagule pressure exerted by escaped pet parrots
Jan 23, 2023 · A total of 1205 birds and at least 33 species were reported lost nationwide during our monitoring period, 92% of which were parrots. We found ...<|separator|>
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Phylogeny of parrots indicating IUCN Red List status of each ...
Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most threatened bird orders with 28 % (111 of 398) of extant species classified as threatened under IUCN criteria.
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Celebrating World Parrot Day: Introducing the IUCN SSC Wild Parrot ...
May 31, 2024 · Currently, one in three parrot species is listed in the threatened categories (VU, EN, CR, EW) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™.
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One in eight of all bird species is threatened with global extinction
Threatened species are not evenly distributed among bird groups: there are particularly high proportions among albatrosses (68%), cranes (67%), parrots (27%), ...<|separator|>
[270]
Current threats faced by Neotropical parrot populations
Many populations were affected by multiple threats. Agriculture, Capture for the Pet Trade, Logging, each of them affected > 55% of the populations, suggesting ...
[271]
Parrots Among Most-Threatened Bird Groups | Audubon
Feb 23, 2016 · A new study published in Biodiversity Conservation found that more than half of all parrot species are in precipitous decline, with 28 percent already listed ...
[272]
Parrots - One Earth Conservation
The primary threats to parrots are trapping and poaching for the legal and illegal wildlife trade, as well as habitat loss. . So much is already known about ...Missing: major | Show results with:major
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Endangered Parrots
All of these conditions put wild parrots at risk. endangered climate. Disease - Several species of wild parrot, most notably the Cape Parrot, are under threat ...Missing: major | Show results with:major
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Parrots | Defenders of Wildlife
May 15, 2019 · Of the 374 species of parrots in the world, 116 are listed as vulnerable, endangered or worse by the IUCN Red List. Some species have ...
[275]
IUCN Information - Morndyke Parrot Sanctuary
201 species are threated by being taken illegally for the pet trade. 139 species are threatened by logging - resulting in habitat loss. 67 species are ...
[276]
[PDF] Overexploitation of Parrots in the Neotropics
Among other threats, high levels of illegal extraction of parrots from their natural habitats are a real threat to parrot biodiversity in the Neotropics (Figure ...
[277]
IUCN Wild Parrot Specialist Group
Nearly ⅓ of 410 parrot species are threatened with extinction · All but 4 species are listed on CITES, indicating risk of international trade for pets · Parrots ...Missing: predation | Show results with:predation
[278]
[PDF] Global trends of habitat destruction and consequences for parrot ...
Apr 14, 2020 · Almost a third of the extant parrots (112 species) is threatened by extinction: 18 Critically Endangered (CR), 39 Endangered (EN), and 55 ...<|separator|>
[279]
Spix's Macaw - American Bird Conservancy
The International Union for Conservation of Nature officially declared the species Extinct in the Wild in 2019. A bird of Brazil's dry, thorny Caatinga, the ...
[280]
Spix's Macaws Arrive in Brazil in Another Historic Milestone for ...
Feb 3, 2025 · Spix's Macaws Arrive in Brazil in Another Historic Milestone for Species Conservation. February 3, 2025. Petrolina, January 29, 2025 – At 6:40 ...
[281]
Official Note on the conservation of the Spix's macaw and the fight ...
Sep 9, 2025 · As there is no viable wild population of Spix's macaws, the individuals under human care are the only hope for restoration. It is therefore ...
[282]
Kākāpō: New Zealand native land birds - Department of Conservation
There are 237 kākāpō alive today. All are wild and there is currently no place where the public can visit or view kākāpō in person. New Zealand status: EndemicKākāpō Recovery · Kākāpō behaviour · Kākāpō habitat and islands
[283]
The Parrot, Its Parasites and a Shared Struggle to Escape Extinction
Jul 25, 2025 · The endangered kakapo is a flightless bird native to New Zealand. Its population is growing, but its parasites have dwindled.
[284]
Philippine Cockatoo Cacatua Haematuropygia Species Factsheet
However, the bulk of the past declines are believed to have occurred within the past three generations and so it is assessed as Critically Endangered.
[285]
Red-vented Cockatoo Conservation | World Parrot Trust
The Red-vented or Philippine Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) is listed as Critically Endangered in the wild due to extensive habitat loss and exploitation.
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Partnering with prisoners to safeguard the Critically Endangered ...
The Philippine Cockatoo has declined by a staggering 80% over the last 40 years. Decimated by the caged bird trade and habitat loss since the late 1980s…
[287]
Species & Threats - Macaw Recovery Network
Threatened Species. The Scarlet and Great Green ... This parrot species is listed as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List after its last review in 2021.
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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild ...
By placing species in different levels of protection (Appendices I, II, and III), CITES helps maintain ecological balance while supporting sustainable trade.
[289]
[PDF] SC77 Doc. 33.8 – p. - CITES
Jan 11, 2021 · These specimens must be individually marked and, in the case of birds bred in captivity, primarily with a seamlessly closed leg-ring. 28.
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[PDF] Sustainable Trade in Parrots: Action Plan for North America
In the United States, the importation of parrots is restricted by the Endangered Species Act (ESA), which implements CITES, and the Wild Bird Conservation Act ( ...
[291]
New Study Urges Caution Over Growing Trade in Captive-bred parrots
Sep 19, 2024 · A new study published in Conservation Biology has raised concern about the effectiveness of commercial captive-breeding of parrots as a strategy to reduce ...
[292]
Banning Wildlife Trade Can Boost the Unregulated Trade of ...
Jan 21, 2025 · Trade bans are expected to play a substantial role in supporting sustainable wildlife trade since they can help prevent overexploitation via ...
[293]
[PDF] Unexpected and undesired conservation outcomes of wildlife trade ...
Jan 23, 2015 · Within the conservation and academic communities there is an ongoing debate about sustainable use and the effectiveness of CITES and trade bans ...<|separator|>
[294]
Does parrot farming protect wild species - African BirdLife
Nov 13, 2024 · Regulating parrot farming is a complex issue that requires very careful and informed consideration to avoid any negative impact on some of the ...
[295]
Determining the sustainability of legal wildlife trade - ScienceDirect
Sep 1, 2023 · We review the sustainability of wildlife trade, the adequacy of tools, safeguards, and frameworks to understand and regulate trade, and identify gaps in data.

Parrot

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Evolutionary Origins and Fossil Record

Etymology

Phylogenetic Relationships

Current Classification and Recent Revisions

Anatomy and Physiology

External Morphology

Internal Anatomy and Sensory Capabilities

Plumage, Coloration, and Sexual Dimorphism

Distribution and Habitat

Global Range and Biogeography

Habitat Types and Adaptations

Population Estimates and Trends

Behavior and Ecology

Diet and Foraging Strategies

Reproduction and Parental Care

Social Organization and Communication

Intelligence, Cognition, and Vocalization

Mimicry and Vocal Learning

Tool Use and Problem-Solving

Mimicry and Vocal Learning

Tool Use and Problem-Solving

Lifespan, Health, and Predation

Human-Parrot Interactions

As Companion Animals

Benefits and Challenges of Pet Ownership

Wildlife and Pet Trade

Legal Trade, Captive Breeding, and Economic Impacts

Illegal Trade and Enforcement Issues

Cultural and Symbolic Roles

In Mythology, Religion, and Folklore

Representations in Art, Literature, and Media

Feral and Introduced Populations

Establishments and Ecological Effects

Conservation Status and Threats

Anthropogenic vs. Natural Threats

Major Species at Risk

Strategies, Policies, and Debates

References