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Catapult

A catapult is a mechanical siege engine designed to propel projectiles such as stones, bolts, or incendiary devices over significant distances using stored elastic energy derived from tensioned cords or twisted skeins of sinew and hair, without reliance on chemical propellants.^[1]^[2] Originating with early tension-based designs like the gastraphetes in the 4th century BC, catapults evolved into torsion-powered variants pioneered by Macedonian engineers under Philip II around 350 BC, fundamentally altering ancient warfare by allowing forces to target defended walls and troops from beyond the range of defensive archery.^[3]^[4] Roman engineers refined these machines, standardizing types such as the ballista for hurling large darts with precision and the onager for smashing fortifications with stone shot via a single-arm torsion mechanism mimicking a wild ass's kick, deploying them en masse in campaigns like those of Trajan and during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD.^[3]^[5] These devices demanded meticulous construction and maintenance, with performance sensitive to environmental factors like humidity affecting the elasticity of organic torsion springs, limiting their reliability in prolonged sieges compared to later counterweight trebuchets.^[3] Despite such constraints, catapults proved decisive in breaching defenses and demoralizing garrisons through sustained bombardment, remaining in use through the medieval period until superseded by gunpowder artillery in the 15th century.^[2]

Definition and Classification

Mechanical Principles

Catapults store potential energy through three primary mechanisms: tension from stretched fibers or ropes, torsion from twisted bundles of sinew, hair, or hemp, and gravity from raised counterweights. This stored energy, primarily elastic potential, is converted into kinetic energy upon sudden release, propelling projectiles via pivoting arms acting as levers. The efficiency of this conversion depends on minimizing energy losses to heat, vibration, and air resistance, with the projectile's velocity determined by the equation v = \sqrt{\frac{2U}{m}}, where U is the usable stored energy and m is the projectile mass, assuming ideal conditions.^[6]^[7] In torsion systems, elastic energy is accumulated by winding fibers into tight skeins, which resist unwinding due to their shear modulus; release rotates connected arms, accelerating a string or pouch holding the payload. Leverage ratios between the short power arms (directly linked to springs) and longer throwing arms amplify linear speed, often achieving mechanical advantages that yield projectile velocities of 90-105 m/s in finite element analyses of historical designs. Release mechanisms, such as ratchet pins or triggers, ensure near-instantaneous energy transfer, with arm ratios optimized to balance torque and velocity for maximum range.^[8]^[9]^[10] Tension catapults similarly deform bow-like prods or ropes linearly, storing energy as \frac{1}{2} k x^2, where k is the spring constant and x the extension, released to snap arms forward. Gravity-based systems elevate a counterweight whose potential energy mgh drives a pivoting beam, with the short end's mass providing torque amplified by long throwing arms. Environmental factors like humidity causally degrade organic torsion elements by softening fibers, reducing elastic modulus and stored energy by up to 50% in wet conditions, necessitating dry storage and maintenance for consistent performance.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Types of Catapults

Catapults are classified primarily according to their motive force and energy storage mechanism, which determines their operational characteristics and projectile suitability. The main categories include torsion-powered designs, which rely on the elastic potential stored in twisted organic fibers; tension-powered variants, which use the deformation of structural elements like wooden arms or ropes; and gravity-powered systems, which harness counterweights for energy release. This taxonomy emphasizes mechanical distinctions rather than chronology or cultural origin. Torsion catapults store energy through tightly twisted skeins of sinew, hair, or rope, providing high tension for precise and repeatable launches. The ballista, featuring a two-armed frame with a tensioned bowstring, was optimized for hurling large bolts or darts weighing approximately 0.5 to 2 kg over distances exceeding 300 meters in reconstructions.^[14]^[15] The onager, distinguished by its single rigid arm projecting from a torsion spring bundle, launched stones or other blunt projectiles, with historical accounts indicating capacities for masses up to 15-50 kg depending on size.^[14] These designs offered advantages in accuracy for bolt-firing models but required maintenance of the perishable torsion springs.^[15] Tension catapults, such as the mangonel, depend on the elastic bending of stout wooden arms or the strain in anchored ropes to accelerate projectiles via a sling or cup attachment. This mechanism allowed for simpler construction compared to torsion systems, though with potentially lower energy efficiency due to reliance on material flex rather than coiled fibers. Mangonels typically propelled stones or incendiary loads in an arcing trajectory, suitable for area bombardment.^[14]^[16] Gravity-powered catapults, represented by the trebuchet, utilize a pivoted, hinged throwing arm with a heavy counterweight—often 5 to 10 tons of stone or metal—that drops to swing the shorter projectile arm forward, achieving superior range and payload through mechanical advantage. Trebuchets could launch stones up to 100-150 kg, far surpassing earlier elastic types, though their operation demanded a stable frame and crew coordination for reloading. While some classifications exclude trebuchets from "catapult" due to the lack of tension or torsion elements, they are encompassed here as lever-based projectile engines sharing functional kinship.^[14]^[15]^[16]

Historical Development

Origins in the Ancient Near East

The earliest textual reference to mechanical devices for projecting projectiles appears in the Hebrew Bible's account of King Uzziah of Judah (reigned c. 783–742 BCE), who installed "machines invented by skilled men" on Jerusalem's towers and corners to shoot arrows and hurl large stones during sieges.^[17] These are sometimes interpreted as primitive tension-powered launchers, potentially using sinew or rope to propel missiles against attackers, though no direct archaeological evidence confirms their mechanical nature, and alternatives like enhanced slings or static stone-droppers have been proposed by scholars.^[18] Archaeological data from the region remains sparse and interpretive. Assyrian palace reliefs from Nimrud, dating to the 9th–7th centuries BCE under kings like Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883–859 BCE), depict siege operations with battering rams, earthen ramps, and figures apparently casting stones from elevated platforms, suggesting organized projectile use but without clear torsion or tension mechanisms akin to later catapults.^[19] In Cyprus, under Phoenician influence, excavations at Palaepaphos yielded over 400 flat-sided stones (weighing 2–22 kg) dated to the late 8th century BCE, hypothesized by some as ammunition for early field artillery, though critics argue they served architectural purposes rather than ballistic ones.^[18] Syrian and Phoenician maritime cultures likely contributed proto-designs through trade and warfare, with potential tension-based spear-throwers emerging by the 5th century BCE, predating widespread Greek adoption, but excavated components remain ambiguous and unproven as full catapults. These early systems addressed vulnerabilities in mud-brick fortifications common across the Near East, enabling defenders to target assailants at range and disrupt assaults on walls averaging 5–10 meters high.^[20] However, their fixed emplacement restricted mobility to static defenses, and manual tensioning likely imposed reload times of 1–2 minutes per shot, limiting sustained fire against mobile threats like Assyrian infantry waves numbering up to 50,000.^[21] Such constraints highlight their role as supplements to archery and rams rather than standalone weapons, influencing later evolutions without achieving the portability of Greek torsion models.

Classical Greek and Roman Innovations

The earliest documented Greek catapult innovation occurred in 399 BCE under Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, who assembled engineers from across the Mediterranean to develop the katapeltikon, beginning with the non-torsion gastraphetes—a large, composite-bow-powered crossbow braced against the operator's abdomen and shoulder for enhanced draw strength, serving as a precursor to mounted artillery.^[4] This device marked a shift from earlier tension-based mechanisms, enabling greater projectile velocity and range in sieges against Carthaginian threats, though it relied on elastic arms rather than twisted sinew skeins.^[22] By the mid-4th century BCE, Macedonian king Philip II integrated torsion technology into field artillery around 340 BCE, adapting the gastraphetes into gantry-mounted versions with sinew-wrapped torsion springs for two-armed ballistae (oxybeles) and stone-throwers (lithoboloi), allowing mobile deployment against fortified positions like Perinthus.^[23] These advancements facilitated Alexander the Great's sieges, such as Tyre in 332 BCE, where 160-foot towers mounted catapults atop for anti-personnel fire and ballistae below to breach walls, combining naval blockades with overland artillery to overcome the island city's defenses after seven months.^[24] Torsion systems increased power output, with empirical reconstructions indicating effective ranges up to 400 meters for bolts, prioritizing precision over sheer distance in tactical assaults.^[25] Roman engineers standardized Greek designs for legionary use, as detailed by Vitruvius in the 1st century BCE, who prescribed precise ratios for ballista frames—such as a square syzenchus (bow width equal to height) for optimal torsion balance—and materials like wild bull sinew for springs, ensuring mass-producibility in imperial workshops. The scorpio, a lightweight field ballista firing 18-inch bolts, became integral to legions by the late Republic, with Vegetius noting up to 55 carroballistae (wagon-mounted variants) per legion in the 4th century CE, operated by dedicated ballistarii for anti-infantry skirmishing and volley fire.^[26] Larger ballistae achieved maximum ranges exceeding 460 meters, though combat effectiveness dropped beyond 300 meters due to windage and sighting limitations, integrating into cohort formations for suppressive roles during advances.^[27] This systematization emphasized logistical scalability, with evidence from Trajan's Column illustrating scorpiones in Dacian campaigns, underscoring their role in maintaining Roman dominance through engineered reliability over raw power.^[28]

Medieval European and Islamic Advancements

Following the decline of Roman torsion catapults, traction trebuchets—powered by teams of human pullers—emerged in Byzantine territories by the late 6th or early 7th century, likely transmitted from eastern origins via Avar intermediaries.^[29] These devices marked a shift from sinew-based torsion to manpower-driven leverage, enabling lighter crews to propel stones against fortifications despite requiring coordinated effort from dozens of operators.^[30] By the 9th century, traction trebuchets had diffused into Western Europe, supplanting earlier ballistae in sieges due to their simpler construction from timber and ropes, though limited by human strength to projectiles under 50 kg.^[31] The 12th century witnessed the pivotal adoption of counterweight trebuchets in Europe, replacing traction models for vastly superior range and payload through gravity-assisted mechanics.^[32] During the Third Crusade, King Richard I deployed such machines at the 1191 Siege of Acre, hurling massive stones that breached defensive towers and impressed contemporaries with their destructive force against stone walls.^[32] This innovation, featuring a pivoting arm with a heavy counterweight box, allowed launches of 100-200 kg projectiles over 200-300 meters, as evidenced by medieval engineering treatises and battlefield accounts, fundamentally enhancing siege efficacy against increasingly robust castles.^[31] Concurrently, Islamic engineers refined siege artillery, with 12th-century scholar al-Tarsusi documenting hybrid designs in his military manual, including early counterweight variants and torsion integrations for improved accuracy and modularity.^[33] Al-Tarsusi's illustrations depict manjaniqs—trebuchet equivalents—with adjustable slings and reinforced frames, adapting Byzantine and Persian precedents to hurl incendiaries and boulders with precision, influencing Crusader adaptations through captured knowledge.^[33] These advancements prioritized empirical scaling, as larger Islamic trebuchets employed sand-filled counterweights for tunable power, enabling sustained barrages that outpaced European traction reliance until cross-cultural exchanges accelerated counterweight proliferation.^[33]

Asian and Other Non-Western Traditions

In ancient China, the traction trebuchet, a beam-powered siege engine operated by teams of human pullers attached to ropes, emerged during the Warring States period between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE.^[34] These devices propelled stones weighing 57-63 kg over distances exceeding 75 meters, as detailed in military treatises like the Wujing Zongyao compiled in 1044 CE, which prescribed crews of up to 250 for optimal performance.^[31] Archaeological and textual evidence from Qin unification campaigns in the 3rd century BCE confirms their deployment to breach fortifications, marking an independent evolution from earlier lever-based throwers.^[35] During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), Chinese engineers integrated gunpowder into trebuchet projectiles, launching explosive grenades and incendiary devices via specialized variants like the xuanfeng (whirlwind) trebuchet to counter enemy siege engines and walls.^[36] This hybrid approach extended effective ranges and destructive potential, with records from the 10th-13th centuries describing bombs shattering on impact to ignite structures or scatter shrapnel.^[37] The counterweight trebuchet, leveraging gravity via suspended masses rather than traction, arrived later through Mongol adoption of Islamic designs during the 1273 Siege of Xiangyang, where it hurled 75 kg projectiles over 100 meters, surpassing traction models in consistency and power.^[38] Empirical tests of replicas confirm these mechanics, with gravitational torque enabling heavier loads without proportional crew increases. In the Indian subcontinent, textual references in Jaina sources attribute early catapult use to King Ajatashatru of Magadha around 492-460 BCE, who employed mahashilakantaka (great stone-throwers) to dismantle Licchavi defenses during expansionist campaigns.^[39] Lacking detailed archaeological remains, these likely resembled basic lever or early traction mechanisms adapted to local materials like wood and bamboo for portability in monsoon terrains. By the medieval period, Islamic influences introduced the manjaniq, a traction or hybrid trebuchet, widely used in Delhi Sultanate and Mughal sieges from the 13th to 16th centuries; Mughal forces deployed them alongside emerging artillery to lob stones against fortified cities, as chronicled in campaign accounts emphasizing composite frames for rapid assembly.^[40] Such designs prioritized lighter construction over raw power, reflecting tactical adaptations to India's decentralized fortifications and elephant-integrated warfare, with ranges typically under 150 meters based on analogous Asian systems.^[41]

Technical Design and Operation

Construction Techniques and Materials

Ancient torsion catapults were primarily constructed from hardwoods such as ash and oak for frames and stocks, chosen for their strength and flexibility under stress.^[3] Torsion springs, essential for propulsion, consisted of thick ropes made from animal sinew or human hair, twisted and pretensioned within wooden washers and iron levers to generate extreme elastic energy.^[22] Assembly involved feeding the sinew rope through spring frames, securing two vertical skeins per machine, and tightening them via rotating washers equipped with ratchet mechanisms or pinholes, often requiring a rear-mounted winch for loading and adjustment.^[22] Roman designs refined these techniques, incorporating European ash for the primary frame reinforced by iron plates and bronze components, including sliders that guided the projectile arm through the field frames.^[42] Surviving artifacts like the Xanten-Wardt bolt-shooter reveal standardized assembly with rivets, bolts, and washers to fasten the stock to the torsion frame, while bronze shields protected skeins from moisture to prevent degradation.^[42] Metal fittings, such as decorative bronze edging and pivot reinforcements, evolved to enhance durability, allowing modular disassembly for transport and field reassembly by engineers. Medieval counterweight trebuchets shifted toward gravity-based systems, using robust wooden frames of oak or similar timbers for the throwing arm and support structures, with iron fittings for axles and hinges to withstand repeated impacts.^[3] The counterweight, typically a pouch or box filled with 200-2000 kg of sand, earth, stones, or lead, was suspended from the short end of the lever arm, assembled via ropes and pulleys to enable adjustment and loading.^[43] This design minimized reliance on organic torsion elements, though wooden composites and early iron reinforcements addressed failure modes like frame splintering under high loads.^[44]

Power Mechanisms and Projectile Dynamics

Torsion-powered catapults, such as ballistae and onagers, store elastic potential energy in tightly twisted bundles of sinew, hair, or rope wound around the throwing arm's pivot. Upon release, the sudden unwinding generates torque that accelerates the arm rapidly, converting stored energy into kinetic energy imparted to the projectile at initial velocities typically ranging from 40 to 60 m/s for bolts or stones, depending on machine scale and tension.^[6]^[45] This mechanism achieves efficient energy transfer through the arm's short arc, minimizing losses to friction and heat, though empirical reconstructions show that fiber fatigue limits repeated firings without retensioning.^[46] In counterweight trebuchets, gravitational potential energy from a suspended mass—often 5 to 20 tons of stone or earth-filled boxes—drives a pivoting beam, with the counterweight's drop height (up to 10-15 meters in large designs) determining available energy. The projectile, cradled in a sling attached to the shorter arm, gains velocity as the longer counter-lever whips forward, achieving launch speeds of 30-50 m/s for masses from 50 to 200 kg via mechanical advantage ratios of 3:1 to 6:1 between arms.^[47] Modern finite element simulations and scaled tests confirm that optimal release occurs when the sling angle reaches approximately 38-45 degrees from horizontal, balancing horizontal velocity and flight time for maximum range while accounting for sling stretch and pivot dynamics.^[47]^[48] Projectile trajectories follow parabolic paths under constant gravity (9.81 m/s²), with range given by R = \frac{v_0^2 \sin(2\theta)}{g} in vacuum, where v_0 is initial velocity and \theta the launch angle; air drag introduces deviations via the drag force F_d = \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 C_d A, reducing effective range by 10-20% for real conditions. Stone spheres exhibit drag coefficients C_d \approx 0.47, yielding higher deceleration than aerodynamic bolts (estimated C_d \approx 0.3-0.4), which prioritize piercing over mass.^[49]^[50] Empirical tests of replicas indicate ranges of 300-400 meters for heavy trebuchets under calm conditions, matching medieval accounts like those from 13th-century sieges, but wind resistance and release inconsistencies cause accuracy to degrade sharply beyond 200 meters, with dispersion angles exceeding 5-10 degrees.^[51] Projectile mass inversely affects velocity per conservation of momentum, with lighter bolts (1-5 kg) achieving greater ranges than heavy stones despite lower kinetic impact.^[52]^[53]

Military Applications and Impact

Role in Sieges and Battlefield Tactics

Catapults dominated siege operations by delivering sustained barrages against fortifications, eroding structural integrity and suppressing defender movements to facilitate breaches by rams or infantry. In the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, numerous quick-firing catapults targeted Jewish positions, contributing to the systematic dismantling of walls and towers as described by Josephus.^[54] During the Fourth Crusade's assault on Constantinople in April 1204 CE, Crusader forces positioned ship-mounted catapults to hurl stones at the seaward defenses, aiding ladder assaults despite initial resilience of the walls.^[55]^[56] In open-field tactics, catapults faced mobility constraints, limiting their role to prepared positions or defensive emplacements rather than rapid maneuvers. Roman legions employed light scorpions for precision anti-personnel fire, engaging infantry at ranges up to 100 meters to disrupt charges and provide covering support.^[57] Heavier onagers, suited for stone-throwing against structures, were impractical for field advances due to disassembly requirements and vulnerability to counterattacks, confining them primarily to siege batteries.^[58] Strategic integration amplified catapult effects, with incendiary loads igniting combustible defenses and inducing panic among garrisons. Greco-Roman advancements in missile-shooters, including flaming variants, exploited psychological vulnerabilities in sieges, where relentless fire eroded morale beyond physical damage.^[59] In major engagements, such as Roman legionary operations, up to 10 catapults per legion formed coordinated volleys with ballistae, enhancing tactical dominance over fortified or clustered foes.^[60] During the Crusades, besiegers amassed multiple engines to overwhelm castles, as seen in operations where catapults cleared approach paths for sappers and assault troops.^[61]

Effectiveness, Advantages, and Limitations

Catapults offered significant advantages in siege warfare through their capacity for long-range projection, typically achieving effective distances of 200 to 300 meters for heavy stone projectiles weighing 45 to 90 kilograms.^[62]^[63] This standoff capability allowed attackers to harass defenders and deny access to battlements without exposing infantry to close-quarters risks, while the psychological impact of incoming boulders disrupted morale and forced defenders into protective measures.^[12] Counterweight trebuchets, in particular, excelled at delivering payloads capable of damaging or breaching fortifications, outperforming earlier torsion designs in power and reach for such tasks.^[30] However, these machines suffered from inherent limitations that curtailed their battlefield utility. Reload times for counterweight trebuchets often exceeded one minute per shot due to the mechanical resetting of the counterweight and loading of projectiles, rendering them unsuitable for rapid fire compared to archery or lighter engines.^[43]^[64] Accuracy was modest, with typical dispersion allowing hits within tens of meters at maximum range, sufficient for area bombardment but inadequate for precision targeting of personnel or small structures.^[65] Torsion-based catapults were particularly vulnerable to wet conditions, as rain could degrade sinew or rope tension by absorbing moisture and reducing elasticity, sometimes neutralizing the engine entirely during downpours.^[12]^[66] Operation demanded substantial crews, ranging from 5 to 12 for standard trebuchets up to 20 or more for larger variants, straining logistical resources and exposing personnel to counterfire.^[67] In practice, catapults were rarely decisive weapons on their own, as pre-gunpowder sieges frequently failed for attackers—often due to prolonged logistics, disease, or defender countermeasures—necessitating complementary tactics like mining or blockade rather than relying solely on bombardment.^[68] Popular depictions overestimate their dominance, ignoring how they complemented rather than supplanted infantry assaults, archery, or sapping, and were less effective against fielded armies where mobility and rate of fire favored lighter arms.^[69]

Modern and Contemporary Uses

Electromagnetic and Aircraft Launch Systems

Following World War II, steam-powered catapults became the standard for launching heavier jet aircraft from aircraft carriers, particularly on U.S. Navy vessels starting in the 1950s. The C-13 series, introduced on Nimitz-class carriers in the 1970s, featured a piston-driven system with a stroke length of approximately 30 meters, capable of accelerating aircraft weighing up to 30 tons to speeds exceeding 250 km/h in about 2-3 seconds.^[70]^[71] These systems relied on high-pressure steam from the ship's boilers to drive pistons connected to a launch shuttle, providing reliable but maintenance-intensive launches with fixed acceleration profiles that could stress airframes.^[72] The Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS), developed by General Atomics, marked a significant advancement over steam catapults, debuting operationally on the U.S. Navy's USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) in 2017. EMALS employs linear induction motors to generate variable acceleration, allowing precise control of launch speeds tailored to aircraft weight and type, which reduces deck motion sensitivity and extends airframe life by minimizing peak forces.^[73]^[74] Installed on all Ford-class carriers, it supports launches of aircraft up to 45 tons at speeds up to 165 knots (approximately 305 km/h) with lower energy consumption and faster reset times compared to steam systems.^[73] Internationally, EMALS adoption has expanded. France announced plans in 2025 to procure a third EMALS unit from the U.S. for its future Porte-Avions Nouvelle Génération (PANG) nuclear carrier, set for assembly starting in 2032, to replace the Charles de Gaulle and enable launches of heavier Rafale variants.^[75] China's People's Liberation Army Navy tested an indigenous electromagnetic catapult on the Type 076 amphibious assault ship Sichuan in October 2025, marking the first such system on a non-fixed-wing carrier and blurring lines between assault ships and light carriers for drone and fighter operations.^[76]^[77] Adaptations for unmanned systems have emerged, with General Atomics pitching a compact EMALS-derived electric launch system in January 2025 for drone deployment from destroyers, frigates, and expeditionary vessels, requiring minimal deck space and enabling sustained operations from platforms lacking full carrier infrastructure.^[78]^[79] This technology supports launches of medium-to-large unmanned aerial vehicles, enhancing distributed maritime strike capabilities without the logistical demands of steam or combustion-based alternatives.^[80]

Recreational, Educational, and Sporting Applications

Catapults feature prominently in educational settings to demonstrate core physics concepts, including projectile motion, gravitational acceleration, and energy transfer from potential to kinetic forms. In STEM programs, students build tabletop models—often using rubber bands, springs, or counterweights—to launch objects like cotton balls or marshmallows, adjusting variables such as launch angle and tension to optimize range and height. For instance, activities measure how a 45-degree angle typically maximizes horizontal distance under idealized conditions, aligning with parabolic trajectory equations derived from Galileo's 17th-century work but applied in modern labs.^[81]^[82] These hands-on projects extend to engineering challenges where participants iterate designs to achieve specific targets, fostering problem-solving skills without lethal applications. Rubber-band-powered versions, common since the mid-20th century in school science fairs, quantify force via Hooke's law, with elastic potential energy calculated as \frac{1}{2}kx^2, where k is the spring constant and x the displacement. Empirical data from such builds show launch velocities reaching 5-10 m/s for small-scale models, verifiable through high-speed video analysis in classroom experiments.^[6] Recreational toys and kits evolve this educational base into leisure activities, with commercial sets using wood, plastic, or 3D-printed components for safe, low-power launching of soft projectiles. Examples include folding catapults that propel balls short distances for target games, emphasizing adult supervision and protective eyewear to mitigate risks like minor impacts. While comprehensive injury statistics specific to catapult toys remain limited, general consumer product safety reports indicate rare severe incidents when used as intended, primarily involving unregulated homemade variants. Sporting applications center on competitions like pumpkin chunking, where teams engineer large-scale catapults, trebuchets, or air cannons to hurl pumpkins—typically weighing 8-10 kg—maximizing distance on open fields. Originating in Delaware in the late 1980s, these events draw hundreds of participants annually, with machines achieving launches via torsion, tension, or pneumatic pressure, often exceeding 1 km. The pneumatic cannon "Big 10 Inch" set the Guinness World Record at 5,545.43 feet (1,690.24 m) on September 9, 2010, in Moab, Utah, using compressed air to accelerate the projectile to speeds over 100 m/s. Trebuchet designs, leveraging gravitational counterweights, dominate for consistency, with empirical tests showing efficiencies up to 1% of input energy converted to projectile kinetic energy, limited by material stresses and air resistance.^[83]^[84]

Illicit and Non-Military Utilizations

Drug smuggling organizations have utilized improvised catapults to propel bundles of narcotics across international borders, bypassing physical barriers without direct human crossing. Since the early 2010s, Mexican cartels have deployed such devices along the US-Mexico frontier to launch payloads of marijuana, typically weighing 20-25 kg per bundle, over border fencing spanning distances of up to several hundred meters. In January 2011, US National Guard surveillance footage near Nogales, Arizona, documented smugglers operating a torsion-based catapult to hurl marijuana bales into US territory, with launches captured mid-flight.^[85] A prominent incident occurred on February 14, 2017, when US Customs and Border Protection agents in Douglas, Arizona, coordinated with Mexican authorities to dismantle a steel-framed catapult bolted to the border wall on the Mexican side, which had propelled 47 pounds (21 kg) of marijuana across the fence. The device, resembling ancient torsion catapults with elastic or mechanical propulsion, was capable of arcing projectiles over 5-6 meter-high barriers. Similar catapults have facilitated fentanyl smuggling attempts, as noted by US lawmakers in 2017, though seizures often recover only residual drugs post-launch.^[86]^[87]^[88] In non-border contexts, small-scale catapults—frequently handheld models akin to slingshots—have been implicated in illicit wildlife targeting, contravening animal welfare laws through intentional harm. UK police forces recorded 7,200 catapult-related crimes from 2020 to 2025, predominantly involving juveniles using steel ball bearings or pellets to injure or kill birds, foxes, and domestic animals like cats, often resulting in eye perforations or fatalities. Rescuers in regions such as Kent and Surrey reported surges in such incidents during 2024-2025, with one 2025 case involving a cat losing an eye to a close-range strike. These misuses have fueled advocacy for age-restricted sales (under-18 bans) and public carry prohibitions, though possession remains legal absent intent to harm, with prosecutions under existing firearms or cruelty statutes. Farmers have highlighted human injury risks, including potential lethality from high-velocity impacts, underscoring calls for legislative curbs without blanket ownership bans.^[89]^[90]^[91]

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The Important Role of Siege Engines in the Ancient Macedonian Army
Jun 6, 2023 · In around 340 BC, the Thessalian developed torsion springs and supporting frames for the catapults. These springs gave the catapult a much ...Missing: field | Show results with:field
[26]
Roman scorpio - IMPERIUM ROMANUM
Scorpio was a small machine used to throw projectiles, resembling the bolts of medieval crossbows. Scorpio was an extremely precise and effective machine.
[27]
Ballistas, Catapults and Scorpions - Tastes Of History
Ballistas, catapults and scorpions: are these interchangeable names for Roman artillery pieces or different machines entirely?
[28]
The Comitatus Ballista - Late Roman Army
They are of relatively low poundage, but are viable weapons and could be the “hand shooters or scorpions” mentioned in Vegetius, with no stands or winches.
[29]
Byzantines, Avars and the Introduction of the Trebuchet - De Re Militari
Jun 9, 2014 · The trebuchet appeared in the Byzantine empire in the late 6th or early 7th century, possibly from China, and Avars may have helped its spread. ...
[30]
The Trebuchet - USC Viterbi School of Engineering
The addition of a fixed counterweight was a major advancement in trebuchet technology. This counterweight was affixed to the end of the shorter arm and, ...
[31]
[PDF] The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet
that the counterweight trebuchet "was introduced into Europe in the twelfth century,. [was] taken up by the crusaders, and rapidly spread through the ...
[32]
https://militaryhistoryvisualized.com/weapons-101-trebuchet-traction-counterweight-medieval-equipment/
[33]
Siege Engines during the Crusades - Medievalists.net
Oct 1, 2019 · With the twelfth century came the rise of the counterweight trebuchet, a siege engine which used gravity to swing down one end of a long ...Missing: al- Tarsusi
[34]
(PDF) The Traction Trebuchet: A Triumph of Four Civilizations
Traction trebuchets used human or gravitational force, with documented crew sizes up to 600 men. Counterweight trebuchets, appearing later, launched heavier ...
[35]
(PDF) The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in ...
The counterweight trebuchet represents the ﬁrst signiﬁcant mechanical utilization of. gravitational energy. In the military realm, this artillery weapon ...
[36]
The Mongol Siege of Xiangyang and Fan-ch'eng and the Song military
May 11, 2014 · The projectiles weighed weigh 150 catties, (approximately 165 lbs. or 75 kg), and had a range greater than anything the Song had within the city ...
[37]
The Chinese Invention of Gunpowder, Explosives, and Artillery and ...
Gunpowder was a Chinese invention that revolutionized warfare. The Chinese used explosives on a wide scale beginning in the tenth and eleventh centuries.
[38]
The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural ...
Sep 15, 2010 · The counterweight trebuchet represents the first significant mechanical utilization of gravitational energy.Missing: Tang | Show results with:Tang
[39]
Catapults : The Earliest Use
War machine catapult was first used by Ajatashatru of Magadha in his war against the Licchavis. Ajatshatru is recorded in Jaina texts as having used ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[40]
(PDF) Mughal Warfare - Academia.edu
Mughal Warfare offers a much-needed new survey of the military history of Mughal India during the age of imperial splendour from 1500 to 1700.
[41]
[Solved] What was a munjaniq in medieval period? - Testbook
Sep 30, 2022 · It was a common powerful siege engine until the advent of gunpowder. The design of a trebuchet allows it to launch projectiles of greater ...
[42]
None
### Summary of Roman Catapult Construction from Xanten-Wardt and Carlisle Finds
[43]
Meet the Trebuchet, the Castle-crushing Catapult of the Middle Ages
Aug 3, 2020 · Tension: Tension, often created by twisted rope or other means, stores the energy required to launch the projectile. Sudden release: When the ...
[44]
[PDF] Building The Medieval Trebuchet - DigitalCommons@USU
A counterweight trebuchet is a mechanical artillery engine that operates mainly on the principles of leverage and gravity. A long lever, called the throwing arm ...Missing: kg | Show results with:kg
[45]
What is A Catapult and How Does It Work?
Nov 21, 2020 · A catapult is a ballistic device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants.Missing: ratios | Show results with:ratios
[46]
[PDF] Comparison of design formulas for torsion based catapults - IMEKO
catapults is that both types of catapults accelerate a given · mass m to a given launch velocity v with an initial energy · given in eq. 1. In case both design ...
[47]
What Is the Physics Behind a Counterweight Trebuchet? - COMSOL
Oct 11, 2017 · The maximum throwing distance is obtained if the projectile is released at α ≈ 38°. The plot reveals that deviations of the order of 5° from ...Missing: optimal | Show results with:optimal
[48]
When does a Trebuchet Shoot Its Projectile?
Jun 7, 2016 · The optimum release condition seems to be when the sling makes an angle of ϕ=45 degrees with the vertical. This seems to be correct, because the ...Missing: drop | Show results with:drop<|separator|>
[49]
The Physics of Catapult Projectile Motion | Science Project
This catapult has two key features: an adjustable pin lets you set the launch angle (the angle in which the ball travels relative to horizontal at launch, shown ...
[50]
Cannonball Aerodynamic Drag - arc .id.au
He measured the drag coefficient of a sphere to be 0.5, in good agreement with currently accepted value of 0.44 to 0.47 for low speed drag on a smooth sphere.Missing: catapult bolt stone
[51]
NOVA | Transcripts | Secrets of Lost Empires | Medieval Siege - PBS
Feb 1, 2000 · Hew wants to build a trebuchet capable of knocking it down, but at a range of 200 yards, it will require precision as well as brute force.
[52]
[PDF] Glossaryof Terms - Rochester Museum & Science Center
The higher the mass of the projectile, the lower the velocity it will be thrown with because Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity2 (KE = ½ m v2).
[53]
What was the maximum range of a medieval trebuchet or catapult?
Nov 26, 2023 · The power of a torsion catapult will change with humidity ... The simple catapult used twisted ropes or sinews to provide a torsion spring ...What could have been considered a design flaw in catapults? - QuoraHow do catapults and trebuchets differ? - QuoraMore results from www.quora.com
[54]
Casting Stones - BYU Studies
These stones are typical of projectiles thrown by various Roman ballistae, catapults, and “artillery machines.” Indeed, Josephus speaks of “numerous quick- ...
[55]
The sack of Constantinople, 1204 - Look and Learn
Aug 5, 2011 · In April, 1204, the crusaders renewed their assault from the harbour side. Great catapults had been erected in the bows of the ships; others ...
[56]
Constantinople: Holding The Walls At All Costs | War History Online
Feb 16, 2018 · The catapults flung stones which bounced ineffectually off the high stone walls and landed back among the attackers. Ladders were raised only to ...
[57]
Roman Artillery - Romans in Britain
The scorpio had mainly two functions in a legion: in tended shooting, it was a weapon of marksmanship capable of cutting down any foe within a distance of 100 ...Missing: Vegetius production<|separator|>
[58]
Siege warfare and the best siege weapons in Ancient Rome 101
Onagri were used in sieges to batter down walls, as well as by defenders to smash siege towers and siege works. This explains their use as defensive batteries ...
[59]
The Classical Cold War: Exploring the Effects of Greco-Roman ...
Jul 31, 2015 · The history of warfare, especially siege warfare, is full of psychological weapons—weapons that induce a disproportionate fear.
[60]
Ancient and medieval sieges and siegecraft | Research Starters
Each legion was equipped with ten catapults as well as engineers and sappers. A Roman battering ram was a heavy beam with an iron head in the shape of a ram's ...
[61]
Siege Machines in the Crusades – Science Technology and Society ...
Trebuchets and mangonels were designed to hurl projectiles over or against defensive walls, using either counterweights or twisted rope tension to generate ...
[62]
[Weapons 101] Trebuchet – Traction & Counterweight – Medieval ...
Aug 16, 2016 · There are basically two types of trebuchets, the traction trebuchet, which was operated by men pulling ropes and the counterweight trebuchet, which provided ...
[63]
This Is Why the Trebuchet Was the Superior Siege Engine
Jan 31, 2020 · These massive payloads could reach ranges of as far as 900 feet. Some sources say that trebuchets were also used to fling diseased corpses ...
[64]
CATAPULTS AND TREBUCHETS - MAKER LESSONS
A catapult is a ballistic (the field of engineering of launching and flight) device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[65]
The Trebuchet: Accuracy Analysis of a Medieval Siege Engine
Feb 5, 2021 · Historical data will be examined to estimate the accuracies of such weapons as the trebuchet (a technologically advanced form of a catapult), ...
[66]
Medieval onagers? -- myArmoury.com
Jun 6, 2009 · The higher rainfall and generally wetter conditions in Europe made torsion engines less useful because moisture makes the torsion fibres lose ...
[67]
In reality, how effective were siege weapons & artillery, such ... - Reddit
May 22, 2018 · In the right hands, trebuchets were even accurate enough to provide counter-fire against other siege weapons, as was the case during the siege ...How viable were catapults and trebuchets? : r/history - RedditWere medieval siege weapons actually effective at taking down ...More results from www.reddit.com
[68]
Siege Warfare Before Gunpowder - Mythcreants
Oct 5, 2019 · Sieges are all about supplies, but it's not a simple matter of showing up and waiting for the defender's food meter to hit zero.Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
[69]
https://www.brewminate.com/ancient-and-medieval-siege-engines/
[70]
Thermodynamic analysis of the C-13-1 steam catapult for aircraft ...
Aug 3, 2023 · The main characteristics of the CVN-68 are: displacement 101000 t, length 328.3 m, width 76.8 m, draught 11.3 m, 2 nuclear reactors A4W ( ...Missing: specs | Show results with:specs
[71]
Steam Catapult - GlobalSecurity.org
May 29, 2019 · The US active duty C-13-1-type and C-13-2 type ... Steam catapults on the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle are a US procurement.Missing: specs | Show results with:specs
[72]
Design and simulation of inner and outer cylinder–type steam catapult
Apr 23, 2018 · As shown in Figure 1, the steam system of the US C13 type catapult is composed of the piston assembly, the cylinder, the valve assembly, and the ...
[73]
Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) - NAVAIR
EMALS is the Navy's newest complete carrier-based launch system designed for USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) and future Ford-class carriers.Missing: debut | Show results with:debut
[74]
EMALS works! Carrier Ford completes first flight operations
Jul 29, 2017 · An F/A-18F pilot Lt. Cmdr. Jamie R. Struck makes first carrier arrested landing using new AAG system aboard the new Gerald R. Ford off the Virginia coast.Missing: debut | Show results with:debut
[75]
https://www.zona-militar.com/en/2025/10/24/france-plans-to-purchase-a-third-electromagnetic-catapult-system-from-the-u-s-for-the-future-nuclear-aircraft-carrier-pa-ng-of-the-french-navy/
[76]
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3329988/chinas-next-level-type-076-amphibious-assault-ship-being-put-through-its-paces
[77]
https://interestingengineering.com/military/electromagnetic-catapults-drone-carrier-china
[78]
General Atomics Pitches Drone Launch System for US and Allied ...
Jan 17, 2025 · General Atomics unveiled concepts for the installation of a drone launch system derived from EMALS on a destroyer and support vessel.
[79]
General Atomics Launches New Drone Catapult System For Warships
Jan 22, 2025 · General Atomics is not just offering a new drone catapult, but dramatically expanding airpower from the sea.
[80]
General Atomics Unveils Drone Launch Systems for Naval Vessels
Jan 18, 2025 · The new Electric Launch System for Unmanned Aircraft allows UAS operations on a variety of vessels, including aircraft carriers, destroyers and expeditionary ...
[81]
Catapults! - Activity - TeachEngineering
Sep 26, 2022 · Summary. Students observe the relationship between the angle of a catapult (a force measurement) and the flight of a cotton ball.
[82]
Projectile Physics and Catapult Science | Science Buddies Blog
Jan 22, 2016 · Catapults have been used throughout history as a way to launch something from point A to point B, sometimes over castle walls and sometimes into ...
[83]
Farthest distance to fire a pumpkin - Guinness World Records
The farthest distance to fire a pumpkin is 1,690.24 m ( 5,545.43 ft) and was achieved by Ralph J. Eschborn II, Alex C. Eschborn, Eric J.
[84]
One Mile - The Big 10 Inch
We shot a pumpkin 5,545 feet. We didn't just reach a mile. We blew through a mile. We've set a record we think will last for the ages; even if it doesn't, we ...
[85]
VIDEO: Drug Smugglers 'Get Medieval'; Catapult Launches Pot Over ...
Jan 27, 2011 · The launchings were caught on camera by U.S. National Guard troops. The Sentinel reports that "Border Patrol agents contacted Mexican ...Missing: incidents | Show results with:incidents
[86]
U.S., Mexico Authorities Dismantle Catapult Used to Launch Drugs ...
Feb 14, 2017 · Border Patrol agents in Douglas, Ariz. removed a catapult from the border fence, which was being used to hurl bundles of marijuana into the US from Mexico.Missing: smuggling incidents
[87]
Medieval-style drugs catapult found on US-Mexico border - BBC News
Feb 15, 2017 · US border patrol agents have found a medieval-style catapult mounted on the border wall with Mexico, designed to launch bundles of drugs into the US.Missing: smuggling | Show results with:smuggling
[88]
Fentanyl Crisis: Smugglers Are 'Catapulting' Drugs Into U.S.
Mar 21, 2017 · Most of the fentanyl is being smuggled from Mexico into the country “through the porous border” by foot, by car, and even by “catapults."Missing: incidents | Show results with:incidents
[89]
Cat's catapult attack eye loss 'really shocking' - BBC
Oct 7, 2025 · BBC investigation finds 7200 crimes linked to catapults had been recorded over the last five years.Missing: verifiable | Show results with:verifiable
[90]
Children could kill with catapults, farmer warns - BBC
Oct 7, 2025 · Campaigners want to ban the sale of catapults to under 18s, as young people are inflicting wildlife, animals and people with devastating ...Missing: Zealand 2020s
[91]
Rise in 'dangerous and cruel' catapult attacks against wildlife, warn ...
Mar 15, 2024 · Police are warning wild animals and birds are being targeted "for fun" in a disturbing crime trend which sees them shot with catapults.