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Caudate nucleus

The caudate nucleus is a paired, C-shaped subcortical structure in the brain that forms a key component of the basal ganglia, specifically the striatum, alongside the putamen.^[1] Positioned lateral to the thalamus and closely associated with the lateral wall of the lateral ventricle, it extends from the anterior head—its largest portion—to a narrower body and a thin tail that curves posteriorly toward the temporal lobe and amygdaloid nuclei.^[2] This nucleus receives extensive inputs from the cerebral cortex and thalamic nuclei, enabling its integration into broader neural circuits for motor and cognitive processing.^[2] Functionally, the caudate nucleus plays a central role in the planning and execution of voluntary movements through its connections in the direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglia, where it modulates cortical activity via inhibitory projections to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra.^[1] Beyond motor control, it contributes to higher-order processes including learning, memory formation, reward processing, motivation, emotion regulation, and even romantic attachment behaviors, with distinct regions like the head involved in cognitive and emotional tasks, the body in sensorimotor integration, and the tail in visual processing and eye movements.^[1] These functions arise from its embryological origins in the ventral telencephalon and its capacity for potential adult neurogenesis, allowing adaptation to experiences such as multilingualism or dietary influences that can alter its volume.^[1] Clinically, the caudate nucleus is implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders due to its vulnerability to degeneration or dysfunction.^[1] In Huntington's disease, progressive atrophy of the caudate leads to chorea, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms; in Parkinson's disease, dopaminergic denervation affects its motor circuits, contributing to bradykinesia and rigidity.^[1] It is also associated with conditions like obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia, and dementia, where structural or functional alterations correlate with symptoms such as abulia or impaired decision-making.^[1] Surgical interventions, including deep brain stimulation targeting the nucleus, have shown promise in treating refractory OCD and depression by modulating its circuits.^[1]

Structure

Gross anatomy

The caudate nucleus is a paired, C-shaped mass of gray matter that constitutes a major component of the basal ganglia and the dorsal striatum. It is situated deep within the cerebrum, immediately lateral to the lateral ventricle, with its convexity directed laterally and its concavity embracing the ventricular space. This structure follows the contour of the lateral ventricle from the frontal horn posteriorly to the temporal horn, contributing to the formation of the striatum alongside the putamen.^[1]^[3]^[4] The caudate nucleus is divided into three distinct anatomical parts: the head, body, and tail. The head represents the bulbous, rostral enlargement that protrudes into the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle and merges anteriorly with the putamen through the intervening nucleus accumbens, forming a continuous striatal complex. The body is a slender, elongated segment that extends posteriorly along the superolateral margin of the ventricular body, maintaining close apposition to the ventricular wall. The tail tapers to a narrow band that arcs inferiorly and posteriorly, tracing the roof of the temporal horn into the temporal lobe and terminating near the amygdala.^[1]^[3]^[4] In terms of spatial relations, the caudate nucleus is positioned medial to the internal capsule, which separates it from the more lateral lentiform nucleus (comprising the putamen and globus pallidus), and lateral to the thalamus. Its medial surface abuts the ependyma of the lateral ventricle, while laterally it interfaces with white matter tracts of the corona radiata. The blood supply arises from multiple sources to accommodate its extended morphology: the head is primarily nourished by the recurrent artery of Heubner (a branch of the anterior cerebral artery), the superior portions of the head and body receive perfusion from the lenticulostriate branches of the middle cerebral artery, and the tail is supplied by the anterior choroidal artery.^[1]^[3]^[4] In healthy adults, the caudate nucleus measures approximately 5-6 cm in length from head to tail, with the head being the widest portion (up to 1.5-2 cm in anteroposterior diameter) and progressively narrowing caudally. Magnetic resonance imaging studies report a typical volume of about 4 cm³ per side in young to middle-aged individuals, with slight leftward asymmetry and gradual age-related reduction.^[5]

Connections

The caudate nucleus receives major afferent inputs that are primarily glutamatergic and originate from the ipsilateral cerebral cortex, with topographic organization such that the head receives projections mainly from prefrontal areas, the body from sensorimotor regions, and the tail from temporal and visual cortical areas.^[6]^[2]^[7] Additional afferents include glutamatergic projections from the thalamus, particularly from intralaminar and midline nuclei like the centromedian-parafascicular complex, which target widespread regions of the caudate.^[8] Dopaminergic inputs arise from the substantia nigra pars compacta, providing modulation to striatal neurons across the caudate.^[9] Efferent projections from the caudate nucleus are predominantly GABAergic and stem from medium spiny neurons in the striatum. These outputs form the basis of the direct and indirect pathways within the basal ganglia: the direct pathway projects to the globus pallidus interna and substantia nigra pars reticulata, while the indirect pathway targets the globus pallidus externa and, via additional connections, the subthalamic nucleus and substantia nigra pars reticulata.^[10] Intrastriatal efferents also connect the caudate to the putamen, facilitating lateral integration within the dorsal striatum.^[1] The caudate nucleus is integrated into parallel cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical loops that maintain functional segregation. Motor loops involve sensorimotor cortex inputs to the caudate body, relaying through the basal ganglia to ventral anterior/ventral lateral thalamic nuclei and back to motor areas; associative loops link prefrontal cortex to the caudate head, involving mediodorsal thalamus for executive processing; and limbic loops connect the amygdala and hippocampus to the ventral caudate, routing through midline thalamic nuclei for emotional and motivational integration.^[10] Reciprocal connections exist between the caudate and hippocampus, supporting memory-related interactions via direct and indirect pathways.^[11] Functional segregation along the caudate's anterior-posterior axis underscores its role in diverse processing: the head is preferentially linked to executive and cognitive areas like the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, while the tail connects to visual and temporal processing regions, including inferior temporal cortex.^[12]^[13]

Neurochemistry

The caudate nucleus consists predominantly of medium spiny neurons (MSNs), which account for approximately 90-95% of the total neuronal population in the striatum.^[14]^[15] These MSNs are inhibitory GABAergic projection neurons characterized by their medium-sized cell bodies and densely spined dendrites.^[16] They are subdivided into two main subtypes based on dopamine receptor expression: direct-pathway MSNs that primarily express D1-like dopamine receptors (D1 and D5) and project to the internal globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulata, and indirect-pathway MSNs that express D2-like dopamine receptors (D2 and D3) and project to the external globus pallidus.^[17]^[18] The remaining neuronal population, comprising about 5-10% of cells, includes various interneurons that modulate MSN activity.^[19] These consist of aspiny cholinergic interneurons, which release acetylcholine and represent roughly 1-5% of striatal neurons in primates and humans, as well as GABAergic interneurons expressing parvalbumin (fast-spiking type) and somatostatin (often co-expressed with neuropeptide Y, low-threshold spiking type).^[20]^[21]^[22] Parvalbumin-positive interneurons provide perisomatic inhibition to MSNs, while somatostatin-positive cells exert dendrite-targeted inhibition, contributing to the fine-tuning of striatal output. Cholinergic interneurons, tonically active and responsive to dopamine modulation, influence MSN excitability through muscarinic and nicotinic receptors.^[23] The primary neurotransmitter released by MSNs is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which mediates inhibitory transmission to downstream basal ganglia targets.^[24] Direct-pathway MSNs co-release the neuropeptide substance P, enhancing excitatory signaling in their projections, whereas indirect-pathway MSNs co-release enkephalin, which inhibits GABA release presynaptically.^[25] Dopamine, originating from projections of the substantia nigra pars compacta, modulates MSN activity via D1 and D2 receptors, with D1 activation promoting direct-pathway excitability and D2 activation suppressing indirect-pathway activity.^[18] Glutamatergic inputs from the cerebral cortex provide excitatory drive to MSNs through AMPA and NMDA receptors, briefly integrating with the local circuitry.^[26] Acetylcholine from cholinergic interneurons further regulates dopamine release and MSN plasticity via muscarinic receptors.^[27] Dopamine receptor expression is particularly high in the caudate nucleus, with D1 and D2 receptors densely localized on MSN dendrites.^[16] Recent positron emission tomography studies have documented age-related declines in D2 receptor binding potential, with reductions of approximately 5-10% per decade in the caudate, contributing to altered striatal signaling in aging. These changes are more pronounced in the dorsal caudate compared to ventral regions and correlate with diminished dopamine availability from midlife onward.^[28]

Development

Embryonic development

The caudate nucleus originates from the ventral telencephalon, specifically the lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE), which serves as the primary source of striatal progenitors during early embryogenesis.^[29] These progenitors arise from the subpallial region of the forebrain, distinct from dorsal telencephalic structures, and contribute to the formation of the striatum, including the caudate nucleus and putamen.^[30] In humans, this developmental process initiates around weeks 5–6 of gestation, coinciding with the differentiation of the telencephalon into secondary brain vesicles.^[31] Progenitor proliferation in the LGE begins by week 7, occurring primarily in the ventricular zone (VZ) and subventricular zone (SVZ), where neural stem cells expand to generate neuronal precursors. Migration of these precursors to their final positions in the striatum follows, with radial and tangential pathways guiding cells between weeks 8 and 12; during this phase, differentiation into medium spiny neurons (MSNs)—the predominant GABAergic projection neurons of the caudate—takes place.^[32] By week 20, the caudate nucleus acquires its characteristic C-shape, influenced by the expanding lateral ventricle and internal capsule formation, which separates it from the putamen.^[33] Genetic regulation of caudate nucleus development is orchestrated by key transcription factors and signaling pathways. Gsh2 (also known as Gsx2) is expressed early in the LGE from around week 6, promoting progenitor expansion and repressing cortical fates to establish striatal identity.^[29] Dlx1/2 genes, activated downstream of Gsh2, drive the differentiation of GABAergic MSNs by regulating neurotransmitter synthesis and neuronal maturation during weeks 8–12.^[32] Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling from the ventral midline, active from week 5 onward, induces LGE specification via a gradient that upregulates Gsh2 and Dlx expression, ensuring proper ventral telencephalic patterning. Disruptions in these embryonic processes can lead to congenital anomalies, such as holoprosencephaly associated with SHH pathway defects, which impair forebrain division and striatal formation. Migration defects in the LGE, often linked to mutations in Dlx1/2 or Gsh2, result in striatal hypoplasia or ectopic neuronal positioning, contributing to neurodevelopmental disorders.^[29]

Postnatal development and plasticity

The caudate nucleus undergoes significant volumetric expansion during infancy and early childhood, driven primarily by processes such as myelination and synaptogenesis. Longitudinal MRI studies indicate that caudate volume increases substantially in the first two years of life, with a 19% growth observed from age 1 to 2 years after normalization for total brain volume.^[34] This rapid postnatal growth contributes to the overall tripling of brain volume by age 3, reflecting the integration of the caudate into maturing basal ganglia circuits. Synaptic density in the caudate peaks around age 10 to 14, coinciding with the stabilization of neural connections before adolescent pruning begins.^[35] In adulthood, the caudate nucleus experiences a gradual decline in volume, typically at a rate of 4-8% per decade after age 40, as evidenced by volumetric MRI analyses of healthy aging populations.^[36] This atrophy exhibits a rightward asymmetry (greater right than left volume), maintained in older adults, potentially linked to hemispheric differences in dopaminergic signaling.^[37] Recent 2023 MRI studies further highlight accelerated susceptibility changes in the caudate head, correlating with age-related iron deposition and subtle structural loss.^[38] Neuroplasticity in the caudate nucleus persists into adulthood, encompassing limited neurogenesis and experience-dependent synaptic remodeling. In rodents, adult neurogenesis occurs sporadically in the striatum, including the caudate, but at low rates compared to the hippocampus. Human studies reveal evidence of adult neurogenesis in the caudate tail, identified by doublecortin-positive (DCX+) immature neurons, suggesting ongoing neuronal addition even in non-canonical regions. Synaptic pruning in the caudate is highly influenced by environmental experiences, such as bilingualism, which promotes structural adaptations and volume preservation through activity-dependent refinement of connections.^[39]^[40] Recent 2024 research also demonstrates caudate volume plasticity in response to antipsychotic treatment in schizophrenia patients.^[41] Hormonal factors contribute to sex-specific variations in caudate development and plasticity. Males exhibit larger caudate volumes than females throughout adolescence and adulthood, with differences averaging around 9-11% after controlling for total brain size, attributable to androgen influences during critical periods. In females, estrogen modulates striatal synaptic properties, enhancing excitatory transmission and long-term potentiation in the caudate-putamen via rapid actions on membrane receptors, thereby influencing plasticity in response to ovarian cycle fluctuations.^[42]^[43]

Functions

Motor functions

The caudate nucleus plays a pivotal role in the initiation and sequencing of goal-oriented voluntary movements through its involvement in the basal ganglia's direct and indirect pathways. In the direct pathway, excitatory glutamatergic inputs from the cortex project to inhibitory medium spiny neurons in the caudate nucleus and putamen, which in turn inhibit the internal segment of the globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulata, leading to disinhibition of thalamocortical motor circuits and facilitation of movement execution.^[26] Conversely, the indirect pathway involves caudate projections to the external globus pallidus, which inhibit the subthalamic nucleus, ultimately suppressing unwanted movements to refine action selection.^[44] These pathways integrate sensory feedback from cortical and thalamic sources to ensure smooth, adaptive motor performance, as evidenced by lesion studies showing disrupted movement sequencing in caudate damage.^[2] The caudate nucleus also contributes to spatial mnemonic processing essential for navigation, where it encodes response-based spatial maps to guide movement through familiar environments. Specifically, the tail of the caudate receives visual inputs from temporal cortical areas, supporting visual-spatial memory that facilitates route-based navigation and turn memorization.^[45] This region contrasts with hippocampal-dependent allocentric strategies by emphasizing egocentric, stimulus-response associations for efficient locomotion.^[7] In eye movement control, the caudate nucleus coordinates purposive saccades via projections to the superior colliculus and substantia nigra pars reticulata, modulating the timing and suppression of reflexive gazes to align with intentional shifts in attention and fixation.^[46] Functional MRI studies from 2020 demonstrate caudate activation during the early stages of de novo motor skill learning, particularly in sequencing novel visuomotor tasks involving saccadic adjustments.^[47] Additionally, the caudate nucleus supports posture maintenance and the formation of automatic motor routines, enabling habitual execution of stereotyped actions without ongoing conscious effort. Through repeated training, caudate circuits shift control from flexible, goal-directed behaviors to ingrained habits, as seen in overtraining paradigms that enhance procedural memory for postural adjustments and routine movements.^[48] This automaticity is modulated by dopaminergic inputs from the substantia nigra, which reinforce habit consolidation in the dorsal striatum.^[1]

Cognitive functions

The caudate nucleus plays a pivotal role in goal-directed action by integrating prefrontal cortical inputs to select and inhibit appropriate behaviors through cortico-striatal loops. These loops facilitate the gating of information into working memory, allowing the caudate to modulate cognitive control and strategic planning during task execution. Specifically, the head of the caudate nucleus collaborates with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to maintain and update representations in working memory, enabling adaptive responses to environmental demands. This integration is evident in neuroimaging studies showing caudate activation during tasks requiring sustained attention and decision-making based on prior goals. In memory and learning, the caudate nucleus is essential for procedural memory, particularly in acquiring skills through repetition, such as in classification learning tasks where it supports the formation of stimulus-response associations. A seminal 2005 study demonstrated that successful classification learning correlates with increased activity in the body and tail of the caudate nucleus, independent of hippocampal involvement for declarative aspects. These findings have been extended in recent reviews, emphasizing the caudate's role in implicit skill acquisition across cognitive domains, including habit formation and sequence learning. Additionally, the caudate integrates with the hippocampus to facilitate episodic recall, where enhanced functional connectivity between these structures predicts superior memory performance by bridging procedural and declarative systems. The caudate nucleus contributes to language processing, showing activation during semantic tasks and verbal fluency exercises that demand lexical retrieval and category generation. Lesions or disruptions in the caudate impair phonemic and semantic fluency, with structural correlates indicating its involvement in generating words under executive constraints. The left caudate nucleus is particularly linked to syntactic processing, as evidenced by its activation in tasks involving complex grammatical structures, such as hierarchical dependencies in sentence comprehension. Through threshold control mechanisms, the caudate nucleus modulates response inhibition and adjusts decision thresholds in probabilistic learning paradigms, enabling flexible adaptation to uncertain outcomes. It contributes to balancing speed and accuracy in perceptual decisions by encoding evaluative signals that raise inhibitory barriers against impulsive actions. In probabilistic classification tasks, caudate activity supports the integration of feedback to refine response selection, preventing interference from irrelevant stimuli. Regarding sleep-related cognition, the caudate nucleus influences memory consolidation during REM sleep by strengthening connectivity with the hippocampus, which aids in the offline processing of procedural and episodic memories. Targeted reactivation of learning cues during sleep enhances caudate-hippocampal functional links, leading to improved cognitive performance upon awakening. This process is particularly relevant for consolidating complex skills, where REM-stage interactions promote neural plasticity in striatal circuits.

Emotional and motivational functions

The caudate nucleus contributes to reward processing as part of the dorsal striatum, where it integrates dopamine signals encoding reward prediction errors to guide motivational behaviors and learning. Midbrain dopamine neurons project to the caudate, conveying phasic bursts that signal the discrepancy between expected and actual rewards, thereby updating value representations for future actions.^[49] This mechanism facilitates adaptive motivation, as evidenced by neuronal activity in the caudate during trial-and-error tasks where positive prediction errors enhance approach behaviors toward rewarding outcomes.^[50] In the context of social rewards, the posterodorsal body of the caudate nucleus activates specifically in response to images of romantic partners, linking dopamine-driven motivation to attachment and mate choice processes.^[51] The caudate nucleus modulates emotion processing through its connectivity with the amygdala, influencing fear and anxiety responses by integrating sensory cues with affective valuation. This interaction allows the caudate to regulate emotional reactivity, such as dampening excessive fear via striatal inhibition of amygdalar outputs during threat assessment.^[52] In pathological states, hyperactivity in the right caudate nucleus has been observed during the recall of trauma-related memories in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), correlating with heightened emotional distress and impaired regulation.^[53] Such alterations underscore the caudate's role in balancing motivational drive with emotional control, preventing maladaptive anxiety persistence. In social cognition, the caudate nucleus supports theory of mind processes by maintaining functional connectivity with regions like the temporoparietal junction, enabling the inference of others' mental states during interpersonal interactions. Functional neuroimaging studies reveal that the head of the caudate interacts dynamically with theory of mind networks, facilitating socio-cognitive judgments such as empathy and intention attribution.^[54] This connectivity integrates motivational incentives with social context, promoting behaviors that sustain cooperative relationships. The caudate nucleus is implicated in the formation of habitual behaviors, particularly under conditions of stress or addiction, where it shifts control from goal-directed actions to stimulus-response associations. Chronic stress enhances dendritic complexity in the dorsolateral striatum, including the caudate, promoting rigid habits that bypass flexible decision-making and contribute to compulsive drug-seeking.^[55] In addiction models, caudate circuits encode overlearned responses to drug cues, reinforcing motivational loops that sustain habitual consumption despite negative consequences.^[56] This transition highlights the caudate's role in maladaptive motivation, where environmental stressors exacerbate reliance on automated emotional and reward-driven routines.

Clinical significance

Vascular and traumatic lesions

Vascular lesions of the caudate nucleus primarily arise from ischemic strokes due to occlusion of its supplying arteries, including the perforating lenticulostriate branches of the middle cerebral artery, the recurrent artery of Heubner from the anterior cerebral artery, and the anterior choroidal artery.^[1] These occlusions often affect the head and body of the caudate, leading to acute infarction confirmed by CT or MRI imaging. A seminal study of 31 patients with acute caudate vascular lesions (25 infarcts and 6 hemorrhages) identified that such events frequently stem from small vessel disease or embolism, with lesions isolated to the caudate in 17 cases.^[57] Common symptoms of caudate strokes include mild, transient contralateral hemiparesis in approximately two-thirds of cases, dysarthria in 42%, and prominent behavioral changes such as abulia (observed in 48%), disinhibition, restlessness, agitation, anxiety, and confusion.^[57] Left-sided lesions may additionally impair speech, while right-sided ones are linked to motor paresis and disorientation. Recent MRI correlations, such as in a 2023 case of left caudate infarction due to middle cerebral artery stenosis, highlight restricted diffusion on diffusion-weighted imaging and associated involuntary movements like hemiballismus alongside hemiparesis.^[58] Prognosis is generally favorable, with 60% of infarct patients returning to normal daily activities, though behavioral sequelae may persist.^[57] Surgical resection of the caudate nucleus, often performed for tumors such as low-grade gliomas involving the basal ganglia, can result in immediate postoperative motor deficits like hemiparesis and cognitive impairments including executive dysfunction.^[59] In a systematic review of basal ganglia gliomas, caudate-specific resections showed relatively favorable outcomes compared to putaminal or pallidal tumors, with low-grade cases achieving up to 45% improvement in neurological function and low mortality (7.7%).^[59] Case reports demonstrate recovery through neural plasticity, where initial deficits resolve within months via reorganization of adjacent pathways, particularly in younger patients without extensive involvement.^[60] Traumatic lesions to the caudate nucleus, typically from head injury-induced contusions or shear forces, exploit vulnerabilities in its blood supply, including watershed zones between anterior and middle cerebral artery territories.^[61] These injuries often manifest as movement disorders such as dystonia or chorea, alongside apathy characterized by reduced motivation and initiative.^[62] Dopaminergic dysregulation in the caudate following traumatic brain injury contributes to hypokinetic states and apathy, as evidenced by reduced dopamine transporter binding in affected regions.^[63] Case studies of mild traumatic brain injury reveal prefronto-caudate tract disruption leading to severe apathy without prominent motor involvement, underscoring the nucleus's role in motivational circuits.

Neurodegenerative disorders

The caudate nucleus plays a significant role in several neurodegenerative disorders, where progressive degeneration disrupts its dopaminergic innervation, structural integrity, and functional connectivity, contributing to motor, cognitive, and behavioral impairments. In Parkinson's disease (PD), the loss of substantia nigra pars compacta dopaminergic neurons leads to dopamine depletion in the striatum, including the caudate nucleus, which underlies core motor symptoms such as bradykinesia.^[64] Recent imaging studies have revealed relative sparing of dopaminergic terminals in the caudate compared to the putamen during disease progression, particularly in patients exhibiting rest tremor, suggesting differential vulnerability across striatal subregions that may influence symptom heterogeneity.^[65] Huntington's disease (HD), caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the HTT gene, results in selective striatal degeneration that prominently affects the caudate nucleus from early stages. Atrophy in the caudate begins in premanifest phases, with volume losses reaching up to 30% by the time of motor onset, as evidenced by volumetric MRI analyses, and continues to accelerate, contributing to chorea, cognitive decline, and executive dysfunction.^[66]^[67] In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the caudate nucleus exhibits reduced volume, particularly in the head and body, which correlates with disease severity and progression from mild cognitive impairment.^[68] A 2024 postmortem study further identified decreased glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) availability in the caudate of AD brains, potentially linking metabolic dysregulation to neuronal vulnerability. As of 2025, phase 3 clinical trials of GLP-1 receptor agonists, such as semaglutide (evoke and evoke+ trials), are evaluating their potential to slow progression in early symptomatic Alzheimer's disease, supported by real-world evidence of reduced AD risk associated with these agents.^[69]^[70]^[71] These structural changes are accompanied by altered functional connectivity of the caudate with cortical and limbic regions, which mediates cognitive decline, including impairments in memory and executive function.^[72] Aging-related alterations in the caudate nucleus also predict memory decline, independent of frank neurodegeneration. Functional MRI studies from 2024 demonstrate that caudate functional networks, particularly those involving frontostriatal circuits, influence longitudinal structural atrophy and forecast episodic memory changes over years in older adults.^[73]

Psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders

The caudate nucleus, a key component of the basal ganglia, plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of various psychiatric disorders, particularly those involving disruptions in reward processing, habit formation, and emotional regulation. In schizophrenia, structural neuroimaging studies have consistently identified reduced caudate nucleus volume, especially in neuroleptic-naïve patients, which correlates with cognitive deficits and psychopathological symptoms such as those seen in schizotypal personality disorder, a schizophrenia-spectrum condition.^[74] Functional abnormalities, including altered dopamine signaling in the caudate, contribute to hyperdopaminergia, a core feature of schizophrenia's positive symptoms.^[75] Shape analyses further reveal morphological deviations in the caudate that align with impaired frontal-striatal circuitry, impacting executive function and working memory.^[76] In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), the caudate nucleus exhibits hyperactivity, particularly within cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits involving the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex.^[77] Metabolic imaging demonstrates increased caudate activity at rest and during symptom provocation, supporting models where caudate dysfunction leads to perseverative thoughts and compulsive behaviors.^[78] Meta-analyses of functional neuroimaging confirm caudate involvement, with hyperactivation linked to habit-based avoidance and imbalance in connectivity between the caudate and putamen.^[79]^[80] Neuronal recordings in OCD patients also show correlates of obsessions directly in caudate activity, highlighting its role in inhibitory control deficits.^[81] Major depressive disorder is associated with caudate nucleus hypoactivation and volume reduction, which intensify with symptom severity. Task-based functional MRI reveals decreased activation in the caudate head and body during emotional processing tasks, correlating with anhedonia and motivational deficits.^[82]^[83] Surface mapping studies indicate greater caudate atrophy in depressed individuals, consistent with disruptions in reward anticipation and striatal dopamine pathways.^[84] In bipolar disorder, caudate shape and volume abnormalities, including ventral enlargements, relate to mood instability and cognitive impairments in learning and feedback processing.^[85] Turning to neurodevelopmental disorders, the caudate nucleus shows structural and functional alterations in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Volumetric MRI studies report smaller caudate nuclei in prepubertal children with ADHD, a finding replicated across multiple cohorts and linked to core symptoms of inattention and impulsivity.^[86] Asymmetry in caudate volume predicts attentional deficits, with rightward biases associated with hyperactivity.^[87] Resting-state connectivity analyses demonstrate altered dorsal caudate networks with frontal regions, contributing to executive dysfunction.^[88] Stimulant medications, such as methylphenidate, normalize some basal ganglia morphometry, including caudate shape, underscoring its therapeutic relevance.^[89] In autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the caudate nucleus is often enlarged, particularly in childhood, and this hypertrophy correlates with restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs). Longitudinal studies show accelerated caudate growth over two years in ASD, proportional to overall brain volume but disproportionately affecting associative striatal regions.^[90] Postmortem analyses reveal reduced density of calretinin-positive interneurons in the caudate, potentially underlying social and repetitive symptom domains.^[91] Functional connectivity is atypically diffuse between the caudate and cerebral cortex, linked to reduced activation during social cognition tasks.^[92] However, caudate volume differences may normalize in adulthood, suggesting developmental specificity.^[93] Interactions between caudate and globus pallidus volumes predict ASD-like traits, emphasizing fronto-striatal circuit involvement.^[94]

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Of the dorsal striatum, the caudate nucleus is a C-shaped structure comprising a head, body, and tail located lateral to the lateral ventricles. The lenticular ...Neuroanatomy, Basal Ganglia · Structure And Function · Clinical SignificanceMissing: gross size<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
Extrinsic and intrinsic control of striatal cholinergic interneuron activity
The primary source of ACh is local cholinergic interneurons (ChIs), which make up only 1% of the total cells within the region. ChIs are widely distributed ...
[29]
Aging-related losses in dopamine D2/3 receptor availability are ...
Feb 5, 2025 · Our longitudinal analyses support the notion that aging-related changes in the dopamine system contribute to working memory decline in aging.Missing: binding nucleus 2023
[30]
Molecular Regulation of Striatal Development: A Review - PMC
Several gene families are involved in coordinating the initial events for telencephalon patterning: principally fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), bone ...
[31]
https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Neural_-_Basal_Ganglia_Development
[32]
Neural - Basal Ganglia Development - Embryology
### Summary of Basal Ganglia, Striatum, and Caudate Nucleus Development
[33]
https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhab532
[34]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2884385/
[35]
A Structural MRI Study of Human Brain Development from Birth to 2 ...
Total brain volume increased 101% in the first year, with a 15% increase in the second. The majority of hemispheric growth was accounted for by gray matter, ...
[36]
Evolution of deep gray matter volume across the human lifespan
May 26, 2017 · In general, basal ganglia structures tended to peak earlier (∼12–14 years), followed by the thalamus (∼19 years), and then by both limbic ...
[37]
Age-dependent changes in brain iron deposition and volume in ...
Apr 1, 2023 · Previous QSM studies showed a strong age-susceptibility correlation in the head of the caudate nucleus (CN), putamen (PUT), globus pallidus (GP) ...
[38]
A Study of Volumetric Variations of Basal Nuclei in the Normal ...
Jan 12, 2017 · The caudate volume has consistently been found to decline with age in several ... at 4–8% per decade, comparable to the age-related loss of ...
[39]
Effect of normal aging, gender and hemispheric differences
Aug 7, 2025 · In both genders, a significant rightward asymmetry was observed in the caudate and putamen nucleus (3.89%, 4.21% in men and 4.51%, 3.32% in ...
[40]
Neurogenesis in the Striatum of the Adult Human Brain - ScienceDirect
Feb 27, 2014 · Properties of doublecortin-(DCX)-expressing cells in the piriform cortex compared to the neurogenic dentate gyrus of adult mice. PLoS ONE, 6 ...Missing: DCX+ | Show results with:DCX+
[41]
Neuroplasticity and cognitive reserve effects in the Caudate Nucleus ...
Jun 23, 2023 · This study investigates bilingualism-induced neuroplastic and cognitive-reserve effects in the Caudate Nucleus (CN), a structure believed to ...
[42]
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[43]
Estradiol rapidly modulates excitatory synapse properties in a sex
Estradiol acutely facilitates sex differences in striatum-dependent behaviors. However, little is understood regarding the underlying mechanism.
[44]
Basal ganglia: Direct and Indirect pathways | Kenhub
The direct pathway starts from the cortex and projects to the striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) with excitatory glutamatergic (glu) neurons. The neurons ...
[45]
Caudate nucleus-dependent navigation strategies are associated ...
Caudate nucleus-based navigation, using turn memorization, is linked to increased risk-taking and enhanced set-shifting performance.
[46]
Role of the basal ganglia in the control of purposive saccadic eye ...
The basal ganglia control saccadic eye movements (saccades) by means of their connection to the superior colliculus (SC).
[47]
Spatiotemporal dissociation of fMRI activity in the caudate nucleus ...
Sep 22, 2020 · Spatiotemporal dissociation of fMRI activity in the caudate nucleus underlies human de novo motor skill learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 ...
[48]
A Critical Review of Habit Learning and the Basal Ganglia - PMC - NIH
Aug 30, 2011 · The current paper briefly outlines the historical development of the concept of habit learning and discusses its relationship to the basal ganglia.
[49]
The dopamine reward prediction error hypothesis - PubMed Central
The phasic activity of midbrain dopamine neurons encodes a reward prediction error used to guide learning throughout the frontal cortex and the basal ganglia.
[50]
Encoding of Both Positive and Negative Reward Prediction Errors by ...
Dec 7, 2011 · We examined the activity of neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and caudate nucleus of monkeys as they performed a trial-and-error learning task.
[51]
Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice - Journals
Nov 13, 2006 · Activation specific to the beloved occurred in the brainstem right ventral tegmental area and right postero-dorsal body of the caudate nucleus.
[52]
Differences in the Nucleus Accumbens and Thalamus Network
The caudate nucleus also interacts with the amygdala to regulate these emotional responses (Šimić et al., 2021). This interaction is essential for regulating ...
[53]
The neural correlates of trauma‐related autobiographical memory in ...
Dec 9, 2019 · ... PTSD displayed more common neural activation in the right caudate nucleus. Moreover, in PTSD, more common activation was observed in a ...
[54]
The Interaction Between Caudate Nucleus and Regions Within the ...
Our results demonstrate that the head of the caudate nucleus could be involved in socio-cognitive processes via a functional interaction with ToM-related brain ...
[55]
Chronic stress may facilitate the recruitment of habit- and addiction ...
Chronic stress resulted in increased dendritic complexity in the dorsolateral striatum and nucleus accumbens core, regions implicated in habitual behavior and ...
[56]
Dorsal Striatal Circuits for Habits, Compulsions and Addictions
Here, we review the neural circuit bases of habits, compulsions, and addictions, behaviors which are all characterized by relatively automatic action ...
[57]
Acute Caudate Vascular Lesions | Stroke
Restlessness, disinhibition, and confusion occurred in 4 patients with lesions circumscribed to the caudate nucleus. Agitation, anxiety, and talkativeness were ...
[58]
Acute Caudate Nucleus Stroke Presenting As Hemiballismus - PMC
Nov 3, 2023 · We present a rare case of acute hemiballismus and hemichorea following infarction of the left caudate nucleus, as determined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
[59]
Surgical Strategies in Basal Ganglia Gliomas: A Systematic Review ...
Low-grade tumors showed significantly better outcomes, with a 45% improvement rate and 7.7% mortality. Caudate nucleus tumors exhibited the most favorable ...
[60]
Surgical, functional, and oncological considerations regarding ...
Mar 24, 2023 · ... deficits and cognitive impairments. However, in the vast ... Immediately after surgery, 15 patients (13.7%) exhibited motor deficits ...
[61]
Diagnosis and treatment of Watershed strokes: a narrative review
Half of the deep watershed strokes and MCA occlusion can have an anatomical variation of a common stem origin of lenticulostriate arteries [12]. Generally, more ...
[62]
Disorders of Movement due to Acquired and Traumatic Brain Injury
Sep 22, 2022 · Tremor and dystonia are the most reported movement disorders following traumatic brain injury. Dystonia and myoclonus are well documented following hypoxic ...Missing: apathy watershed zones
[63]
Dopaminergic abnormalities following traumatic brain injury
Jan 17, 2018 · Six patients had visible lesions in their caudate, three in the putamen and two in the nucleus accumbens. Patients with lesions in these ...Missing: contusion | Show results with:contusion
[64]
Depletion of dopamine in Parkinson's disease and relevant ...
This review tries to explain the different possible mechanisms behind the depletion of dopamine in PD patients such as alpha-synuclein abnormalities, ...Missing: sparing 2024<|separator|>
[65]
Relative sparing of dopaminergic terminals in the caudate nucleus is ...
Nov 18, 2024 · These results suggest that the relative sparing of caudate dopaminergic terminals during disease progression is related to the development of RT ...
[66]
Huntington Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 6, 2025 · Adult-onset Huntington disease is typically characterized by early striatal atrophy in the caudate. Cerebellar and cortical atrophy is seen ...
[67]
Early atrophy of pallidum and accumbens nucleus in Huntington's ...
These structures are closely followed by the putamen and the caudate nucleus with 67 and 70% remaining volume, respectively. Percentages for all structures in ...
[68]
Volume reduction in subcortical regions according to severity of ...
We investigated whether there exists a hierarchical vulnerability of subcortical structures with respect to the severity of Alzheimer's disease (AD).
[69]
Reduced GLP-1R availability in the caudate nucleus with ... - Frontiers
Reduced GLP-1R in the aged human brain is associated with glucose dysmetabolism, ferroptosis, and reduced DCX+ neurons, that may contribute to AD.
[70]
Altered Functional Connectivity of Basal Ganglia in Mild Cognitive ...
In addition, we managed to determine that there were decreased FC strengths of connection between the caudate and the amygdala, between the caudate and the ...
[71]
Caudate functional networks influence brain structural changes with ...
Apr 9, 2024 · Functional MRI (fMRI) studies demonstrated that caudate functional connectivity can predict change in memory over years in elderly individuals.
[72]
Reduction of Caudate Nucleus Volumes in Neuroleptic-Naïve ... - NIH
The caudate nucleus might contribute to the psychopathological and cognitive deficits observed in schizotypal personality disorder (SPD), a schizophrenia ...
[73]
Caudate nucleus volume in medicated and unmedicated patients ...
Oct 1, 2024 · The caudate nucleus is a part of the striatum, and striatal hyperdopaminergia is considered central to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.
[74]
Shape of Caudate Nucleus and Its Cognitive Correlates in ...
Differential activation of the caudate nucleus in primates performing spatial and non-spatial working memory tasks. J Neurosci. 1997;17:3870–3882. doi ...
[75]
Neurocircuit models of obsessive-compulsive disorder - NIH
Several models propose that treatments for OCD could be improved if directed to specific neurocircuit dysfunctions, thereby restoring efficient neurocognitive ...
[76]
Neuroimaging Studies in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder - NIH
Studies using fluorodopa-PET in patients with OCD suggested increased metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex,[32] caudate nucleus,[33] anterior cingulate cortex ...
[77]
A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging in obsessive ... - PubMed
... caudate nucleus. No other significant differences were found. The implications of these results for theories regarding the etiology of OCD are discussed.
[78]
Imbalance between the caudate and putamen connectivity in ...
Using fMRI, the authors further found that these increased avoidance habits in OCD patients were associated with hyper-activation in the caudate nucleus, a key ...
[79]
Neuronal Correlates of Obsessions in the Caudate Nucleus
We tested the hypothesis that obsessions or compulsions might be associated with particular features of neuronal activity in the CN of OCD patients.
[80]
Abnormal caudate nucleus activity in patients with depressive disorder
During task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (t-fMRI) patients with depressive disorder (DD) have shown abnormal caudate nucleus activation.
[81]
Abnormal caudate nucleus activity in patients with depressive disorder
There is a positive relationship between decreased activation of the caudate body and head and depressed emotional behaviors in patients with depressive ...
[82]
Three-Dimensional Surface Mapping of the Caudate Nucleus in ...
Among depressed subjects, greater caudate reduction was associated with more severe depression. These results are consistent with growing evidence that the ...
[83]
Size and shape of the caudate nucleus in individuals with bipolar ...
Within this, the caudate nucleus (CN) is known for its role in higher-order motor control, and more recently learning and memory, particularly feedback ...
[84]
Smaller volumes of caudate nuclei in prepubertal children with ADHD
The caudate nucleus is the brain structure that has been implicated most often in the pathophysiology of ADHD by neuroimaging, genetic and neuropharmacological ...
[85]
Caudate asymmetry is related to attentional impulsivity and an ... - NIH
We found that asymmetry in the volume of the caudate significantly predicted ADHD-like attentional deficits and attentional impulsiveness in a sample of young ...
[86]
Altered patterns of resting-state functional connectivity between the ...
In conclusion, our data demonstrated that there was connectivity of dorsal caudate with several brain regions in ADHD children and the connectivity of left DC ...
[87]
Basal Ganglia Surface Morphology and the Effects of Stimulant ... - NIH
This study examines the morphologic features of the basal ganglia nuclei (caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus) in children with ADHD.
[88]
Two years changes in the development of caudate nucleus are ... - NIH
Caudate nucleus volume is enlarged in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is associated with restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs).
[89]
Calretinin interneuron density in the caudate nucleus is lower in ...
Jun 27, 2017 · Patients with autism had a 35% lower density of calretinin+ interneurons in the caudate that was driven by loss of small calretinin+ neurons.
[90]
Atypically diffuse functional connectivity between caudate nuclei and ...
Oct 16, 2006 · In each of the above mentioned studies, autism groups showed reduced caudate activation compared to control subjects.
[91]
Caudate Nucleus Volume and Cognitive Performance
As caudate volumes increase further, they may fall within an “overgrowth” range, potentially suggesting abnormal neuronal pruning, and performance deficits on ...Missing: postnatal infancy
[92]
Decreased Left Caudate Volume Is Associated with Increased ...
The caudate nucleus is also integral to executive function, and has been implicated in the development of stereotyped and repetitive behaviours [93]. A number ...