Cicely (Myrrhis odorata), commonly known as sweet cicely, is a herbaceous perennial plant in the Apiaceae family native to grassy banks and woodland areas of the mountainous regions in southern and central Europe.[1] It forms bushy clumps 2-4 feet tall and wide, featuring upright, hollow, grooved stems topped with 2- to 3-pinnate, fern-like leaves that are 12 inches long, dark green, and emit a strong aniseed or licorice fragrance when crushed.[1] In late spring, it produces tiny white flowers in 2-inch compound umbels, followed by aromatic seeds and a long taproot.[1] All parts of the plant—leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, and roots—are edible, offering a sweet, anise-like flavor that has made it a valued culinary herb for centuries.[2]Historically, sweet cicely has been cultivated in European herb gardens since at least the Middle Ages, where it was prized for its ability to enhance flavors and reduce the need for sugar in dishes, particularly with tart fruits like rhubarb.[3] Herbalists have long used it medicinally to stimulate appetite, aid digestion, and relieve coughs, though modern evidence for these benefits is limited.[2] The genus name Myrrhis derives from the Greek word for myrrh, reflecting its resinous, aromatic qualities reminiscent of the biblical spice, and it remains the sole species in its genus.[1]In culinary applications, the soft, downy leaves can be added raw to salads, dips, or omelets for a mild anise taste, while cooking mellows their flavor for use in soups, stews, and sauces.[3] Seeds serve as a spice in baking or as a breath freshener when green, and the roots, harvested in autumn, can be boiled or roasted like parsnips.[2] Flowers make an attractive garnish, and the plant's natural sweetness allows it to cut sugar content in recipes by up to half without altering taste.[3] Caution is advised when foraging, as it belongs to the Apiaceae family, which includes poisonous look-alikes like hemlock.[3]For cultivation, sweet cicely thrives in USDA zones 3-7 (or 5-9 per some sources), preferring full sun to part shade and organically rich, moist, well-draining soil with a pH of 4.5-7.4.[2] It is low-maintenance, self-seeding readily, and can be propagated by seed in autumn or by root division in spring, though its deep taproot makes transplanting challenging once established.[1] Space plants 24 inches apart to allow for their 3-6 foot spread, and water weekly to maintain consistent moisture; it attracts pollinators like bees but is rarely troubled by pests, though a rust fungus may occasionally affect it.[2] Widely naturalized beyond its native range, it adds ornamental value to borders, woodland gardens, or kitchen plots with its feathery foliage and delicate blooms.[1]
Taxonomy and Naming
Taxonomy
Cicely, known scientifically as Myrrhis odorata, is classified in the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Apiales, family Apiaceae, genus Myrrhis, and it represents the only species in this monotypic genus.[4] Within the Apiaceae, Myrrhis belongs to the subfamily Apioideae, tribe Scandiceae, and subtribe Scandicinae. The monotypic nature of the genus underscores its evolutionary isolation, as phylogenetic analyses, including those using nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, confirm Myrrhis as part of the monophyletic Scandiceae tribe, with its position within subtribe Scandicinae supported by more recent studies, distinct from related tribes like Caucalideae (containing genera like Torilis and Caucalis).[5][6]Historical synonyms for Myrrhis odorata include Chaerophyllum odoratum (L.) Crantz and Scandix odorata L., reflecting earlier taxonomic placements before the genus Myrrhis was established by Scopoli in 1760.[7] These synonyms arose from morphological similarities to other Apiaceae members, but modern classifications confirm its unique status.[4]Myrrhis is phylogenetically and morphologically distinct from related genera in the Apiaceae, such as Osmorhiza, which includes North American species commonly called "sweet cicelies." Genetic studies using ITS and plastid DNA loci show Osmorhiza forms a monophyletic clade outside of Scandiceae, with basal diversification in eastern Asia, while Myrrhis remains isolated in Europe; morphologically, Osmorhiza species typically exhibit more finely divided leaves and pubescent stems, contrasting with the glabrous, hollow stems and broader pinnate leaflets of Myrrhis odorata.[8] Similarly, Myrrhis odorata differs from Pimpinella anisum (anise), which belongs to the tribe Pimpinelleae rather than Scandiceae, as revealed by nuclear phylogenomic analyses; while both share an anise-like scent from anethole, Pimpinella is an annual with simpler, less dissected leaves and compact umbels, whereas Myrrhis is a perennial with highly compound foliage.[9][1]
Etymology
The common name "cicely" for Myrrhis odorata originates from the Latin seselis, which itself derives from the Ancient Greekσέσελις (séselis), a term used for various umbelliferous plants in the Apiaceae family, likely referring to their aromatic qualities.[10][11] This Greek root influenced Old French forms such as célesin or similar variants, eventually entering Middle English as "cicely" around the 16th century.[11] The qualifier "sweet" in "sweet cicely" distinguishes it from other cicely species, such as those in the genus Osmorhiza, emphasizing its anise-like sweetness in contrast to the more bitter or less palatable flavors of its relatives.[1]The genus name Myrrhis stems from the Greekmyrrhis (μυρρίς), denoting an aromatic oil or unidentified plant, and is cognate with myrrha, the Greek term for the fragrant resin obtained from the myrrh tree (Commiphora myrrha), alluding to the plant's own volatile oils that produce a similar perfumed scent.[11][12] This nomenclature highlights the historical association between M. odorata's aroma and the esteemed myrrh used in ancient perfumery and incense. The specific epithet odorata is derived from the Latin odoratus, meaning "fragrant" or "scented," directly referencing the pervasive anethole-rich aroma emitted by its leaves, stems, and seeds when crushed.[1][11]Historical name variations further underscore these aromatic links, including "garden myrrh" and "British myrrh," which evoke the plant's cultivated resemblance to true myrrh in fragrance, as well as "sweet chervil," reflecting its flavor profile akin to but sweeter than Anthriscus cerefolium.[12][1] Regional English names like "sweet bracken" or "shepherd's needle" also appear in older herbals, tying into its fern-like foliage and seed pod shape, though always with an emphasis on its distinctive scent.[12]
Description
Morphology
Cicely (Myrrhis odorata) is a perennialherbaceous plant that forms bushy clumps, typically reaching heights of 0.6 to 2 meters and widths of 0.5 to 1 meter.[1][13] The stems are upright, hollow, grooved, and branching, often covered with fine hairs, particularly between nodes.[13][14]The leaves are tripinnate and fern-like, measuring 20 to 40 cm in length, with bright green coloration and sheathing bases at the nodes.[1][15] They are finely divided, sometimes with a downy texture on the undersides, and emit a distinctive aniseed scent when crushed, attributed to essential oils containing anethole.[12][16]The inflorescence consists of compound umbels, each 2 to 5 cm in diameter, supported by 10 to 20 rays that are 1.5 to 3 cm long and often hairy.[17][18] The flowers are creamy-white, each with five petals measuring 2 to 4 mm across, and they bloom from May to June.[1][12]The fruits are elongated schizocarps, 15 to 25 mm long, ribbed, and initially green before turning brown at maturity; they contain essential oils similar to those in the leaves.[13][1] These dry fruits split into two one-seeded mericarps upon ripening.[13]The root system features a vertical taproot that is stout, brittle, and up to 30 cm long, with a thickness reaching 35 mm in some specimens.[15][17] This deep-penetrating structure anchors the plant firmly in the soil.[17]
Reproduction and Growth
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) exhibits a typical life cycle for a perennial member of the Apiaceae family, emerging from its taproot in early spring with fern-like foliage that develops rapidly in moist, shaded conditions. The plant reaches maturity within one to two years, producing flowers in its first or second season depending on environmental factors, and persists for several years in the wild before declining. It dies back to the ground in winter, relying on its deep taproot for overwintering and regrowth the following spring.[1][2]Flowering occurs in late spring, from May to June, when the plant produces hermaphroditic, self-fertile flowers arranged in large, cream-white compound umbels up to 2-5 cm in diameter; although capable of self-pollination, the flowers are primarily insect-pollinated for effective seed set. The umbels mature sequentially over the 4-6 week flowering period, with individual florets opening progressively to extend the bloom duration and attract pollinators. Each primary umbel consists of numerous secondary umbellets, contributing to prolific seed production if conditions are favorable.[19][1]Seed production follows pollination, with each umbel yielding 20-50 viable, dark brown mericarps (seeds) that mature from July to September, encased initially in ribbed schizocarps about 1 cm long. These seeds are aromatic with a licorice flavor and exhibit dormancy, requiring coldstratification at 4°C for 4-12 weeks to break, after which germination occurs in 3-6 weeks under cool, moist conditions; seed viability remains high for up to 2 years if stored dry and cool, though it declines rapidly thereafter. In natural settings, seeds often self-sow nearby, contributing to the plant's spread.[2][19][20]While primarily reproducing sexually via seeds, vegetative propagation is limited and occurs mainly through root suckers or division of the taproot in disturbed soils, allowing clonal spread under favorable conditions but less commonly than seed dispersal. This strategy supports colony formation in shaded woodland edges but does not dominate the plant's reproductive output.[2][1]
Distribution and Ecology
Geographic Distribution
Myrrhis odorata, commonly known as sweet cicely, is native to the mountainous regions of southern and central Europe, extending from the Pyrenees in Spain and France eastward to the western Balkan Peninsula.[4][12] This range includes countries such as Albania, Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and parts of the western Balkan Peninsula.[4] Within its native habitat, the plant thrives in upland areas, often at elevations suitable for montane grasslands and woodland edges.The species has been widely introduced and naturalized outside its native range through human activities, particularly via trade and cultivation as a culinary and medicinal herb.[13] In the British Isles, it is abundant in northern England, Scotland, and Ireland, with records indicating presence since ancient times, likely facilitated by early European migrations and settlements.[4][17] Scattered populations have established in North America, including escapes from cultivation in states such as Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and provinces like British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Ontario.[13][4] It is also naturalized in parts of Scandinavia (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden), the Baltic States, Belgium, Czechia-Slovakia, the Netherlands, Poland, and Ukraine.[4]The current distribution of M. odorata remains stable, with no widespread invasive status reported in most regions where it occurs.[21] Its spread has primarily resulted from deliberate human introduction for horticultural purposes rather than aggressive natural expansion.[13] According to the IUCN Red List, the species is classified as Least Concern globally, though localized declines may occur in native overgrazed mountain pastures due to habitat pressure.[22]
Habitat and Ecology
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) thrives in moist, shaded environments such as woodland edges, hedgerows, and riverbanks, as well as mountain meadows and grassy places in hilly regions.[23][24] It prefers cool temperate climates and is frost-hardy, suitable for USDA hardiness zones 4 through 8, tolerating partial sun but avoiding prolonged drought or full exposure in dry conditions.[25][26][4]The plant favors well-drained, fertile loamy soils with a pH range of mildly acidic to mildly alkaline (approximately 6.0–7.5), often nutrient-rich and mull humus types in damp ground.[27][17] It exhibits low invasiveness in its native European habitats, persisting in semi-natural and man-made edges without aggressive spread.[24][28]Ecologically, M. odorata serves as a nectar source for pollinators including bees and hoverflies, supporting their adult stages during flowering.[29][24] As a member of the Apiaceae family, it acts as a host for specific insects adapted to umbelliferous plants, contributing to biodiversity in shaded, moist ecosystems.[24] Its taproot system anchors the plant in soils along damp riverbanks and woodland margins, while it engages in mild competition with surrounding grasses in these habitats.[23]
History
Introduction and Spread
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata), native to the mountainous regions of southern and central Europe, is sometimes referred to as the "Roman Plant" in historical records, suggesting an early association with Roman culture.[12] It is believed to have been introduced to Britain during the Romanperiod, where it became established near settlements and is considered an archaeophyte, present before 1500.[30][31] This early spread laid the foundation for its integration into European herbal traditions beyond its original range.During the medieval period from the 10th to 15th centuries, sweet cicely gained prominence in Europe as a strewing herb, scattered on floors to release its fragrant aroma and help mask odors.[32] It was commonly cultivated in monastic gardens across England and France, valued for its aromatic qualities in enclosed religious communities.[33][31]In the 18th and 19th centuries, herbalists introduced sweet cicely to North America as a garden ornamental and culinary herb, where it occasionally escaped cultivation but remained largely non-invasive.[13] It is common in Scandinavian gardens due to its adaptability.[11]The plant's dissemination was driven by its dual ornamental charm—feathery foliage and white umbels—and culinary versatility as a natural sweetener and flavor enhancer, without posing significant invasive threats in introduced areas.[25]
Traditional Uses
In the 16th to 18th centuries, sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) was employed in European herbal medicine primarily as a digestive aid, with its anise-like compounds used to alleviate flatulence and stimulate appetite.[34] Herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, in his 1653 Complete Herbal, described the boiled roots as effective for warming cold stomachs, expelling wind, and enhancing digestion when prepared with oil and vinegar.[34] Additionally, Culpeper noted its utility in cough remedies, recommending the root decoction for treating phthisic (lung consumption) and other respiratory complaints, often combined with honey or wine.[34]From the 1600s onward, Carthusian monks incorporated sweet cicely seeds into the secret formula for Chartreuse liqueur, valuing their aromatic properties for flavoring and contributing to the drink's distinctive green hue and digestive benefits.[33]Culinary applications of sweet cicely date back to medieval Europe, where its leaves were added to salads and stews for their sweet, aniseed flavor, serving as a natural sweetener before refined sugar became widespread.[31] The roots were boiled and eaten as a vegetable, often as a substitute for parsnips due to their similar texture and mild taste when cooked.[23] In ancient Britain, the seeds were sprinkled on bread to impart a subtle licorice-like seasoning, a practice linked to Roman introductions of the plant.[30]Beyond medicine and cuisine, sweet cicely served practical and symbolic roles in daily life during the Middle Ages. Its fragrant leaves were used as a strewing herb on church and household floors to mask odors and freshen the air when crushed underfoot.[23] In European folklore, rare mentions in herbals attributed protective qualities to the plant, associating it with warding off evil spirits and inclusion in charms, though such uses were anecdotal and not widespread.[35]Regional variations were prominent in the British Isles, where sweet cicely was used in herbal beverages, leveraging its sweetness.[36]
Cultivation
Requirements
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) thrives in cultivation when provided with conditions that mimic its native woodland edges, such as partial shade and consistently moist soil. It performs best in sites offering full sun to partial shade, with afternoon shade recommended in warmer regions to prevent scorching and maintain foliage quality. Plants should be spaced 24 inches (60 cm) apart to allow for their clumping growth habit and to accommodate potential self-sowing, which can lead to aggressive spread if not managed.[2][37]This perennial herb is hardy in USDA zones 3 to 8, tolerating winter temperatures as low as -40°C (-40°F) with minimal protection in cooler climates. It prefers cool summer conditions, ideally between 15-25°C (59-77°F), and may struggle in prolonged heat above 30°C (86°F) without shade and adequate moisture. In regions with harsh winters, applying a 4-inch mulch layer of straw or leaves after the ground freezes helps retain soil moisture and insulate roots.[27][38][37]Optimal soil for sweet cicely is loamy and well-drained, enriched with organic matter to ensure moisture retention without waterlogging. It adapts to a range of textures, including sandy to clay soils, but requires a pH of 4.5 to 7.5 for best nutrient uptake, leaning toward neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. Avoid heavy clay or compacted sites prone to standing water, as these can lead to root rot.[2][27][37]Maintenance needs are low once established, with the plant requiring only occasional watering to keep soil evenly moist during dry spells. To prevent overcrowding in established clumps, divide plants every 3-4 years in early spring, replanting sections 2 inches deep with buds facing upward. Regular mulching with organic material not only conserves moisture but also suppresses weeds and replenishes soil fertility over time.[2][37]
Propagation and Care
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) can be propagated primarily through seeds or division of established plants. For seed propagation, fresh seeds should be sown directly in the garden in autumn to undergo natural cold stratification over winter, leading to germination in spring; alternatively, seeds sown in spring require prior cold stratification in a refrigerator for 12 weeks in moist medium to break dormancy, with germination occurring slowly over 30 days to 8 months and often being erratic.[39][2] Seedlings should be thinned to a spacing of approximately 45-60 cm (18-24 inches) to allow for proper development. Division is another effective method, involving the splitting of mature clumps or roots in early spring or autumn; each divided section must include a bud or growing point, and pieces are replanted at their original depth, spaced 24 inches (60 cm) apart, with high success rates due to the plant's fibrous root system, though care is needed around the deep taproot.[40][2]Ongoing care for cultivated sweet cicely is relatively straightforward, focusing on maintaining consistent moisture and minimal intervention. Plants require regular watering to keep the soil evenly moist, providing about 2.5 cm (1 inch) per week during dry periods to prevent stress, while avoiding waterlogging. Pests are rare, with the plant generally being pest- and disease-free, though occasional aphids or gall-forming rust fungus may appear and can be managed with neem oil applications if needed. In colder climates (USDA zones 3-4), a layer of mulch applied in late autumn helps protect the roots during overwintering, as the plant dies back naturally but is hardy to -40°C (-40°F).[2][39][41]One key challenge in managing sweet cicely is its tendency to self-seed aggressively, which can lead to unwanted spread in garden beds; removing flower heads as they form helps control this while promoting better leaf production. Additionally, the plant's deep taproot makes transplanting difficult once established, so it is best to site plants permanently or divide/transplant only when young and small, ideally in early spring after the last frost.[2][1][39]
Modern Uses
Culinary Applications
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) is valued in contemporary cuisine for its sweet anise-like flavor, primarily derived from anethole, which imparts a licorice note that enhances both savory and sweet dishes. The fresh leaves are commonly chopped and added to salads for a mild, aromatic lift, or incorporated into soups and stews as a flavoring herb similar to a bouquet garni.[27][42] As a garnish, the fern-like leaves serve as a visually appealing and flavorful alternative to parsley, providing subtle sweetness without overpowering other ingredients.[43]The leaves' natural sweetness makes them particularly effective for balancing acidity in tart fruits; for instance, they are often layered with rhubarb in pies, compotes, or sorbets, allowing cooks to reduce added sugar while enhancing the fruit's flavor.[27][44] In desserts, infusions of the leaves steep in creams or syrups for rice puddings and ice creams, contributing a gentle anise undertone.[43]Ground seeds deliver a concentrated anise flavor and are sprinkled into baking, such as breads or pastries, to infuse dough without dominating.[45] They also feature in liqueurs like akvavit, where green or dried seeds steep in spirits such as vodka or aquavit bases, for its characteristic aromatic profile.[23][46]Roots, best harvested from second-year plants or older for tenderness, are boiled as a vegetable akin to a mild parsnip, with an anise edge that pairs well in mixed root dishes or salads when young and grated.[27][43]In modern recipes, sweet cicely complements seafood through pairings with fish, such as in braised dishes where leaves or seeds add aromatic depth, and it enhances legumes like peas or beans in sautés for a fresh, herbaceous contrast.[47][48]
Medicinal and Other Uses
Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) possesses carminative properties that aid digestion by relieving flatulence and stomach discomfort, primarily due to its content of anethole, a phenylpropanoid compound found in the essential oil.[27] It also acts as a mild expectorant, helping to alleviate coughs by facilitating mucus expulsion from the respiratory tract.[27] Post-2000 studies have demonstrated its antioxidant activity, with extracts from leaves and residues showing significant free radical scavenging potential attributed to polyphenols and flavonoids.[49] It is traditionally prepared as a tea or infusion, but consult a healthcare professional for use.[50]Potential risks include allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to the Apiaceae family, such as those allergic to celery or carrots, due to polyacetylenes like falcarinol that may cause contact dermatitis or oral allergy syndrome. It should be avoided during pregnancy, as insufficient safety data exist and it may act as a uterine stimulant similar to related herbs.[51] No major toxicity has been reported, with the plant considered generally safe in moderate amounts.[52]Beyond medicinal applications, sweet cicely serves as an ornamental plant in shade gardens, valued for its fern-like foliage and white umbel flowers that attract pollinators.[2] Its essential oil, extracted mainly from leaves and seeds, is used in perfumery for its anise-like aroma, with yields typically ranging from 0.4% to 0.5%.[53] As a companion plant, it deters pests through its strong aromatic compounds, benefiting nearby crops like vegetables in mixed plantings.[54]Research on sweet cicely remains limited, with few clinical trials available to substantiate traditional uses; ethnobotanical studies from the 2020s in regions like the western Alps and Slovenia document its traditional edible uses through local practices.[55][56]