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Citronella oil

Citronella oil is a pale yellow to brownish essential oil extracted through steam distillation from the leaves and stems of lemongrass species, primarily Cymbopogon nardus (Ceylon citronella) and Cymbopogon winterianus (Java citronella), which are native to tropical regions of Southeast Asia and cultivated in areas such as South America and the Caribbean.^[1] The name "citronella" derives from the French "citronnelle," meaning "little lemon," referring to its citrus-like scent. It has been used traditionally in Asia for centuries as an insect repellent and in medicinal practices, with commercial production beginning in the late 19th century.^[2] This volatile oil possesses a strong, fresh, lemon-like aroma and serves as a natural biopesticide, with primary applications as an insect repellent, fragrance ingredient, and flavoring agent.^[3] Chemically, citronella oil is a complex mixture of monoterpenes, with key constituents including citronellal (typically 25–45%), geraniol (15–30%), citronellol (10–20%), and geranyl acetate (3–10%), varying by grass variety and growing conditions.^[4] These compounds contribute to its antifungal, antibacterial, and insecticidal properties, enabling it to mask human scents that attract pests like mosquitoes and body lice without directly killing them.^[1] In the United States, it has been registered as a minimum-risk pesticide since 1948 and is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA for use in foods, beverages, and cosmetics at low concentrations.^[3] Beyond pest control—where it provides short-term protection (up to 2 hours at 10% concentration in topical formulations)—citronella oil is incorporated into household products such as candles, lotions, sprays, and pet collars, as well as in perfumery and soaps for its uplifting scent.^[4] While generally low in toxicity, with oral and dermal LD50 values exceeding 4,000 mg/kg in animal studies, it can cause mild skin irritation or allergic reactions in sensitive individuals, and its use is not recommended for children under 6 months without medical advice.^[3]

Overview

Definition and Botanical Sources

Citronella oil is an essential oil extracted primarily through steam distillation from the leaves and stems of specific Cymbopogon species in the Poaceae family.^[5] This process yields a volatile product valued for its aromatic qualities, with the oil serving as a key ingredient in various natural formulations.^[6] The primary botanical sources are Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle, native to Sri Lanka and tropical regions of South India and Asia, which produces the Ceylon type of citronella oil, and Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt, a cultivated hybrid variety originating from southern India or Sri Lanka and introduced to Java, Indonesia, used for the Java type.^[5]^[7] These perennial, tufted grasses thrive in tropical climates, reaching heights of up to 2 meters, with aromatic leaves that contain glandular structures rich in oil-producing compounds.^[6] Physically, citronella oil presents as a pale yellow to brownish liquid possessing a fresh, citrusy, lemon-like aroma.^[8] Its density typically ranges from 0.89 to 0.93 g/cm³, while the refractive index falls between 1.47 and 1.49 at 20°C, characteristics that aid in assessing its purity and quality.^[5]^[9] Citronella oil is distinct from related essential oils such as lemongrass oil, derived from Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, due to its unique composition that enhances its profile as an effective natural insect repellent.^[10]

History and Etymology

The term "citronella" derives from the French word citronelle, a diminutive form of citron meaning "lemon," reflecting the oil's characteristic citrus-like aroma.^[11] This nomenclature first appeared in European documentation around 1858, referring to the fragrant oil extracted from Asiatic grasses used in perfumes and soaps.^[11] Citronella oil has been employed in traditional Chinese and Indonesian medicine for centuries to treat rashes, infections, and inflammation, often as an aromatic tea or topical remedy.^[12] In Southeast Asian folk practices, it served as a natural preservative and remedy for skin conditions, while in Ayurvedic traditions, it was valued for alleviating digestive issues.^[13] The oil was introduced to Europe in the 19th century through colonial trade routes from Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka) as a novel insect repellent and fragrance ingredient. Commercial production commenced in Java (Indonesia) in the late 19th century, leveraging the region's tropical climate for large-scale cultivation of the Cymbopogon grasses.^[14] During the Victorian era (1837–1901), citronella gained adoption in European perfumery for its fresh, uplifting scent in soaps and colognes.^[15] Its role expanded significantly as a mosquito repellent during World War I, earning a reputation in military applications for protecting troops from insect-borne diseases.^[16] This usage intensified in World War II, where citronella-based formulations were standard in repellents before more advanced synthetics emerged, contributing to a post-war surge in household products like candles and sprays.^[17]

Chemical Composition

Primary Constituents

Citronella oil consists predominantly of volatile monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenes, including aldehydes, alcohols, and terpenes, with no fixed oils present. These compounds contribute to its characteristic aroma, stability, and bioactivity. The oil exhibits optical activity, with a specific rotation typically ranging from -5° to +5°.^[18] The primary constituents are citronellal, geraniol, and citronellol. Citronellal, the main aldehyde, comprises 25-48% of the oil and provides its distinctive lemony scent while enhancing repellent action. Geraniol, an alcohol making up 15-30%, imparts floral notes and supports antimicrobial properties. Citronellol, another alcohol at 10-20%, contributes to the oil's overall stability.^[19]^[20]^[21] Minor constituents include limonene (up to 10%), a terpene responsible for additional citrus aroma; trace amounts of camphene, adding subtle woody undertones; and methyl isoeugenol in some variants, which introduces spicy notes.^[22] The chemical profile is analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for precise identification and quantification of components. International standards, such as ISO 3848 for Java-type citronella oil, ensure quality by specifying minimum levels of total alcohols and aldehydes (at least 80%) and key individual compounds like citronellal.^[23]^[24]

Variations Between Types

Citronella oil derived from the Ceylon type, obtained from Cymbopogon nardus, typically exhibits an oil yield of 0.8-1.5% from fresh leaves, with key constituents including citronellal at 5-15%, geraniol at 18-20%, and citronellol below 10%.^[25]^[21] This composition results in a milder, more balanced aroma compared to other variants, making it suitable for applications where subtlety is preferred, though its lower concentrations of active aldehydes contribute to reduced overall potency. In contrast, the Java type, sourced from Cymbopogon winterianus, offers a higher oil yield of 1-2% from leaves, featuring elevated levels of citronellal at 32-45%, geraniol at 21-24%, and citronellol at 11-15%.^[25]^[21] These proportions account for a sharper, more pungent scent and greater total active compound content, enhancing its commercial value for industrial extraction and formulation.^[26] The differences in chemical profiles significantly influence suitability: the Java type's higher geraniol and citronellal levels make it preferable for insect repellents due to enhanced efficacy, while the Ceylon type's more equilibrated makeup suits perfumery for its softer profile.^[25] The Java type originated as a hybrid from crosses involving Ceylon varieties introduced to Java in the late 19th century by Dutch cultivators, leading to selective breeding for superior oil quality.^[27] Quality grading for citronella oil primarily relies on citronellal content, with Indonesian regulations mandating a minimum of 35%.^[25] Adulteration risks are notable, particularly with synthetic citronellal added to boost apparent aldehyde levels and reduce costs, necessitating analytical verification for authenticity.^[28]

Types of Citronella Oil

Ceylon Type

The Ceylon type of citronella oil is derived from Cymbopogon nardus, a perennial, clump-forming, evergreen grass native to Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) and belonging to the Poaceae family. This species typically grows to a height of up to 1.5 meters, featuring long, narrow, bright green leaves that arise from a stout rootstock, with a characteristic citrus-like aroma emanating from its foliage.^[29]^[30] Unlike faster-maturing hybrids, C. nardus exhibits relatively slower growth, thriving in tropical climates with well-drained, sandy soils and requiring 1,800–2,500 mm of annual rainfall.^[31] Production of Ceylon citronella oil is centered primarily in Sri Lanka, with significant cultivation also occurring in India and parts of tropical Africa, where the plant is grown on marginal, infertile coastal soils. Historically, Sri Lanka served as the epicenter during the colonial era, with large-scale plantations established in the early 20th century to meet export demands for essential oils, marking the region's role as a key supplier since the 1900s.^[32]^[33]^[34] Distinct from other varieties, the Ceylon type possesses a softer, more lemony aroma with subtle woody undertones, attributed to its chemical profile rich in geraniol (up to 60%) and citronellal (about 15%), lending it a fresher, less pungent scent suitable for delicate applications. It generally yields lower oil quantities—typically 0.5–1% from leaf distillation—compared to higher-output types, yet this results in a purer, more refined composition ideal for fine fragrances and therapeutic uses. Traditionally, in Sri Lanka, the oil has been incorporated into local incense and massage oils for its aromatic and insect-repelling properties.^[35]^[36]^[7] In the market, Ceylon citronella oil holds a niche preference in Europe for formulating soaps, candles, and perfumes, where its milder profile enhances subtle scent blends without overpowering other notes. Export-quality production adheres to international standards such as ISO 3849:2003, which specifies characteristics like a pale yellow to brownish-yellow color, relative density of 0.888–0.908, and a characteristic odor to ensure consistency and purity for global trade.^[37]^[38]

Java Type

The Java type of citronella oil is derived from Cymbopogon winterianus, a robust, perennial, clump-forming grass in the Poaceae family that reaches heights of up to 2-3 meters, featuring long, linear, leathery, light green leaves that are broader and more vigorous than those of the Ceylon type. This hybrid variety originated from crosses between Cymbopogon nardus (Ceylon citronella) and related species, developed through selective cultivation in Java, Indonesia, in the early 20th century to enhance yield and aroma potency.^[7]^[39] The plant exhibits faster maturation and greater hybrid vigor, allowing for denser planting and quicker harvests compared to the milder Ceylon variant.^[40] Production of Java citronella oil is dominated by Indonesia, where it originated from pre-1900 plantations, alongside major contributions from China and Brazil, which together account for a significant portion of global output. These regions leverage the plant's adaptability to tropical climates for large-scale cultivation, with Indonesia and China producing over 40% of the world's supply.^[41]^[42] The variety's establishment in Indonesian estates post-1900 facilitated its spread to other areas, emphasizing its role in industrial agriculture.^[7] Distinctive traits of the Java type include its intense, camphoraceous scent—characterized by fresh, lemony, and slightly woody notes—that arises from elevated levels of key compounds, making it more pungent than the sweeter, grassy profile of Ceylon oil. It offers higher essential oil yields, typically 1-2% by fresh weight, and greater concentrations of active components like citronellal (35-45%) and geraniol (20-30%), enhancing its efficacy for applications.^[43]^[44] These attributes render it particularly suited for industrial-scale production of insect repellents, where its robust growth and superior extraction efficiency provide economic advantages over the Ceylon type.^[7] In the market, Java citronella oil holds a prominent niche in Asia, particularly for pesticides, cosmetics, and perfumery, driven by its higher purity and versatility in formulations. Its elevated active compound levels contribute to greater export value, with the type commanding about 57% of global market share due to production efficiency and demand in repellent products.^[42]^[45]

Production

Cultivation Practices

Citronella grass thrives in tropical and subtropical climates with temperatures ranging from 20°C to 38°C and annual rainfall of 2000 to 2500 mm, though it can tolerate lower rainfall with supplemental irrigation.^[46]^[47] High humidity above 70% supports optimal growth, while frost or prolonged dry spells can hinder development. The plant prefers well-drained sandy loam soils rich in organic matter, with a pH between 5.0 and 7.0; heavy clay or waterlogged soils should be avoided to prevent root rot.^[46]^[47] Practices are similar for both Ceylon (Cymbopogon nardus) and Java (Cymbopogon winterianus) types, though the Java type often produces higher biomass under optimal conditions.^[34] Propagation occurs primarily through slips from mature clumps containing 2-3 tillers, though seeds can be used less commonly; planting is ideally done at the onset of the monsoon season or under irrigated conditions in early spring. Slips are spaced at 60 cm x 45 cm (or 45 x 45 cm in fertile soils) to allow for tillering, accommodating about 30,000-40,000 plants per hectare, and planted 5-8 cm deep in prepared beds.^[46]^[47] The crop establishes within 1-2 months, achieving full ground cover in 30-40 days, and remains productive as a perennial for 4-6 years before replanting is necessary.^[46] Harvesting begins 4-6 months after planting with the first cut at 15-20 cm above ground, followed by subsequent harvests every 2-3 months to maintain oil quality; typically, 3-4 cuts occur annually in the first year, increasing to 5-6 in subsequent years.^[46]^[47] Regular fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (e.g., 200:80:75 kg/ha/year) and irrigation every 10-15 days during dry periods enhance vigor and leaf production.^[46]^[47] Citronella grass is susceptible to fungal diseases like rust (caused by Puccinia spp.) and leaf blight, as well as pests including stem borers, mites, and nematodes that damage roots and foliage. Organic management is preferred in sustainable systems, utilizing neem oil applications to deter insects by disrupting feeding and growth cycles, while intercropping with legumes improves soil nitrogen and reduces pest incidence through biodiversity. Chemical controls like carbofuran for borers or fungicides for blight are alternatives but less favored for environmental reasons.^[48]^[46]^[49] Annual fresh leaf yields range from 20 to 30 tons per hectare, varying with soil fertility, irrigation, and management; the Java type (Cymbopogon winterianus) typically produces higher biomass and oil content compared to the Ceylon type (Cymbopogon nardus).^[46]^[50]

Extraction Methods

The primary method for extracting citronella oil is steam distillation, which accounts for approximately 93% of global essential oil production, including citronella.^[51] In this process, fresh or dried leaves and stems of the Cymbopogon plant are placed in a distillation apparatus where steam at 100–120°C is passed through the plant material for 2–4 hours, volatilizing the essential oils that are then condensed and collected.^[5]^[52] This method yields 0.8–2% oil by weight from the plant material, depending on factors such as plant variety and processing conditions.^[53] Alternative extraction techniques are used less frequently but offer advantages in specific scenarios. Water distillation, a traditional hydro-distillation variant, involves boiling the plant material directly in water, though it is less efficient due to longer extraction times and potential degradation of volatile compounds.^[5] Solvent extraction, employed rarely for producing absolutes, uses organic solvents like hexane to dissolve the oils, followed by solvent evaporation, but it may introduce impurities unsuitable for therapeutic applications. Supercritical CO2 extraction represents a modern approach, utilizing carbon dioxide under high pressure and moderate temperatures to selectively extract heat-sensitive components while preserving their integrity, though it requires specialized equipment and is not yet widespread for citronella.^[54]^[55] Following extraction, the crude oil mixture, which includes water and hydrosol, undergoes separation through decantation or centrifugation to isolate the oil layer.^[56] The oil is then dried using anhydrous sodium sulfate to remove residual moisture, ensuring stability.^[57] For long-term preservation, the dried oil is stored in dark glass containers at 10–20°C to minimize oxidation and light-induced degradation.^[58] Quality control in extraction focuses on optimizing distillation parameters to maximize retention of key components like citronellal, as efficiency variations can reduce its concentration by up to 20–30% in suboptimal conditions.^[59] Additionally, post-extraction waste, such as leaf residues, is often utilized as organic mulch to suppress weeds and enhance soil moisture retention in subsequent cultivations.^[60]

Uses and Applications

As an Insect Repellent

Citronella oil serves as a natural insect repellent primarily through its volatile compounds, which mask human scents attractive to pests and interfere with their olfactory receptors. The key active ingredients, citronellal and geraniol, evaporate readily, creating a scent barrier that confuses insects' sensory detection of hosts.^[3]^[61]^[62] Common formulations include topical lotions and creams at concentrations of 5-10%, which are applied directly to the skin for personal protection.^[61] Sprays and aerosols disperse the oil into the air or onto surfaces, while candles and torches release vapors through burning, providing area-wide repellency in outdoor settings.^[3] For enhanced duration, citronella oil is often combined with vanillin, which slows evaporation and prolongs the masking effect.^[63] It targets a range of pests, proving effective against mosquitoes such as Aedes and Anopheles species, as well as flies and moths.^[3]^[64] However, its efficacy is reduced against ticks and bees, where it offers limited deterrence compared to other insects.^[65]^[3] Historically, citronella oil has been incorporated into candles since the 1940s for outdoor mosquito control.^[66] In modern applications, it holds EPA-registered status as a minimum-risk pesticide under Section 25(b), allowing its inclusion in over-the-counter repellent products without full registration requirements.^[67]^[3]

Other Commercial and Therapeutic Uses

Citronella oil serves as a base note in perfumes due to its fresh, citrusy aroma, and is incorporated into cosmetics such as soaps and shampoos at dilutions typically ranging from 1% to 5% to provide fragrance without causing irritation.^[68]^[69] Its strong scent also helps mask odors in household detergents, enhancing their fresh profile.^[70] In aromatherapy, citronella oil is employed for stress relief, with inhalation reported to lower blood pressure and heart rate while refreshing mood, though clinical evidence remains preliminary.^[71] Topically, when diluted, it is used for oily skin and acne, leveraging the anti-inflammatory properties of its geraniol component to soothe irritation and reduce inflammation.^[72] Limited evidence supports its antifungal and antibacterial effects, attributed to compounds like citronellal, making it suitable for minor skin applications in diluted form.^[73] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration recognizes citronella oil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use as a flavoring agent, permitting its addition in small amounts to impart a citrus-like note in foods such as candies and beverages.^[74] Typical concentrations range from 3 to 35 parts per million, including in liqueurs where levels below 0.1% enhance flavor without overpowering other ingredients.^[25] Industrially, citronella oil functions as a natural fragrance in candles, contributing to their aromatic appeal.^[68] Its antimicrobial properties enable use as a preservative in active packaging films to extend food shelf life by inhibiting microbial growth.^[75] In agriculture, it acts as an animal repellent to protect crops from pests.^[3] Residues from citronella production show biofuel potential, with pyrolysis of spent waste yielding up to 37.7% bio-oil, offering a renewable energy pathway.^[76]

Efficacy and Safety

Scientific Studies on Efficacy

Scientific studies have extensively evaluated the efficacy of citronella oil, particularly its primary use as an insect repellent, with systematic reviews confirming moderate short-term protection against mosquitoes. A 2011 systematic review of 11 controlled laboratory studies found that citronella oil provided protection times of at least 1.5 hours against Aedes spp., 3 hours against Anopheles spp., and 5 hours against Culex spp., with citronella plus vanillin extending protection up to 6 hours in some cases. Citronella was less effective in duration than DEET.^[63] At concentrations of 10%, citronella oil provided around 60 minutes of protection against Anopheles stephensi in laboratory settings.^[77] Field trials have shown variability, achieving 50-90% reduction in bites for 1-2 hours depending on formulation and environmental factors. In comparison, DEET formulations consistently offered longer protection, up to 5 hours or more, highlighting citronella's relative inferiority in duration.^[78] Beyond repellency, research supports citronella oil's antimicrobial properties, including antifungal activity against Candida albicans. A 2022 study on Cymbopogon nardus essential oil reported minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 256 µg/mL against C. albicans, with significant inhibition of biofilm formation.^[79] Earlier work in 2016 identified citronellal, a key component, with an MIC of 1000 µg/mL against C. albicans strains, demonstrating dose-dependent growth suppression without notable cytotoxicity at effective concentrations.^[80] In aromatherapy contexts, inhalation of citronella oil has shown promise for reducing anxiety. A 2012 clinical study found that inhalation of citronella oil increased pleasant emotions (e.g., feeling relaxed and calm) per the Geneva Emotion and Odor Scale, with effects within minutes, and increased alpha and beta brain wave activity indicating relaxation.^[71] These findings align with broader evidence for essential oils in stress modulation. As of 2023, reviews continue to support citronella's role as a natural alternative, though with calls for more field studies on long-term use.^[81] The efficacy of citronella oil is influenced by its high volatility, which contributes to its short protection duration as an repellent; studies indicate rapid evaporation limits topical applications to under 2 hours without stabilizers.^[81] Synergistic formulations, such as those incorporating p-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)—a diol derived from citronella-related terpenoids—can extend mosquito protection to 4-6 hours by reducing evaporation rates and enhancing skin adherence.^[78] PMD-based products, often comprising 64-72% PMD in commercial formulations, provide comparable efficacy to DEET in some trials while maintaining a natural profile.^[82] Despite these findings, limitations persist in the research on citronella oil's efficacy. Protection varies significantly by mosquito species, with reduced performance against Aedes aegypti compared to Anopheles in some studies, and there are few long-term human trials assessing repeated exposure effects.^[83] The World Health Organization recognizes plant-based repellents like citronella as viable natural alternatives for malaria prevention in resource-limited settings, but recommends them as supplements to primary methods like DEET rather than standalone solutions.^[84]

Health Risks and Precautions

Citronella oil is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as a flavoring agent and in external applications, such as in cosmetics and insect repellents, under 21 CFR 182.20 for essential oils.^[85] It exhibits low acute toxicity, with an oral LD50 greater than 5 g/kg in rats, indicating minimal risk from incidental ingestion in small amounts.^[68] Dermal LD50 values exceed 4.7 g/kg in rabbits, further supporting its low toxicity profile for topical use when properly diluted.^[86] Potential adverse effects include skin irritation and allergic contact dermatitis, reported in approximately 1-2% of tested individuals in patch tests with 2% concentrations, though higher rates up to 5% may occur in sensitive populations; a patch test is recommended prior to widespread application.^[87] Undiluted citronella oil can cause serious eye irritation upon contact.^[88] Ingestion is not advised, as it may lead to nausea, vomiting, or more severe gastrointestinal distress, potentially fatal in large doses.^[89] Use is not recommended during pregnancy due to insufficient safety data. For children, topical application is possibly safe over 6 months old when diluted and avoiding eyes or mouth; oral use is unsafe in children.^[89] Precautions include diluting citronella oil to 1-2% in a carrier oil or lotion for safe topical application to minimize irritation risks, as recommended by aromatherapy guidelines.^[12] Although not highly phototoxic like certain citrus oils, direct sunlight exposure after skin application should be limited to prevent potential mild sensitization.^[90] Citronella oil may interact with sedative medications, such as diazepam, by enhancing drowsiness through GABA receptor modulation, so caution is advised for individuals on such treatments.^[91] Regulatory guidelines affirm its safety for approved uses: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exempts citronella oil from federal insecticide tolerances as a minimum-risk biopesticide under 40 CFR 152.25(f), allowing its use in over-the-counter repellents without residue limits.^[92] In the European Union, citronella oil (CAS 8000-29-1) is registered under the REACH regulation (EC) 1907/2006, ensuring compliance with chemical safety assessments for cosmetic and pesticide applications.^[93] Product labels must include warnings for asthma sufferers, as inhalation of citronella oil vapors may trigger bronchoconstriction or exacerbate respiratory symptoms in sensitive individuals.^[94]

Global Production and Market

Major Producing Regions

Indonesia is a leading producer of citronella oil globally, alongside China, with the two countries together accounting for approximately 40% of worldwide supply, primarily through cultivation of the Java type (Cymbopogon winterianus). The country's volcanic soils, particularly in regions like Central Java, provide rich mineral content that enhances plant growth and oil yields.^[95] Export activities are facilitated through major ports such as Jakarta, supporting shipments to international markets.^[96] China ranks as a significant producer, with production concentrated in southern provinces like Yunnan where hybrid cultivation practices are employed to improve resilience and yield.^[97] Sri Lanka serves as the origin of the Ceylon type (Cymbopogon nardus), supported by monsoon climates that enable organic farming methods in southern areas.^[42] The island's Colombo port acts as a key export hub for raw oil.^[98] In India, cultivation is prominent in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, where the crop benefits from tropical conditions suitable for both Java and Ceylon varieties and contributes significantly to global supply.^[99]^[42] Emerging production occurs in Brazil, which focuses on regional supply chains to meet local demand and reduce import reliance, and Australia, where limited cultivation persists despite historical declines. Citronella oil production predominantly involves smallholder farmers across Asia, providing essential income and bolstering rural economies through agroforestry integration.^[100] However, challenges such as climate change-induced variations in rainfall threaten yield consistency in monsoon-dependent areas.^[101] Trade in citronella oil is largely export-oriented, with around 80% shipped as raw material for processing abroad; primary importers include the United States, European Union countries, and Japan, which utilize the oil in repellents, perfumes, and pharmaceuticals.^[102]

Production Statistics and Trends

Global production of citronella oil stands at approximately 4,000 metric tons annually as of 2025, with the market valued at around USD 520 million.^[97]^[42] The industry has experienced a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 5.3% in recent years, fueled by rising consumer preference for natural and plant-based products in insect repellents and personal care applications.^[42] Key trends include a notable shift toward organic certification, driven by demand for sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives, with organic variants showing accelerated growth in major markets. The Java type of citronella oil accounts for roughly 57% of total output, primarily sourced from Indonesia. Additionally, post-2020 supply chain disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic, including lockdowns and transportation delays, led to reduced availability and price increases of approximately 15-20% in key producing regions.^[42]^[103]^[104] Projections indicate the market will reach USD 871.5 million by 2035, maintaining a CAGR of 5.3%, supported by expanding use in eco-friendly repellents and aromatherapy. However, competition from synthetic alternatives poses ongoing challenges to growth. Major producing countries contribute significantly, with China and Indonesia together accounting for about 40% of global output, equating to roughly 1,600 metric tons combined annually.^[42]^[97]

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Nov 1, 2016 · This document specifies certain characteristics of the essential oil of citronella, Java type, in order to facilitate assessment of its quality.
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ARCHIVED - Safety Summary of Citronella Oil as a Flavouring Agent
May 4, 2017 · The Ceylon type of citronella oil is a pale-yellow to yellowish-brown liquid and contains 7-15% aldehyde and 55-65% total alcohol. The Java type ...
[26]
27 CFR 21.105 -- Citronella oil, natural. - eCFR
(b) Ceylon type: (1) Alcohol content (as Geraniol). Not less than 55 percent by weight. (2) Aldehyde content (as Citronellal). Not less than 7 percent by weight ...
[27]
Citronella Oil - jstor
In 1948 almost 3,500,000 pounds of this oil were exported by Indonesia, Ceylon, Guatemala and Formosa. The. United States is normally the principal consumer ...<|separator|>
[28]
Citronella oil - Wikipedia
Citronella oil is an essential oil obtained from the leaves and stems of different species of Cymbopogon (lemongrass). The oil is used extensively as a ...
[29]
Amazing Citronella Oil: Evaluating Different Chemotypes and Grades
... standards to classify citronella oil based on composition. For instance, ISO 3848 specifies minimum and maximum concentration ranges for components like ...
[30]
Cymbopogon nardus (Citronella Grass) - Gardenia.net
Cymbopogon nardus, commonly known as Citronella Grass or Citronella Plant, is a tropical, clump-forming, evergreen grass with long, thin, bright green leaves ...
[31]
Cymbopogon nardus - Useful Tropical Plants
Cymbopogon nardus is an aromatic, evergreen, clump-forming perennial grass growing up to 2.5 metres tall from a stout rootstock.Missing: production characteristics
[32]
[PDF] An Exploration of Cymbopogon nardus or Cymbopogon winterianus ...
Aug 8, 2024 · This oil is known for its insect-repelling properties and is commonly used in natural insect repellents. Citronella oil is a natural insect ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[33]
The Evolution of the Local Citronella Oil Industry, Present Situation ...
Jun 11, 2019 · Even though Sri Lanka was famous for its "Ceylon citronella oil ... Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle (Poaceae) Populations by Means of ...
[34]
SRI LANKA THE SPICE ISLAND - Ultra International B.V.
May 26, 2018 · CITRONELLA OIL (Cymbopogon nardus):. Ceylon citronella has grown in Sri Lanka for centuries usually on unfertile soil in the coastal regions.
[35]
Cymbopogon nardus (citronella grass) | CABI Compendium
Cymbopogon nardus (citronella grass) · History of Introduction and Spread. C. nardus is native to southeast Asia and grown commercially in Sri Lanka, India, ...
[36]
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/cosing/details/39469
[37]
Ingredient: CYMBOPOGON NARDUS HERB OIL
The Ceylon citronella oil contains geraniol (about 60%), citronellal (about 15%), camphene, limonene, linalool, borneol. The Java citronella oil contains 25 ...Missing: soaps candles ISO standards
[38]
PROSEA - Plant Resources of South East Asia
Later, the planting of mixtures and hybrids of Cymbopogon winterianus and Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle and the marketing of adulterated oil spoiled the ...
[39]
Citronella Oil Market Size & Share | Growth Forecast 2024-2032
The java citronella oil market dominated around USD 72.8 million revenue in 2022. Java citronella oil is widely recognized for its strong insect-repellent ...Missing: commercial | Show results with:commercial<|separator|>
[40]
Oil of Ceylon citronella - ISO 3849:1981
The Standard specifies the following characteristics of the oil. Appearance: Clear, mobile liquid. Colour: Pale yellow to pale brownish yellow.Missing: soaps candles Europe
[41]
https://ultranl.com/products/citronella-oil-indonesia/
[42]
Extraction and characterization of essential oil components based ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Cymbopogon winterianus, commonly known as Java citronella is largely cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries of Asia, Africa, and ...
[43]
Citronella Oil (Indonesia) - Ultra International B.V.
Indonesia is the second largest producer behind that of China. It is estimated that the total world production of citronella is around 4,000 tons with China and ...
[44]
Citronella Oil Market | Global Market Analysis Report - 2035 - Fact.MR
Java type citronella oil dominates the citronella oil market with approximately 57.0% market share in 2025, reflecting the superior citronellal content and ...
[45]
Biplot investigation for essential oil yield and chemical compositions ...
The alcohol concentration of Java citronella oil is higher (90–95%) than that of Ceylon citronella oil (60–71%). Citronella species from Ceylon and Java are ...
[46]
Citronella Oil and Its Derivatives
Aug 14, 2022 · ... Java type is more aromatic than the Ceylon type [2,3]. Higher content of Geraniol and Citronellal in Citronella Oil is preferred because it ...
[47]
Comparing Citronella Oils from Asia and South America in 2025
Asian Java Oil: Crisp, sharp lemon notes—favored in industrial insect-repellent sprays and fresh-scented household cleaners. · Asian Ceylon Oil: Softer, more ...<|separator|>
[48]
[PDF] Citronella
Soil and climate Temperature range between 200C to 380C and well-distributed rainfall of 2000- 3000 mm are desirable but if irrigation is available citronella ...
[49]
[PDF] CULTIVATION OF CITRONELLA AND ITS OIL EXTRACTION
Soil of around pH 6.0 is considered optimum and attitude of 150-200m is ideal, the plant grows satisfactorily up to the height of 700 m. Humid. Climate with ...Missing: management | Show results with:management
[50]
Lemon grass | Diseases and Pests, Description, Uses, Propagation
Cymbopogon citratus (citronella grass) datasheet. Available at: http://www ... Rust Puccinia nakanishikii. 5830198850_73391a6f97_z.jpg. Rust symptoms on ...
[51]
Natural Products for Managing Landscape and Garden Pests in ...
Azadirachtin can control several insect groups by acting as a feeding deterrent, deterrent to egg-laying, repellent, direct toxin, or insect growth regulator.Missing: grass | Show results with:grass
[52]
[PDF] Interspecific differences in the constituents of essential oils of ...
The inflorescence of each of the plant species contained more essential oil on fresh weight basis except in Java citronella (table 2). Table 2. Oil yield (% w/w) ...
[53]
Steam Distillation for Essential Oil Extraction: An Evaluation of ...
Among the main methods, steam distillation is the most widespread process used for extraction, producing 93% of the world's volume of EOs [10,17].
[54]
[PDF] Extraction Methods of Natural Essential Oils - TNAU Agritech Portal
To obtain the best quality oil, distillation must be done at low temperatures. The temperature in steam distillation is determined entirely by the operating ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
Yield curve of the citronella essential oil steam distillation:...
The oil extraction yield was 0.5% and 0.8%, respectively, for industrial and laboratory extraction setup. Soxhlet experiments were conducted using various ...
[56]
Essential Oil Extracted from Cymbopogon citronella Leaves by ...
Jan 2, 2019 · To improve essential oil quality, especially to reserve the thermal instability of compounds, supercritical CO2 extraction (SFE) was applied ...
[57]
Extraction of citronella grass solutes with supercritical CO2 ...
Citronella grass extracts were obtained with scCO2 and propane, plus ethanol. · Higher extract yields were obtained with compressed propane + ethanol as solvent.
[58]
A Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oil Extraction Methods
Mar 20, 2017 · Steam Distillation is the most popular method used to extract and isolate essential oils from plants for use in natural products.
[59]
Essential oils: Advances in extraction techniques, chemical ...
Anhydrous sodium sulfate is used to dry the extracted essential oil, which is kept at 40 °C in the dark. The formula that is used to determine the yield of ...Missing: decantation | Show results with:decantation
[60]
The Complete Manual for Citronella Oil Extraction: From Harvest to ...
Aug 6, 2024 · Temperature: The ideal storage temperature for citronella oil is between 10 - 20°C. Avoid storing the oil in areas that are exposed to extreme ...
[61]
Optimization of citronella oil production and quality through ...
The results showed that electric distillation produced higher and more consistent citronellal content at all altitudes (52.35 ± 3.35 % to 55.97 ± 8.31 %), ...
[62]
Effective utilization of distillation waste as organic mulch for weed ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Mulching the soil with the distillation waste of citronella and Japanese mint resulted in increased crop yield by improving soil moisture ...
[63]
Development of a Nanotechnology Matrix-Based Citronella Oil ... - NIH
In general, the essential oil extracted from citronella includes more than 80 types of terpenes such as alcohols and aldehydes, including geraniol, citronellal, ...
[64]
citronella oil lotions: Topics by Science.gov
Citronellal fraction has better stability compared to citronella oil and rhodinol fraction with slight change of physical and chemical properties before and ...
[65]
Effectiveness of citronella preparations in preventing mosquito bites
Citronella oil is less effective than DEET for Aedes mosquitoes, but adding vanillin may prolong protection. Citronella oil/vanillin provides 3+ hours ...Missing: target flies moths
[66]
Citronellal perception and transmission by Anopheles gambiae s.s. ...
Oct 29, 2020 · Although citronellal and its derivatives have been shown to have mosquito-repellent activity against several mosquito species, including Aedes ...
[67]
Tick Repellent Essential Oils: Which Ones Work Best - Healthline
Aug 21, 2020 · Some studies suggest that oregano oil, thyme, citronella, and clove bud oils may help repel ticks, but none are as effective as OLE or products ...
[68]
[PDF] Citronella & Citronella Oil Profile - Cornell eCommons
Mar 30, 2016 · Oil of citronella has been used extensively since the 1940s without any adverse effects reports of concern (US EPA 1999; Katz et al. 2011). ...
[69]
40 CFR 152.25 -- Exemptions for pesticides of a character ... - eCFR
Citronella oil, Citronella oil ... Guidance on minimum risk pesticides is available at http://www2.epa.gov/minimum-risk-pesticides or successor Web pages.
[70]
Citronella Oil - PubChem - NIH
Citronella oil is used for its aromatic properties in parfumary, cosmetics, candles and soaps, and as an insect repellant.
[71]
Exploring Aromatherapy | NAHA
### Summary of Dilution Guidelines for Citronella Essential Oil in Cosmetics and Topical Applications
[72]
[PDF] Citronellol (3, 7-Dimethyl-6-Octen-1-ol) - Regulations.gov
Jun 14, 2025 · There is a long history of safe use of Citronellol in cosmetics, fragrances, detergents, and household cleaners and it has widespread use as a ...
[73]
the harmonizing effects of citronella oil on mood states and brain ...
Aug 7, 2025 · It is reported that the smell of citronella oil lowers down blood pressure, heart rate and acts as a mood refresher, measured by ...
[74]
Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Activity of Geraniol and Selected ...
Geraniol also has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as antimicrobial activity—this compound is active against the bacteria Listeria ...
[75]
Therapeutic Potential of Citronella Essential Oil: A Review - PubMed
Citronella essential oil is registered in US EPA (Environmental protection agency) as insect repellent due to its high efficacy, low toxicity and customer ...Missing: fragrance | Show results with:fragrance
[76]
citronella, oil (cymbopogon nardus rendle) - cfsanappsexternal.fda.gov
FLAVORING AGENT OR ADJUVANT. Food additive and GRAS regulations (21 CFR Parts 170-186)*:, 182.206. FEMA No.*:, 2308. FEMA GRAS Publication No(s).*:, 3 ...
[77]
A novel active packaging film containing citronella oil
In this study, citronella oil (CO) was incorporated into soy protein isolate (SPI) to prepare antimicrobial protein films capable of inhibiting the growth ...
[78]
Investigations into pyrolytic behaviour of spent citronella waste
Maximum bio-oil yield of 37.7 wt% was obtained with conversion of 71 wt% at 450 °C through slow pyrolysis.
[79]
Induction of strain-transcendent antibodies to placental-type isolates with VAR2CSA DBL3 or DBL5 recombinant proteins - Malaria Journal
The provided content from Malaria Journal (https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-10-36) is irrelevant to citronella preparations for mosquito bite prevention. It focuses on a systematic review of VAR2CSA recombinant proteins for a pregnancy malaria vaccine, not mosquito repellents. Key findings include:
[80]
Essential Oils as Repellents against Arthropods - PMC
Sep 6, 2018 · For example, citronella oil is highly volatile, and thus, insect repellents with citronella oil as the major component need to be reapplied ...
[81]
The antifungal and antibiofilm activity of Cymbopogon nardus ... - NIH
This study investigated the antifungal and antibiofilm activity of Cymbopogon nardus essential oil (EO) and its major compound, citronellal, in association with ...
[82]
Essential Oil of Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle: A Strategy to ... - NIH
Aug 9, 2016 · The MIC and MFC of citronellal are shown in Table 3. Citronellal showed antifungal activity against C. albicans ATCC, C. krusei (ATCC and ...
[83]
The aromatherapy formulation of essential oils in reducing stress ...
This study aims to identify the characteristics and effects of aromatherapy formulations, including benzoin, nutmeg, and citronella essential oils on relaxation ...
[84]
Advances in mosquito repellents: effectiveness of citronellal ... - NIH
With the aim to produce mosquito repellents with longer protection times, we have synthesized cyclic acetals by the reaction of citronellal with glycerol, and ...
[85]
Repellent efficacy of 20 essential oils on Aedes aegypti mosquitoes ...
Jan 30, 2023 · The repellent efficacy of citronella oil is a useful example of ... Trends in insect repellent formulations: A review. Int. J. Pharm ...
[86]
Effectiveness of plant-based repellents against different Anopheles ...
Dec 21, 2019 · Accordingly, the idea of using natural mosquito repellent products as an alternative to develop new eco-friendly repellents could be an amicable ...
[87]
21 CFR 182.20 -- Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free ... - eCFR
Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates) that are generally recognized as safe for their intended use.
[88]
https://www.vigon.com/product/citronella-oil/?doc=MSDS/500487_vigon_sds_us_english.pdf&namee=CitronellaOilSDS
[89]
[PDF] Clinical evidence regarding sensitisation to individual fragrance ...
(1.1%) positive reactions to “citronella” essential oil 2% pet. ... Mechanical irritation triggering allergic contact dermatitis from essential oils in a masseur.
[90]
[PDF] 500487 citronella oil safety data sheet - SDS US
Feb 21, 2014 · Citronella oil is a flammable liquid, may cause skin irritation, serious eye damage, and is toxic to aquatic life. It may be fatal if swallowed ...
[91]
Citronella Oil - Uses, Side Effects, and More - WebMD
Citronella oil, made from citronella grass, is commonly used as a mosquito repellent on the skin, possibly preventing bites for a short time.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[92]
Citronellol - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Citronellol is the active component in citronella oil, derived from Cymbopogon citratus, used as an insect repellent with safety precautions, and recognized as ...
[93]
Citronellal Exerts Sedative‐Like Effects and Augments Diazepam's ...
Mar 23, 2025 · CTL demonstrated potent sedative effects in vitro and in vivo, with a strong safety profile and interaction with the GABA A receptor (α1 and β2 subunits).
[94]
Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) Fact Sheet for Oil of Citronella
On February 28, 1996, the Agency issued a rule exempting certain pesticides, including oil of citronella, from regulation under FIFRA. In order to be eligible ...Missing: minimum- | Show results with:minimum-<|separator|>
[95]
[PDF] REACH CONFORMANCE - Nature In Bottle
Nature In Bottle declare that CITRONELLA ESSENTIAL OIL is compliant with the European Union Regulation. (EC) 1907/2006 governing the Registration, Evaluation ...
[96]
Citronella reaction
Feb 8, 2024 · Citronellal and β-citronellol are known contact allergens with contact dermatitis associated with dermal exposure. Contact reactions due to ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[97]
Benefits of Citronella (Java) Essential Oil - Simply Earth Blog
Jul 31, 2025 · The volcanic soil found there is rich in vital nutrients like potassium and magnesium which are essential for healthy plant growth.
[98]
Citronella Oil, Direct from Farmer-Indonesia | Inaexport
Widely used as an insect repellent, this versatile oil also boasts antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties. Technical Specifications CAS EU: ...Missing: Colombo | Show results with:Colombo
[99]
Citronella Oil (China) - Ultra International B.V.
The major producers of citronella are China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Argentina, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and India. It prospers in tropical and subtropical ...
[100]
CITRO ESSENTIAL OILS PVT LTD - EDB Sri Lanka
CITRO ESSENTIAL OILS PVT LTD is a Sri Lankan exporter of quality products to the global market registered with the Sri Lankan Export Development Board.Missing: Jakarta | Show results with:Jakarta
[101]
(PDF) Evaluation of essential oil yield and chemical compositions of ...
Evaluation of essential oil yield and chemical compositions of Citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus) cultivars under Southern tropical regions of India.Missing: China hybrid
[102]
Citronella Oil Production as an Economic Boost for Developing ...
Indonesia, a key exporter of Java citronella, has incorporated citronella cultivation into agroforestry programs. Farmers grow lemongrass alongside other crops, ...<|separator|>
[103]
(PDF) Economic Potential of Citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus ...
Oct 11, 2025 · The economic potential of establishing smallholder citronella grass (Cymbopogon winterianus) plantation for essential oil production was assessed.
[104]
Citronella Oil Market Size, Share, Trends, and Forecast to 2027
Java and ceylon are two types of citronella oil that are available in the market. Citronella oil is further classified into java citronella oil and ceylon ...Missing: commercial | Show results with:commercial
[105]
Citronella Oil Market Size to Hit USD 233.93 Million by 2034
The global citronella oil market is projected to grow from USD 144.8 million in 2025 to USD 233.93 million by 2034, registering a CAGR of 5.47%.
[106]
Citronella Oil Market Report 2025 (Global Edition)
The current report Scope analyzes Citronella Oil Market on 6 major region ... Our study will explain complete manufacturing process along with major raw ...