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Coca

Coca encompasses cultivated varieties of the shrub Erythroxylum coca and Erythroxylum novogranatense in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to the Andean slopes of western South America including Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia.^[1] These plants produce elliptic leaves containing a mixture of tropane alkaloids, with cocaine comprising 0.42% to 1.02% of dry weight on average.^[2] For over four millennia, indigenous Andean communities have masticated the leaves, often alkalized with lime, to suppress appetite, alleviate altitude sickness, and enhance physical endurance, deriving benefits from both the alkaloids and nutritive compounds like vitamins and minerals.^[3]^[4] The coca shrub thrives in subtropical valleys at elevations of 500 to 2,000 meters, featuring small white flowers and red berries, with leaves harvested multiple times annually after a two-year maturation period.^[1] Beyond traditional mastication and infusion as tea, the leaves serve nutritional roles, providing calories, proteins, and essential micronutrients in regions with limited food access.^[3] The isolation of cocaine hydrochloride in 1860 by Albert Niemann enabled its initial pharmaceutical applications as a stimulant and anesthetic, though subsequent recognition of dependency risks shifted perceptions toward prohibition.^[1] International treaties classify coca leaves as a narcotic precursor due to cocaine extraction potential, fueling eradication efforts that conflict with Andean cultural practices where leaf use evidences no progression to purified cocaine abuse, attributable to synergistic alkaloids mitigating addiction pathways.^[2]^[1] Cultivation persists legally in Bolivia and Peru for domestic consumption, underscoring tensions between empirical evidence of moderate leaf benefits—such as improved oxygenation and reduced fatigue in laborers—and global drug control paradigms prioritizing supply suppression over differentiated regulation.^[5]^[6]

Botanical Characteristics

Description and Morphology

Coca comprises evergreen shrubs of the genus Erythroxylum, primarily E. coca and E. novogranatense, reaching heights of 1 to 2.5 meters with erect, smooth, branched stems forming a bushy habit.^[7]^[8]^[4] The leaves are alternate and simple, thin, elliptic-oblong to narrowly obovate-elliptic in shape, measuring 2 to 7 cm long with a blunt apex and pointed base; they appear light green, oval to lance-shaped, typically 6 cm in length and 3 cm across.^[7]^[8] Flowers emerge in small clusters at leaf axils, featuring five white to yellowish-white petals and measuring a few millimeters across.^[7]^[8] The fruit develops as an oval, glossy red drupe, oblong and 7 to 10 mm long when ripe, enclosing thin pulp around a single seed.^[7]^[8]^[4]

Species and Varieties

The cultivated coca plants belong to two primary species within the genus Erythroxylum of the family Erythroxylaceae: Erythroxylum coca Lam. and Erythroxylum novogranatense (Morris) Neyra.^[1]^[9] These species encompass four main varieties domesticated through human selection over millennia, differing in morphology, alkaloid profiles, and adaptation to specific environments.^[10] Erythroxylum coca includes var. coca, commonly known as Huánuco or Bolivian coca, which features larger leaves and is primarily cultivated in the moist Andean highlands of Peru and Bolivia at elevations of 500 to 2,000 meters.^[11] This variety typically contains 0.23% to 0.96% cocaine by dry leaf weight.^[12] The second variety, E. coca var. ipadu Plowman, or Amazonian coca, is a smaller, shrubby form adapted to humid lowland forests below 500 meters, with reduced stature and higher tolerance to shade and flooding.^[13] Erythroxylum novogranatense comprises var. novogranatense, the Colombian coca, suited to drier inter-Andean valleys and capable of growth in semi-arid conditions with cocaine contents ranging from 0.5% to 1.0%.^[14] The var. truxillense (Rusby) Neyra, or Truxillo coca, originates from Peru's coastal valleys and exhibits enhanced drought resistance, often yielding leaves with elevated tropane alkaloid levels including up to 0.36% cocaine in some samples.^[15] These varieties reflect distinct evolutionary domestication events, with E. novogranatense showing genetic adaptations for arid habitats compared to the more mesic preferences of E. coca.^[10]

Species	Variety	Common Name	Primary Habitat Characteristics
E. coca	var. coca	Huánuco/Bolivian	Moist Andean highlands, 500–2,000 m elevation
E. coca	var. ipadu	Amazonian	Humid lowlands, shade-tolerant, flood-resistant
E. novogranatense	var. novogranatense	Colombian	Drier inter-Andean valleys, semi-arid adaptable
E. novogranatense	var. truxillense	Truxillo	Coastal valleys, high drought tolerance

Habitat, Cultivation, and Distribution

Coca plants of the genus Erythroxylum, particularly E. coca and E. novogranatense, are native to the tropical regions of South America, thriving in montane forests along the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru and Bolivia for E. coca var. coca, which prefers humid conditions at altitudes between 300 and 2000 meters.^[16]^[17] E. novogranatense varieties adapt to both moist and drier highland areas in Colombia, including the Cordilleras and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, often in lowland extensions.^[18] These shrubs grow best in well-drained, acidic soils with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, requiring sunny positions and tolerance for temperatures averaging 25°C with high humidity.^[19] Cultivation traditionally involves propagating Erythroxylum species via seeds or stem cuttings, with plants reaching harvestable maturity in 6 to 18 months and yielding leaves three to four times annually for up to 20 years under optimal conditions.^[20]^[21] In Andean South America, farmers plant in fertile, sloped terrains without extensive terracing in some regions like the Yungas of Bolivia, relying on natural rainfall and manual harvesting by hand-picking mature leaves.^[22] The plants demand consistent moisture but resist waterlogging, with cultivation focused on maintaining bushy growth through periodic pruning to maximize leaf production.^[23] Wild distribution centers on the Andes from Colombia to Bolivia and northern Brazil, with E. coca linked to Amazonian lowlands in some variants.^[23] Cultivated coca extends to Ecuador, Venezuela, and historically to Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India for leaf production, though primary commercial growing remains in Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia, where over 90% of global supply originates.^[24]^[6] Small-scale illicit fields have appeared outside traditional areas, such as in Mexico, but these represent minor deviations from the Andean core.^[15]

Chemical and Pharmacological Properties

Active Compounds and Composition

The leaves of Erythroxylum coca contain a complex mixture of chemical compounds, dominated by tropane alkaloids that constitute 0.7% to 1.5% of the dry weight.^[2] These alkaloids belong primarily to tropane, pyrrolidine, and pyridine classes, with over 18 distinct types identified across cultivated varieties.^[1] Cocaine, or benzoylmethylecgonine, is the principal alkaloid, comprising the majority of the total alkaloid content and varying from 0.1% to 0.9% in typical leaves.^[1] Concentrations differ by variety, with E. coca var. coca generally lower than E. novogranatense, though peasant preferences in Bolivia correlate more with regional factors than cocaine levels.^[25] Minor alkaloids include cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, ecgonine, methylecgonine, and tropacocaine, alongside at least 20 other identified compounds contributing to the pharmacological profile.^[26]^[27] Non-alkaloidal components encompass flavonoids, essential oils, and tannins, which may influence bioavailability and traditional uses.^[1] Beyond psychoactive elements, the leaves provide substantial macronutrients and micronutrients: over 50% dietary fiber (mostly insoluble), 19.9% protein, 44.3% carbohydrates, and 3.3% fat per 100g dry weight.^[3]^[28] Mineral content includes calcium (997 mg/100g), potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium, while vitamins feature β-carotene (10,000–14,000 IU), thiamine (0.73 mg), riboflavin (0.88 mg), and niacin (8.37 mg).^[29] However, analyses indicate that customary consumption levels (e.g., 50–100g daily) yield nutritional contributions comparable to other leafy greens but limited by alkaloid interference with absorption and potential toxicity.^[30]^[2]

Physiological Effects of Coca Leaf Consumption

Consumption of coca leaves, primarily through chewing with an alkaline adjunct like lime or ash, elicits mild physiological effects attributable to the plant's tropane alkaloids, chiefly cocaine at concentrations of 0.3% to 0.8% of dry leaf weight, alongside ecgonine methyl ester and other minor compounds. This method enhances alkaloid extraction and buccal absorption, yielding gradual systemic delivery with first-pass metabolism limiting peak cocaine levels to far below those from purified cocaine, typically resulting in sustained rather than intense stimulation.^[1]^[31] Central nervous system effects include heightened alertness, diminished fatigue, and appetite suppression, enabling prolonged physical exertion in high-altitude environments where coca use is traditional. These outcomes stem from cocaine's inhibition of monoamine reuptake, though modulated by the leaf's flavonoid and polyphenol matrix, which tempers euphoria and crash relative to isolated cocaine. Human studies confirm no significant mental or physical health detriment from habitual chewing, contrasting with cocaine's addictive profile.^[32]^[33]^[2] Cardiovascular responses feature modest increases in heart rate and mean arterial pressure, more pronounced during submaximal exercise than at rest, where hormonal alterations are limited to reduced insulin concentrations. Metabolic benefits may include stabilization of blood glucose, supporting antidiabetic hypotheses, while cortisol modulation—evidenced by lower levels in chewers versus non-chewers under stress—suggests HPA axis dampening, particularly beneficial for shift workers. Local anesthetic action in the oral cavity provides numbing relief for dental or gastrointestinal discomfort.^[34]^[35]^[36] At high altitudes, coca alleviates hypoxia-related symptoms such as headache and polycythemia-induced fatigue, potentially via vasoconstrictive and erythropoietic influences, though empirical data remain correlative. Acute toxicity is low, with animal models showing high LD50 values and human observations indicating no overdose risks from traditional doses; chronic effects like malnutrition claims lack robust causation, often confounded by socioeconomic factors in user populations. Hepatoprotective and anorectic properties warrant further validation beyond preliminary findings.^[37]^[2]^[38]

Distinctions from Refined Cocaine and Associated Risks

Coca leaves contain approximately 0.5% to 1.0% cocaine alkaloids by dry weight, alongside other compounds such as ecgonine, benzoylecgonine, and flavonoids that contribute to their overall pharmacological profile.^[33]^[2] In traditional consumption methods like chewing (typically 20-50 grams of leaves daily), the cocaine absorbed is limited to 10-50 milligrams due to slow oral absorption through the buccal mucosa, resulting in peak plasma concentrations of 50-200 nanograms per milliliter—levels insufficient to produce euphoria or a rapid "rush."^[1]^[31] This contrasts sharply with refined cocaine hydrochloride, which is isolated to 90-100% purity and administered via routes like insufflation or injection, yielding plasma peaks 20-50 times higher and rapid onset within minutes, directly stimulating dopamine release in the brain's reward pathways at doses as low as 20-100 milligrams.^[1]^[39] The matrix of the coca leaf modulates effects through slower pharmacokinetics and potential entourage interactions from co-occurring alkaloids and nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals that mitigate oxidative stress.^[32] Physiological responses to leaf chewing include mild stimulation, appetite suppression, enhanced endurance, and alleviation of altitude sickness via improved oxygenation, without the cardiovascular spikes or neurotoxicity seen in cocaine use.^[33]^[40] Refined cocaine, by contrast, induces intense vasoconstriction, hypertension, tachycardia, and hyperthermia, escalating to risks of myocardial infarction, stroke, and seizures even in first-time users at recreational doses.^[41] Addiction liability differs profoundly: traditional coca users in Andean populations exhibit no pharmacological dependence, withdrawal, or escalation patterns akin to cocaine, with habitual chewers maintaining steady, non-compulsive intake over lifetimes without tolerance buildup.^[31]^[42] Pure cocaine's high-potency, rapid reinforcement fosters rapid tolerance, compulsive redosing, and severe withdrawal involving dysphoria, fatigue, and craving, with animal models showing self-administration rates orders of magnitude higher than for leaf extracts.^[43] Associated risks for coca leaf include potential correlations with nutritional deficits in some observational studies of heavy chewers, possibly due to appetite suppression rather than direct toxicity, though long-term data from indigenous cohorts show no elevated rates of dental erosion, gastrointestinal damage, or cognitive impairment beyond socioeconomic factors.^[36]^[40] Cocaine's risks encompass overdose lethality (respiratory arrest from doses exceeding 1 gram), chronic neurodegeneration, psychiatric disorders like paranoia and hallucinations, and profound social harms including financial devastation and relational breakdown, with U.S. data indicating over 24,000 overdose deaths in 2021 alone.^[41]^[44]

Historical Development

Origins and Pre-Columbian Uses

The coca plant, Erythroxylum coca, is native to western South America, with wild progenitors distributed across the region from Colombia to Bolivia.^[16] Genetic and archaeological evidence indicates multiple independent domestication events, including one in northwestern South America giving rise to the Colombian (E. novogranatense) and Trujillo varieties, and a separate event for the Huánuco variety (E. coca var. coca) in the eastern Andes.^[16] The earliest direct evidence of coca use comes from the Nanchoc Valley in northern Peru, where desiccated leaves were recovered from house floors dated to approximately 8,000 calibrated years before present (cal BP), marking the onset of leaf chewing during the Early Holocene.^[45] Additional early archaeological traces include lime containers associated with coca processing from the Santa Elena Peninsula in southwestern Ecuador, suggesting domestication by around 3,500 BC.^[18] Pre-Columbian indigenous populations in the Andes and adjacent lowlands primarily consumed coca leaves through chewing, often combined with alkaline substances such as pulverized shells or plant ash to facilitate the release of alkaloids like cocaine, which provided mild stimulation, reduced fatigue, and alleviated hunger during labor-intensive activities.^[46] This practice is evidenced by dental wear patterns on skeletal remains, coca-stained artifacts, and paraphernalia like woven bags and mortars from sites in northern Chile spanning over 3,000 years, up to around 500 AD.^[1] In the northern Andes, ceramic depictions of chewers from the late Valdivia culture (ca. 2100 BC) in Ecuador illustrate its integration into daily and possibly ritual life, while residues in central Peruvian highland sites confirm widespread use by 1000 BC for medicinal purposes, including as a remedy for altitude-related ailments.^[47]^[48] Coastal Ecuadorian evidence from ca. 3000 BC further points to early trade and consumption networks extending from Amazonian varieties (E. coca var. ipadu).^[46] These uses were pragmatic responses to environmental challenges, such as high-altitude hypoxia and nutritional scarcity, rather than purely recreational, as inferred from the consistent association of coca remains with work-related contexts in archaeological assemblages.^[49]

Role in Inca Society

Coca leaves occupied a pivotal role in Inca society, serving religious, economic, and physiological functions across the empire, which spanned from approximately 1438 to 1533 CE. Chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega, of mixed Spanish-Inca descent, noted that the Incas valued coca more highly than gold or silver, integrating it deeply into daily life, rituals, and state administration.^[49] The plant was cultivated under state control in warm Andean valleys unsuitable for other crops, with production monopolized to ensure distribution as tribute, rations, and exchange goods for staples like potatoes and quinoa.^[50] Archaeological evidence, including alkaloid residues in mummified remains and dental wear from chewing, confirms widespread habitual consumption among elites and laborers alike.^[51] In religious and divinatory practices, coca was deemed a divine gift, used in offerings to deities and for inducing altered states during ceremonies. Priests and the Inca emperor exclusively chewed coca during rituals, while diviners burned leaves mixed with llama fat to interpret omens based on the smoke and flames.^[52] Hair analysis from sacrificial victims on Ampato mountain reveals chronic coca ingestion alongside other stimulants, underscoring its role in facilitating spiritual trances and endurance for high-altitude rituals.^[53] Spanish chronicler Pedro Cieza de León documented extensive coca plantations worked by thousands, highlighting its sacred status that prohibited commoners from growing it without permission.^[48] Economically, coca functioned as a non-monetary currency, alleviating hunger and fatigue to boost labor productivity in the mit'a corvée system, where workers received leaf rations to sustain long shifts in mines and fields at elevations exceeding 3,000 meters.^[1] Its stimulant properties, providing mild euphoria and appetite suppression, enabled high-altitude adaptation, as evidenced by bioarchaeological studies at sites like Puruchuco showing increased chewing during the Late Horizon Inca period.^[54] This systemic integration supported imperial expansion, with the Incas colonizing coca-rich lowlands to secure supply, though post-conquest accounts from sources like Garcilaso may reflect idealized views influenced by indigenous oral traditions.^[49]

Colonial Era and Introduction to Europe

The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 initially prompted efforts to eradicate coca cultivation and use among indigenous populations, as colonizers and clergy associated it with idolatry, witchcraft, and resistance to Christian conversion.^[1] These attempts failed due to coca's entrenched role in Andean society and its practical value in sustaining forced labor under grueling conditions.^[1] By the mid-16th century, Spanish authorities shifted policy, recognizing coca's stimulant effects in suppressing hunger, thirst, and fatigue, which enabled indigenous workers to endure extended shifts in high-altitude mines.^[1] The discovery of vast silver deposits at Potosí in 1545 amplified this reliance, as the mit'a labor system—revived and expanded by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572—required rations of coca leaves for thousands of conscripted miners to maintain productivity amid toxic environments and altitudes exceeding 4,000 meters.^[55] Coca production surged dramatically, increasing 40- to 50-fold post-conquest, transitioning from an elite Inca privilege to a mass-distributed commodity taxed by the crown to fund colonial operations.^[55] Indigenous plantations expanded under Spanish oversight, with leaves transported from Yungas valleys to mining centers, solidifying coca's economic integration while ecclesiastical opposition, debated at councils like Lima's Third Provincial Council (1582–1583), gradually yielded to pragmatic allowances.^[1] Early European exposure stemmed from conquistadors' observations, with initial written accounts appearing in the works of explorers like Amerigo Vespucci (1505) and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (1535), followed by detailed descriptions from Seville physician Nicolás Monardes in his 1565–1580 treatises on New World plants, which highlighted coca's invigorating properties based on Andean reports.^[56] Small shipments of dried leaves reached Europe via Spanish trade routes in the late 16th century, though viability was limited by perishability during long voyages.^[57] Chemical analysis of 17th-century mummified remains from Milan reveals coca metabolites like benzoylecgonine and hygrine, indicating that by the early 1600s, select Europeans—likely through informal Mediterranean networks—were chewing leaves for pain relief and stimulation, predating formalized 19th-century imports by centuries.^[57] These sporadic uses remained marginal until alkaloid isolation in 1859 spurred wider pharmacological interest.^[56]

Traditional and Cultural Applications

Methods of Consumption

The predominant traditional method of coca leaf consumption in Andean indigenous cultures is acullico, or chewing, where users form a quid by placing 10-20 fresh or dried leaves in the mouth, typically alongside an alkaline activator such as llipta. ^[33] Llipta, prepared from ashes of quinoa stalks or other plants mixed with lime or bicarbonate, is applied to the leaves to facilitate the release of alkaloids through salivation, with the quid positioned in the cheek pouch and replenished periodically over several hours. ^[58] This practice, sustained daily by an estimated 4-8 million people in Peru and Bolivia as of the early 21st century, originates from pre-Columbian rituals and serves to mitigate high-altitude fatigue and hunger. ^[1] A second common method involves preparing mate de coca, an herbal infusion made by steeping approximately 5-10 grams of dried coca leaves in 200-250 milliliters of hot water (around 80°C) for 5-10 minutes. ^[59] This tea, consumed hot or cold, extracts water-soluble alkaloids and is widely available in markets and hotels across Peru and Bolivia, often flavored with lemon or sugar for palatability. ^[60] Unlike chewing, infusion yields lower alkaloid concentrations per serving, typically 0.1-0.5 milligrams of cocaine equivalents, and is favored for its milder, more accessible administration. ^[61] Less prevalent traditional methods include incorporating coca leaves into foodstuffs, such as grinding them into flour for bread or soups in Bolivian highland communities, though these retain minimal pharmacological potency due to processing. ^[33] Topical applications, like poultices for wounds, fall outside oral consumption but underscore the plant's versatile utility in Andean ethnobotany. ^[32] These methods collectively emphasize low-dose, sustained exposure to coca's natural alkaloids, distinct from concentrated extracts.^[62]

Medicinal and Nutritional Roles

In traditional Andean practices, coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca) are chewed with an alkaline additive such as llipta (lime paste) to mitigate altitude sickness, suppress hunger and thirst, and reduce fatigue during labor at high elevations above 3,000 meters.^[1] This method enhances the bioavailability of alkaloids, including cocaine at concentrations of 0.5-1% by dry weight, providing mild stimulation without the intense effects of refined cocaine.^[33] Indigenous healers employ coca infusions or poultices for gastrointestinal discomfort, toothaches, and rheumatism, attributing efficacy to its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties observed empirically over millennia.^[63] Nutritionally, dried coca leaves offer 20.28 g protein, 44.3 g carbohydrates, 14.2 g fiber, and trace vitamins including 3,509 μg beta-carotene (vitamin A precursor), 0.58-0.68 mg thiamine (B1), and 16.72 mg vitamin E per 100 g.^[64] Chewing 50-100 g daily, common in Andean diets, supplies approximately 200-400 kcal, alongside calcium, iron, and phosphorus, aiding nutritional status in calorie-scarce highland environments.^[65] However, alkaloids like cocaine limit safe intake, and studies indicate that recommended quantities do not yield substantial micronutrient benefits relative to potential pesticide residues or dependency risks from chronic use.^[30] Scientific investigations corroborate some traditional claims, with coca leaf extracts demonstrating efficacy against motion sickness via anticholinergic effects and gastrointestinal ailments through mucosal protection in animal models.^[66] Chewing elevates blood glucose levels, potentially countering hypoglycemia at altitude, as evidenced by field studies on Andean workers.^[1] Limited human trials suggest improved exercise tolerance and reduced perceived exertion, though rigorous randomized controlled studies remain scarce due to legal restrictions on coca research outside Bolivia and Peru.^[67] Risks include mild cardiovascular strain from habitual use, but epidemiological data from long-term chewers show no elevated incidence of addiction or severe pathology comparable to cocaine abuse, attributable to buffering compounds in the leaf matrix.^[31] In Andean indigenous societies, particularly among Quechua and Aymara peoples, coca leaf chewing serves as a central social ritual that fosters community bonds and reciprocity. During gatherings such as weddings, festivals, and daily interactions, individuals exchange small bundles of coca leaves (k'intu, typically three leaves symbolizing the trilogy of hanaqpacha, kaypacha, and ukhu pacha—the upper, present, and lower worlds), accompanied by verbal blessings like tinkay to invoke harmony and protection.^[55]^[68] This practice, rooted in pre-Columbian traditions, reinforces social etiquette and cultural identity, with non-participation signaling exclusion from communal norms.^[69] Ethnographic studies document its role in alleviating social tensions, as the mild stimulant effect promotes endurance in labor-intensive settings like mining or herding, where groups share acullico (chewing sessions) to sustain collective efforts.^[1] Religiously, coca holds sacred status as a divine gift from deities such as Inti (sun god) or Pachamama (Earth Mother), integral to rituals across Andean cosmology. Offerings of coca leaves form the core of pago ceremonies to Pachamama, where k'intu bundles are burned or buried alongside items like llama fat and shells to ensure fertility, safe travels, or bountiful harvests; these rites, performed by yatiris (shamans), date back to Inca times and persist in Bolivia and Peru as of 2025.^[70]^[50] In divination (coca qhaway), leaves are cast or interpreted by specialists to diagnose ailments, predict outcomes, or communicate with apus (mountain spirits), a practice viewed as accessing spiritual energies rather than superstition, with historical roots in highland Peru's Quechua communities.^[71]^[72] Such uses underscore coca's non-narcotic cultural embedding, distinct from refined cocaine, as millions consume it daily without dependency issues reported in traditional contexts.^[33]^[1]

Modern Economic and Industrial Uses

Legal Commercial Products

Legal commercial products derived from coca leaves are primarily available in producing countries such as Peru and Bolivia, where cultivation is regulated for traditional and non-narcotic uses. These include fresh or dried leaves sold in wholesale markets like Villa Fátima in La Paz and Sacaba in Cochabamba, Bolivia, for chewing or infusion as mate de coca tea.^[73]^[74] Processed derivatives encompass coca flour for baking, cookies, candies, and liquor produced by entities such as Peru's National Enterprise of Coca (ENACO), which purchases leaves from registered growers.^[75] Mate de coca tea bags, typically containing 1 gram of leaves per bag or 3 to 5 leaves, are commercially produced and sold for medicinal purposes like alleviating altitude sickness.^[76] Internationally, restrictions limit trade, but decocainized coca leaf extract serves as a flavoring agent in beverages. The Stepan Company in New Jersey holds the sole U.S. permit to import coca leaves, processing them to remove cocaine alkaloids, which are sold for pharmaceutical use, while the residue extract is supplied to The Coca-Cola Company.^[77]^[78] Coca-Cola has incorporated this decocainized extract since approximately 1903, following the cessation of cocaine inclusion in its formula.^[79] Some legal coca is also grown in Peru and Bolivia for export as decocainized flavoring to international manufacturers.^[80] Efforts to expand markets include Bolivia's push to deschedule the coca leaf under UN conventions, potentially enabling greater exports of teas, flours, and confections without narcotic stigma.^[73] However, importation of raw leaves or unprocessed products remains prohibited in countries like the United States for any purpose, including tea brewing.^[81]

Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Applications

Cocaine, the primary alkaloid derived from coca leaves, is utilized in medicine as a topical anesthetic for procedures involving the mucous membranes of the eye, ear, nose, and throat, owing to its rapid onset of action and vasoconstrictive effects that reduce bleeding.^[82] In the United States, cocaine hydrochloride is available in solution form for these applications, classified as a Schedule II controlled substance to allow limited therapeutic use while mitigating abuse risks.^[83] Its pharmacological profile as a sympathomimetic agent also contributes to these effects, though systemic use has been largely supplanted by safer alternatives due to risks of addiction and cardiovascular complications.^[39] Coca leaf extracts and whole leaves have been investigated for potential therapeutic roles beyond isolated cocaine, including as stimulants for fatigue, treatments for gastrointestinal disorders, and remedies for motion sickness and altitude-related stress.^[63] In traditional Andean practices, leaf chewing or infusions provide mild stimulation and appetite suppression, attributed to alkaloids like ecgonine and flavonoids, but rigorous clinical evidence supporting broad efficacy is sparse, with most benefits anecdotal or preliminary.^[84] Pharmacological analyses indicate that whole-leaf preparations may offer antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties not replicated by purified cocaine, prompting calls for further research into decocainized extracts for nutraceutical applications.^[1] Agriculturally, coca is cultivated as a perennial shrub in high-altitude Andean regions of Peru and Bolivia, where government-regulated quotas permit legal production to meet traditional leaf demand and pharmaceutical export needs, with Peru reporting approximately 95,000 hectares under cultivation in 2022, though much exceeds licensed limits.^[85] The plant thrives in marginal soils with partial shade, ample humidity, and elevations of 500 to 2,000 meters, yielding multiple harvests annually and serving as a resilient crop in areas unsuitable for other staples.^[86] Legal exports supply processors like the Stepan Company in Maywood, New Jersey, which, under exclusive U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration authorization, imports coca leaves—over 385,000 pounds in 2003 alone—to extract pharmaceutical-grade cocaine for medical suppliers such as Mallinckrodt while providing decocainized residue for non-narcotic uses.^[78]^[87] This process underscores coca's role in controlled agricultural supply chains for alkaloid isolation, distinct from illicit production.^[88]

Emerging Markets and Innovations

In recent years, Bolivia has pursued expanded commercialization of coca leaf derivatives, emphasizing non-narcotic applications to differentiate them from cocaine production. Government initiatives, as outlined in 2025 diplomatic efforts, seek to export products like coca tea, flour, and confections, potentially generating revenue for indigenous farmers while challenging the United Nations' classification of the raw leaf as a controlled substance.^[73] These markets remain constrained by international treaties, with Bolivia's 2013 temporary withdrawal from the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs—rejoined in 2017 with a chewing allowance for 22,000 hectares—highlighting ongoing tensions between traditional uses and global prohibitions.^[89] Peru's state-run Empresa Nacional de la Coca (ENACO) similarly promotes domestic and limited export sales of leaf-based goods, controlling over 90% of legal cultivation as of 2025.^[90] Product innovation has focused on value-added items leveraging the leaf's alkaloids for mild stimulation and nutrition, without chemical extraction of cocaine. In Bolivia, distilleries like El Viejo Roble introduced coca-infused beer in 2024, using government-approved leaves to infuse malt with trace alkaloids for a low-alcohol beverage marketed for energy and cultural heritage, despite unclear international legality.^[91] Colombia has seen coca flour integrated into baked goods and superfood dishes, promoted for nutritional benefits like vitamins and minerals, with urban commercialization expanding since the 2010s amid crop substitution programs.^[92] A 2025 World Health Organization critical review examined these derivatives, including "coca machucada" mixes, noting potential for regulated markets if descheduled, though evidence of health claims remains preliminary and tied to low cocaine yields (0.1-0.8% per leaf).^[93] Biotechnological research offers pathways for sustainable innovation, including genetic elucidation of tropane alkaloid biosynthesis in Erythroxylum coca published in 2022, which mapped 17 enzymes converting precursors like ornithine into cocaine, enabling potential CRISPR editing for low-alkaloid variants suited to food or pharma uses.^[94] A 2025 study on Colombian morphotypes (Palo and Caimo) quantified nutritional profiles—high in calcium, iron, and antioxidants—while assessing cytotoxicity, supporting fortified product development without narcotic escalation.^[3] These advances contrast with illicit markets, where collapsing prices in Colombia (down 50% by 2023) underscore opportunities for legal alternatives, though scalability depends on policy shifts amid producer countries' reservations to UN frameworks.^[95]

Illicit Dimensions and Cocaine Production

Extraction Process from Leaf to Cocaine

The production of cocaine from coca leaves occurs through a multi-stage chemical process in illicit operations, transforming the alkaloid-rich foliage of Erythroxylum coca or E. novogranatense into cocaine hydrochloride. This process begins near cultivation sites to minimize leaf transport, typically yielding crude intermediates before final refinement in more secure labs. Approximately 300 to 500 kilograms of dried coca leaves are required to produce 1 kilogram of cocaine hydrochloride, reflecting the low alkaloid content of 0.23% to 0.96% in the leaves.^[12]^[96] The initial stage extracts crude coca paste, a semi-refined product containing 40% to 70% cocaine freebase along with other alkaloids. Fresh or dried leaves are macerated by stomping or mechanical means in pits or barrels with a mixture of water, slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), and a hydrocarbon solvent such as kerosene, gasoline, or diesel fuel. This step solubilizes the alkaloids into the organic phase over several hours or days. Sulfuric acid is then added to convert the alkaloids to water-soluble sulfates, which are separated, neutralized with ammonia or lime, and filtered to yield the oily paste. Variations include acid extraction methods using dilute sulfuric acid without solvents, though solvent-based techniques predominate due to efficiency.^[97]^[98]^[99] Subsequent purification converts coca paste to cocaine base. The paste is dissolved in acetone, ether, or sulfuric acid, treated with potassium permanganate to oxidize impurities like cinnamoylcocaine, and filtered. Ammonia or sodium bicarbonate is added to precipitate the freebase, which is extracted with solvents like ether or acetone and evaporated to a solid or semi-solid base containing 70% to 90% cocaine. This stage removes plant waxes and residual solvents, improving purity for the final step.^[96]^[100] The final conversion to cocaine hydrochloride involves dissolving the base in ether or acetone and introducing hydrochloric acid (often as gas bubbled through the solution) to form the water-soluble salt, which crystallizes upon cooling or evaporation. The crystals are washed, dried, and sometimes further purified by recrystallization. This white powder form, typically 80% to 95% pure before street dilution, is the standard for illicit distribution. The entire process uses hazardous chemicals, generating toxic waste equivalent to 5 to 10 times the cocaine output by weight, contributing to environmental contamination in production regions.^[101]^[102]^[97]

Contributions to Global Drug Trafficking

Coca bush (Erythroxylum coca) serves as the primary botanical source for cocaine alkaloids, which are extracted and refined into cocaine hydrochloride, the substance central to global illicit drug trafficking networks. Cultivation of coca leaves, predominantly in the Andean region, supplies the raw material for an estimated 2,757 metric tons of potential pure cocaine production worldwide in 2022, representing a 20% increase from the prior year and fueling a black market valued in tens of billions of dollars annually.^[103] By 2023, global illicit cocaine output had surged further to approximately 3,708 tons, more than quadruple the levels from a decade earlier, driven by expanded cultivation and improved processing yields.^[104] Colombia dominates coca production, accounting for over 60% of global supply with 253,000 hectares under cultivation in 2023, an area that yielded a potential 2,664 tons of cocaine—a 53% rise in output from 2022 despite aerial eradication efforts.^[105] Peru contributed 95,000 hectares in 2022, primarily in the Valle de los Ríos Apurímac, Ene, and Mantaro (VRAEM) region, while Bolivia added 31,000 hectares in 2023, with cultivation encroaching into protected Amazon areas despite legal allowances for traditional use up to 22,000 hectares.^[106]^[107] These Andean outputs are processed into cocaine base in rudimentary jungle labs, then transported via overland routes through Central America or maritime paths across the Atlantic to Europe and North America, where demand sustains trafficking syndicates.^[108] Trafficking organizations, including Colombian cartels and Mexican groups, leverage coca-derived cocaine to generate revenues estimated at $100 billion globally per year, with primary flows intercepted in record seizures: over 1,400 tons in Europe alone from 2019–2022 via container ships from South American ports.^[109] The trade's scale has shifted routes, with increasing volumes transiting West Africa as a midpoint to Europe, exploiting weak governance, while U.S.-bound shipments often consolidate in Mexico after passing through Central American corridors handling thousands of metric tons annually.^[110] This supply chain, rooted in coca's alkaloid content yielding 0.5–1% cocaine by dry leaf weight, perpetuates adaptive smuggling tactics like vessel concealment and precursor chemical diversions, undermining interdiction despite international cooperation.^[111]

Socioeconomic Impacts in Producer Regions

In the Andean producer countries of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia, coca cultivation sustains rural economies in regions characterized by high poverty, limited infrastructure, and few viable alternative crops, generating farm-gate values that provide a critical buffer against subsistence-level incomes. In Colombia, where coca covers 253,000 hectares as of 2023, the crop supports smallholder farmers in remote areas, contributing an estimated 0.4% to national economic growth through peasant production and enabling household incomes that exceed those from legal alternatives like coffee or bananas by factors of 2-3 times due to reliable demand and minimal post-harvest losses.^[112] ^[113] Similarly, in Bolivia, cultivation reached 31,000 hectares in 2023, with coca accounting for up to 12% of agricultural sector value and per capita farmer incomes around $900 annually, often the only option in Yungas and Chapare valleys where soil and climate favor the crop over staples.^[107] ^[22] Peru's 95,000 hectares yield farm-gate revenues of several hundred million dollars yearly, bolstering 0.4% of GDP in highland communities where traditional leaf chewing and tea sustain cultural economies alongside illicit processing.^[114] ^[22] Yet this economic dependence fosters vulnerabilities, as 73% of Colombian farmers process leaves into cocaine base or paste, tying livelihoods to volatile illicit markets controlled by armed groups present in 93% of cultivation municipalities, which extract rents through extortion and spark territorial violence displacing thousands annually.^[113] ^[115] In Colombia's Catatumbo and Pacific regions, coca economies exceed legal activities by over 42% in some locales, but this fuels child labor—linked to production booms—and domestic violence, with hotspots showing yields up to 10.8 metric tons per hectare amid intensified conflict.^[113] ^[116] Eradication programs, such as Colombia's manual efforts removing 20,325 hectares in 2023 (down 70% from 2022), often fail to deliver sustainable alternatives, prompting farmers to replant intensively or diversify into other illicit goods, as evidenced by non-linear poverty effects where moderate deprivation correlates most strongly with persistent cultivation.^[113] ^[117] ^[118] Substitution initiatives like Colombia's PNIS, aiding over 80,000 families with $2.3 billion since 2017, reach only a fraction of producers and yield mixed results, with deconcentration zones showing lower yields (7.6 tons/hectare) and marketing barriers post-eradication.^[113] In Bolivia and Peru, manual eradication reduced areas by 8% and 4% respectively in earlier assessments, but without infrastructure for alternatives like palm oil or coffee—which succeeded in Peru's Bajo Huallaga, dropping coca from 129,000 to under 50,000 hectares by 2005—farmers revert to coca for its low input needs and quick returns.^[22] ^[119] Overall, while coca alleviates acute poverty for 68,600 Colombian households and equivalents elsewhere, its illicit ties amplify deforestation (driving broader environmental costs) and social fragmentation, underscoring eradication's limited efficacy absent comprehensive rural development.^[22] ^[120]

Legal and Policy Framework

International Treaties and Prohibitions

The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, adopted on March 30, 1961, and entering into force on December 13, 1964, classifies the coca leaf in Schedule I as a substance with little to no accepted medical use and high abuse potential, subjecting it to the strictest controls.^[121] Article 26 obligates parties to prohibit cultivation of the coca bush (Erythroxylum coca and related species) except for medical and scientific purposes, with licensed production limited to amounts needed for those ends and excess plants to be destroyed.^[121] Article 49 specifically targets traditional practices, requiring states to abolish coca leaf chewing, the preparation of alkaloidal extracts for non-medical consumption, and similar uses within 25 years of the convention's coming into force for that state, though parties could enter reservations to permit continued chewing temporarily.^[121] The 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances does not directly address coca leaf but complements the 1961 framework by controlling cocaine derivatives. The 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances strengthens enforcement by mandating criminal penalties for production, manufacture, extraction, and possession of coca leaf intended for illicit cocaine production, while affirming the 1961 controls on cultivation. These treaties collectively form the cornerstone of international coca regulation, ratified by over 180 states, aiming to limit supply to curb cocaine trafficking despite debates over the leaf's minimal alkaloid content (typically 0.23–0.96% cocaine by dry weight) compared to processed cocaine. Challenges to these prohibitions emerged from Andean states emphasizing cultural uses. In 2011, Bolivia denounced the 1961 Convention effective June 30, 2012, citing incompatibility with constitutional protections for ancestral coca practices, but re-acceded on January 10, 2013, with a reservation allowing domestic chewing and tea consumption up to 2.3 million people daily, provided measures prevent diversion to illicit markets.^[122] The International Narcotics Control Board accepted the reservation in 2013 but urged Bolivia to monitor for abuse, reflecting tensions between treaty uniformity and national sovereignty. As of 2025, the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence reviewed coca leaf scheduling following a 2023 request but recommended retention in Schedule I, citing insufficient evidence for rescheduling despite calls for reconsideration of traditional benefits.

Variations Across Countries

Policies on coca leaf cultivation, possession, and use vary significantly across countries, reflecting tensions between international prohibitions and regional cultural traditions. The 1961 United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs schedules the coca leaf, restricting it to medical and scientific purposes while allowing limited industrial uses after alkaloid removal, though Andean nations have pursued exceptions for traditional practices like chewing and tea preparation.^[123]^[124] In Bolivia, the government authorizes coca cultivation in 22,000 hectares across designated zones as established by Law 906 in March 2017, expanding from a prior limit of 12,000 hectares to support licit markets for leaf chewing and infusions, which constitute the bulk of domestic demand estimated at 20,000-25,000 tons annually. Bolivia withdrew from the Single Convention in 2012 and re-acceded in 2013 with a reservation explicitly permitting traditional coca leaf chewing, a practice rooted in indigenous customs and recognized as non-addictive by local health assessments. This framework includes union-led monitoring to curb excess production, though enforcement challenges persist amid pressures from illicit diversion.^[125]^[122]^[126] Peru employs a quota-based system under the National Coca Registry, permitting cultivation in traditional areas such as the Apurímac, Ayacucho, and La Convención valleys, with annual allocations historically around 35,000-40,000 hectares to meet legal demand for chewing, tea, and limited exports like flavorings. Traditional consumption remains legal for adults, with up to 500 grams per person allowed for personal use, but sales and transport require permits to prevent diversion to cocaine processing, which dominates global output from Peru's estimated 50,000+ hectares of total cultivation as of recent UN assessments. Recent proposals in 2024 have debated broader legalization to formalize markets and reduce organized crime influence, though implementation remains pending.^[95]^[127]^[128] In Colombia, legal coca production is negligible, confined to small-scale experimental plots for research, as national policy prioritizes forced eradication and crop substitution programs under the 2016 peace accords, targeting over 200,000 hectares of illicit cultivation linked to armed groups. Traditional use is minimal compared to Andean neighbors, with policies aligning closely to U.S.-backed prohibitions that classify coca leaves as precursors to cocaine.^[95]^[96] Most non-producer countries impose blanket bans on coca leaves. In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration schedules coca leaves as a Schedule I substance equivalent to cocaine, prohibiting possession, cultivation, or import except for tightly controlled pharmaceutical extraction, with no allowances for traditional or cultural uses. European Union member states similarly restrict coca to Schedule I under the 1971 UN Convention framework, though minor exceptions exist for de-cocainized leaves in beverages like certain cola products, provided alkaloid content is below 0.1%. These stringent approaches stem from concerns over extraction potential, despite evidence that traditional leaf consumption yields negligible cocaine absorption compared to purified forms.^[6]^[33]

Recent Policy Shifts and Reviews

In June 2023, Bolivia formally requested the World Health Organization (WHO) to conduct a critical review of the coca leaf's classification under the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, arguing that its placement in Schedule I—alongside substances like heroin—relies on outdated 1950s assessments rather than contemporary scientific evidence of low abuse potential and cultural significance.^[129]^[130] This initiated a multi-stage process involving expert consultations, with the WHO's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence scheduled to convene in October 2025 to evaluate potential descheduling or rescheduling, potentially allowing expanded traditional, medicinal, and industrial uses without the strictest controls.^[131]^[132] During the 2024 session of the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND), the review gained visibility through discussions on distinguishing coca leaf from cocaine, with support from indigenous representatives and some member states for recognizing its non-addictive properties when chewed traditionally, though opposition persisted from countries prioritizing anti-trafficking measures.^[133] A October 2025 publication in Science emphasized pharmacological differences—coca leaf containing minimal cocaine (0.1-0.9%) alongside alkaloids like ecgonine with appetite-suppressant effects—urging policy alignment with evidence to mitigate harms from prohibition-driven displacement in Andean communities.^[31]^[134] Nationally, Peru's 2023-2024 efforts to reform its legal coca quota system faltered amid disputes between regulators and growers, resulting in persistent black-market diversions estimated at 20-30% of production, highlighting enforcement challenges without broader international descheduling.^[135] Bolivia, producing over 80% of global legal coca, has expanded licensed cultivation to 22,000 hectares since 2020 under social control models, reducing illicit conversion rates to below 10% per government data, though critics question sustainability amid rising demand.^[136] These reviews underscore tensions between empirical data on coca's benign traditional use—supported by longitudinal studies showing no dependency in habitual chewers—and entrenched prohibitions linked to cocaine epidemics elsewhere.^[137]

Controversies and Empirical Debates

Health Claims: Benefits Versus Evidence of Harm

Traditional Andean communities have long attributed health benefits to coca leaf consumption, primarily through chewing (masticado) with alkaline substances like llipta or as infusions like mate de coca, claiming it alleviates fatigue, suppresses hunger and thirst, combats altitude sickness, and aids digestion.^[1] ^[32] These effects stem from alkaloids including cocaine (0.11-1.02% dry weight), ecgonine, and others, alongside nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, vitamins (e.g., riboflavin, vitamin C), and minerals (e.g., calcium at ~3,510 mg/kg, iron).^[2] ^[138] However, empirical nutritional analyses indicate that typical daily intake (20-50g leaves) provides negligible caloric or micronutrient contributions relative to requirements, failing to meaningfully improve status in Andean populations.^[30] ^[65] Physiological studies offer mixed support for stimulant benefits: chewing elevates mood, heart rate, and physical performance at high altitudes (e.g., >3,000m), potentially via enhanced oxygen utilization and glucose modulation, with one trial showing improved exercise tolerance without acute toxicity.^[139] ^[1] Small-scale research suggests anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and blood glucose-stabilizing effects, possibly aiding hypoglycemia or motion sickness, though these lack large randomized controlled trials and are confounded by placebo or cultural factors.^[63] ^[2] In traditional low-dose use (absorbing ~0.2-1mg cocaine equivalents daily via oral mucosa), effects differ from purified cocaine due to slower absorption, co-alkaloids buffering euphoria, and absence of intravenous peaks, yielding no demonstrated addiction liability or withdrawal in chronic users.^[33] ^[140] ^[32] Evidence of harm predominates in chronic heavy use (>100g/day), correlating with malnutrition, iron-deficiency anemia (via appetite suppression reducing overall intake), and potential liver enzyme elevations, though causality remains associative rather than proven.^[36] Cardiovascular strain includes modest blood pressure increases and tachycardia, risking exacerbation in predisposed individuals, while adulterants in illicit or processed leaves (e.g., levamisole) introduce toxicity risks absent in pure traditional preparations.^[141] ^[84] Oral consumption may erode dental enamel over decades from abrasive chewing, and fetal exposure studies in Bolivia link maternal use to low birth weight, though confounded by socioeconomic variables.^[1] Systematic reviews emphasize that while acute toxicity is rare, long-term data gaps persist, with benefits often anecdotal and harms amplified when leaves serve as cocaine precursors rather than direct consumption.^[2] ^[84]

Cultural Preservation Versus Public Health Priorities

The coca leaf holds profound cultural significance in Andean indigenous societies, where it has been used for millennia in rituals, social gatherings, and daily practices such as chewing with alkaline substances like llipta to enhance alkaloid extraction.^[55]^[1] In Bolivia and Peru, coca facilitates offerings to Pachamama, divination, and alleviation of high-altitude stresses, embedding it in communal identity and spiritual life.^[70]^[142] Traditional consumption involves masticating leaves or brewing tea, providing mild stimulation without the intense effects of isolated cocaine, and indigenous advocates argue that such uses predate colonial bans and constitute non-narcotic heritage deserving legal protection.^[33] Public health priorities, however, emphasize curbing cocaine production, as the leaf serves as precursor to a substance linked to severe harms including addiction, cardiovascular events, and overdose deaths. In the United States, cocaine-involved overdose fatalities increased from 6,784 in 2015 to over 29,000 by 2023, often compounded by opioids, underscoring the drug's role in broader mortality trends.^[143]^[144] Empirical studies on coca chewing reveal mixed outcomes: while a 1995 WHO assessment found no significant mental or physical damage from traditional use, other research indicates potential risks such as elevated blood glucose, chronic brain alterations, and increased oral squamous cell carcinoma incidence among habitual chewers.^[32]^[1]^[36] Proponents of prohibition contend that even low-level diversion from legal cultivation fuels illicit markets, prioritizing global health metrics over localized traditions, though critics note that alkaloid content in leaves (0.1-0.9%) yields negligible addiction potential compared to refined cocaine.^[33]^[145] This tension manifests in policy clashes, as seen in Bolivia's 2013 constitutional recognition of traditional coca cultivation—capping legal hectarage at 22,000 for domestic use—contrasting with UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) scheduling of the leaf itself as illicit.^[146] Eradication campaigns in producer regions have led to violent confrontations, economic displacement, and cultural erosion among indigenous groups, with forced manual destruction in Peru and Colombia resulting in fatalities and human rights violations without proportionally reducing cocaine supply.^[33]^[147] Bolivia's ongoing challenge to the UN for leaf descheduling highlights indigenous rights to self-determination, yet international frameworks prioritize supply-side controls amid evidence that prohibition exacerbates violence and fails to address demand-driven harms.^[140]^[148] Causal analysis suggests that distinguishing low-risk traditional practices from high-purity cocaine trafficking could reconcile preservation with health goals, though systemic biases in academic and media sources—often favoring decriminalization narratives—warrant scrutiny against overdose data.^[149]^[95]

Prohibition Efficacy: Eradication Efforts and Unintended Consequences

Efforts to eradicate coca cultivation have primarily targeted major producer countries—Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia—through international cooperation, including U.S.-funded programs like Plan Colombia, initiated in 2000 with over $10 billion in aid focused on aerial fumigation, manual eradication, and interdiction.^[150] In Colombia, these initiatives reduced coca cultivation from approximately 163,000 hectares in 2000 to under 9,000 hectares by the mid-2000s, but areas rebounded to 154,000 hectares by 2019 according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) surveys.^[151] Similar forced eradication in Peru and Bolivia, often tied to UN conventions, has yielded temporary declines, such as Peru's drop from 38,000 hectares in 2011 to 24,000 in 2019, yet global coca cultivation persists due to crop displacement and resilient farming techniques.^[113] Despite substantial investments, eradication's efficacy remains limited, as evidenced by fluctuating yet persistently high production levels; Colombia's potential cocaine output rose 46% to 646 metric tons in 2015 amid intensified spraying, while post-2016 peace accords saw record yields from surviving plots due to improved farmer expertise and seed varieties.^[152] UNODC data indicate that while manual eradication destroyed over 130,000 hectares in Colombia in 2020 alone, net reductions fail to materialize long-term, with cultivation shifting to remote or ungoverned areas and overall Andean coca hectarage stabilizing around 200,000-250,000 annually since the early 2010s.^[115] Critics, including analyses from the U.S. Government Accountability Office, attribute this to inadequate alternative development programs, which cover only a fraction of affected farmers, perpetuating a cycle where eradication premiums incentivize replanting.^[150] Unintended consequences have amplified harms, particularly violence: aerial spraying in Colombia correlates with elevated homicide rates and forced displacements, as it disrupts local equilibria between farmers, traffickers, and armed groups, prompting retaliatory attacks and power vacuums filled by groups like dissident FARC factions. Micro-level studies confirm that fumigated municipalities experienced up to 20-30% spikes in violence metrics, including landmine incidents and clashes, as eradication forces communities into alliances with illicit actors for protection.^[153] Environmental and health impacts further undermine efficacy; glyphosate-based fumigation has caused soil degradation, aquatic contamination, and biodiversity loss across millions of hectares, with residual effects persisting years after application and affecting legal crops like coffee and bananas.^[154] Community health surveys link spraying to increased respiratory illnesses, skin conditions, and miscarriages in exposed populations, though causal attribution remains debated amid confounding poverty factors.^[155] Economically, eradication displaces smallholders into deeper poverty without viable substitutes, fostering recidivism rates exceeding 50% in substitution trials and exacerbating rural inequality.^[156] These outcomes suggest that prohibition-driven eradication, while reducing visible crops short-term, sustains a resilient illicit economy through adaptive responses and collateral damages.

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The use of psychoactive plants by ancient indigenous populations of ...
Jun 1, 2019 · In the Northern Andes, early evidence for the use of psychoactive plants is evident in the depiction of coca chewers in late Valdivia (ca. 2100 ...The Northern Andes · The Muisca · The Quimbaya<|separator|>
[48]
(PDF) Ancient use of Coca Leaves in the Peruvian central highlands
Jun 25, 2025 · Coca paraphernalia and bountiful artworks provide the only archaeological evidence of coca use in Colombia, the earliest is from the Yotoco ...
[49]
Coca: A Blessing and a Curse | National Geographic
Terraces in the archaeological site of Pisac, near Cusco, Peru. Andean populations created these characteristic agricultural terraces on the hillsides.Coca Culture · Cultivating The Crop · An Acquired Taste
[50]
Coca in South American tradition: Social and ritual uses - earthstOriez
The exchange of coca leaves for meat, potatoes, beans, chocolate, quinoa, vegetables was a common practice for the Incas, meaning that coca leaves played an ...
[51]
Archaeological, radiological, and biological evidence offer insight ...
Jul 29, 2013 · Our diachronic data on the use of coca build on our previous isotope data (4), offering information on status change and habituated coca use.
[52]
The Role of Coca in the History, Religion, and Medicine of ... - jstor
Other diviners would burn coca leaves with llama fat and watch the way in which they burned. Following the destruction of the Inca empire by the Spaniards, the ...
[53]
Ritual drug use during Inca human sacrifices on Ampato mountain ...
Coca leaves were among the most popular stimulants in the Andean region. The oldest archaeological findings of coca come from the Nanchoc Valley dated to the ...Introduction · The Capacochas From Ampato... · Stimulant Plants In The...
[54]
[PDF] A Bioarchaeological Study of Coca Use and Coca Leaf Chewing at ...
Apr 15, 2009 · While the archaeological evidence associated with prehistoric coca leaf chewing is diverse and the practice appears ubiquitous before the Late ...
[55]
Coca and Andean Culture - The New Dangers of an Old Debate
Feb 19, 2010 · Whatever the case, coca production increased forty to fifty-fold after the Spanish conquest and its use became much more generalized. Now ...
[56]
History of Cocaine Use and Abuse - Narconon
First-hand accounts of coca use made their way back to Europe. Amerigo Vespucci (1505), G Fernandez de Oviedo (1535), and Nicholas Monardes (1565).
[57]
Europeans Were Using Cocaine in the 17th Century—Hundreds of ...
Sep 18, 2024 · They lauded the plant for its ability to relieve pain, boost energy and foster an altered state during religious rituals. The Spanish learned ...Missing: era | Show results with:era
[58]
The coca leaf: the Andean antidote - Local Trekkers Peru
Its traditional consumption, which consists of chewing it together with a small amount of lime or ash (called llipta), releases small amounts of alkaloids, ...
[59]
Coca Leaf Tea: Cultural Significance Explained - Voyagers Travel
Sep 2, 2025 · Inca civilization believed in its sacredness and had rituals using the coca and offered the coca to the gods in Machu Picchu. Spain was the ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[60]
Coca Leaf Tea for Preventing Altitude Sickness in Cusco
Jul 1, 2021 · In the Andean regions of Peru, the coca infusion is called Mate de Coca. And its preparation is quite simple and similar to any other infusion.What are coca leaves? · Coca leaf tea – not a drug, but... · Where to find it?
[61]
Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea - PMC - NIH
This study demonstrated that coca tea bags and coca tea contain a significant amount of cocaine and cocaine-related alkaloids.Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[62]
UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1950 Issue 4 - 001
Coca-leaf chewing occurs to a greater or lesser extent in a number of South America countries, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, followed in importance by ...
[63]
Coca leaf as a therapeutic agent - PubMed
Coca might be useful as a treatment for gastrointestinal ailments and motion sickness, as a fast-acting antidepressant medication, as a substitute stimulant ...
[64]
Can coca leaves contribute to improving the nutritional status of the ...
Apr 1, 2009 · Leaves contained protein 20.28g/100g, lysine was the limiting amino acid; beta-carotene 3509 mg/100g; vitamin E 16.72/100g; traces of Vitamin D; ...<|separator|>
[65]
(PDF) Can Coca Leaves Contribute to Improving the Nutritional ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Coca leaves do not provide nutritional benefits when eaten in the recommended quantities, and the presence of absorbable cocaine and other ...
[66]
The therapeutic value of coca in contemporary medicine
Coca appears to be a useful treatment for various gastrointestinal ailments, motion sickness, and laryngeal fatigue.
[67]
Coca leaf - Critical review report
Sep 23, 2025 · Coca leaf contains a complex mixture of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, and phenols. Its pharmacological effects include: Stimulant activity ...Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[68]
[PDF] To Be Quechua: The Symbolism of Coca Chewing in Highland Peru
Nov 6, 2019 · Coca is an integral part of Quechua life in Peru and Bolivia and is a powerful symbol of cultural identity. A better understanding of the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
to be Quechua: the symbolism of coca chewing in highland Peru
Coca chewing plays a crucial role in maintaining basic cultural principles in the minds of individuals living in a Quechua-speaking community in southern ...Missing: divination | Show results with:divination
[70]
The sacred coca leaf of the Incas - Quechuas Expeditions
For thousands of years, indigenous peoples of the Andean region have used the coca leaves for medicinal, religious, and social purposes. Why is the coca leaf so ...
[71]
The Ancient Ritual of Coca Leaf Reading in the Andes
Jan 25, 2019 · Visitors today often know of coca leaves because of their ability to relieve altitude sickness, whilst locals use them in many different ways.<|separator|>
[72]
[PDF] 19 - Coca in Every Day Life
process of divination.30 Coca qhaway (“looking at coca,” the art of coca divination) is an extremely serious act, one that is performed in secret and by a ...
[73]
Bolivia wants the world to stop treating coca leaves like drugs
Jun 12, 2025 · Bolivia could start exporting existing products such as coca tea, flour and sweets. But de-scheduling could also boost investment in the leaf. ...
[74]
Some brief notes about coca in Bolivia - People's World
Mar 11, 2025 · The buyers distribute the coca leaves to a central market in town and then they get sold in turn to thousands of small vendors.
[75]
[PDF] COCA LEAF AND COCAINE LEGALIZATION IN PERU
It purchases coca leaf from legally registered growers and transforms it into various products including coca-leaf flour, cookies, candies, liquor and other ...
[76]
PERU: COCA LEAF TEA - YouTube
Jul 21, 2015 · " SUPER CAPTION: Vendor Mate de coca in its commercial form contains approximately one gram of coca leaves, or 3 to 5 leaves. The leaves are ...
[77]
Coca-Cola's cocaine connection is worth billions - National Post
Apr 12, 2023 · DEA renews licence for the lone U.S. factory authorized to import coca leaves, which are turned into 'decocainized' flavouring ingredient.
[78]
NJ factory imports cocaine plant for Coca-Cola due to DEA ...
Apr 1, 2023 · The coca leaves are used to create a “decocainized” ingredient for the soda and the leftover byproduct is sold to the opioid manufacturing ...
[79]
The Real Truth Behind the 'Cocaine in Coca-Cola' Rumor - Eater
but he switched to “decocainized” coca leaves, with all traces ...
[80]
Legal Coca Production | Drug Policy Facts
Additionally, some coca is grown legally in Peru and Bolivia for processing into decocainised flavouring agents that are sold to international manufacturers of ...
[81]
Can I bring coca leaves into the United States? - help.CBP.gov
Jul 13, 2024 · It is illegal to bring coca leaves into the United States for any purpose, including for use for brewing tea or for chewing.
[82]
Cocaine and crack drug profile | www.euda.europa.eu
Solutions of cocaine hydrochloride have limited medical use as a topical anaesthetic for surgical procedures involving the eye, ear, nose and throat.
[83]
Legal Use of Cocaine in the US | Drug Policy Facts
Cocaine, in the alkaloid form (base drug containing no additives such as hydrochloride in the crystalline form) is rarely used for medicinal purposes.
[84]
Coca - Uses, Side Effects, and More - WebMD
The cocaine found in coca can cause an increase in brain activity and have numbing (anesthetic) effects. Cocaine is highly addictive. People use coca leaves for ...
[85]
Peru's coca leaf cultivation reaches record high in 2022 - Al Jazeera
Jun 27, 2023 · Peru's anti-drugs commission says some 95000 hectares (367 square miles) of land were used to grow coca leaves in 2022.
[86]
Caring for coca, living with chemicals: Towards ecological harm ...
Coca is a robust crop, suited to poor agricultural conditions, and can generate six harvests a year. Farmers usually work small areas of land of less than a ...
[87]
Stepan and Cocaine in Coca-Cola - Business Insider
Mar 5, 2013 · The raw ingredients for Coke do contain some small amounts of cocaine, and the company employs Stepan Co. of Maywood, NJ, to process the ingredient to remove ...
[88]
A New Jersey Company puts the coca in Coca-Cola - NJ 101.5
Aug 5, 2023 · At the plant, Stepan extracts the cocaine and gives the extract from the spent leaves to Coca Cola and the cocaine goes to Mallinckrodt Pharmacy ...
[89]
Bolivia Pushes to Reclaim the Coca Leaf From the Stigma of Cocaine
Oct 13, 2025 · Cocaine is produced in Bolivia, but its output ranks behind Colombia and Peru; much of the country's coca is grown for traditional, legal use.
[90]
Mama Coca Chronicles: Navigating Ancestral Heritage and Future ...
Sep 1, 2025 · According to Anthony Henman, Spanish colonisers initially frowned upon coca leaf chewing, linking it to unattractive habits and witchcraft. The ...Missing: era | Show results with:era
[91]
Bolivia's buzzy new beer is infused with ancient coca - Fast Company
Jun 11, 2024 · The government-authorized El Viejo Roble distillery, which for years has been making liquor from coca leaves and is now gearing up to launch a new coca-infused ...<|separator|>
[92]
How Coca Leaf Became Colombia's New Superfood - VICE
To really catch a buzz, however, you need to chew the leaf with a bit of something alkaline to activate and extract the alkaloids. In countries like Bolivia ...
[93]
The WHO's “Critical Review” of the Coca Leaf - ICEERS
Jul 14, 2025 · ... Bolivia: the urban and modern commercialization of coca leaf derivatives. Products such as “coca machucada,” mixed with baking soda and ...
[94]
Coca plants' production pathway for cocaine finally unravelled
Nov 30, 2022 · The pathway used by coca plants to produce the tropane alkaloid cocaine has remained a mystery since it was first isolated in 1855.Missing: innovations | Show results with:innovations
[95]
Conflicted over Coca | Transnational Institute
Mar 10, 2025 · The possibility of changing the coca leaf's classification in the UN drug control treaty system has sparked controversy among native communities.<|separator|>
[96]
Coca and cocaine production | www.euda.europa.eu
May 6, 2022 · Any availability in Europe of large amounts of cocaine base and coca paste creates a risk that new, inexpensive, smokeable cocaine products ...
[97]
(PDF) Illicit Production of Cocaine - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · PDF | The predominant methods currently used for illicit production of cocaine are described. For illicit natural cocaine (i.e., from coca ...
[98]
Cocaine Paste - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Both freebase and crack cocaine share the same chemical form and are synthesized from the same coca plant but have different physical characteristics and are ...
[99]
How Is Cocaine Made? Take A Look Behind Closed Doors
May 10, 2024 · Workers actually get into pozos and stomp on the mixture for several days until the kerosene and cocaine alkaloids separate chemically from the ...The Process Of Converting... · Composition Of Street... · The Growing Danger Of...
[100]
How is Cocaine Made? | AspenRidge Recovery
Oct 22, 2024 · Step 1: Dissolving Coca Paste: The coca paste is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and water, and potassium salt is added to separate impurities.How Is Cocaine Made? · Call (855) 281- 5588 · The Step-By-Step Process Of...<|control11|><|separator|>
[101]
How Cocaine Is Made | Greater Boston Addiction Centers
Jan 19, 2024 · The Process: How Is Cocaine Made? · Harvesting: Coca leaves are picked from the coca plant. · Extraction: The active compound, cocaine alkaloid, ...
[102]
How is Cocaine Made? All the Details - Avenues Recovery
Sep 3, 2025 · Step 1: Coca leaves are harvested from the coca plant. · Step 2: The coca leaves are soaked in gasoline to isolate and extract their alkaloids ( ...What Is Cocaine Made Of? · Where Is Cocaine Made? · Common Additives To Cocaine...
[103]
[PDF] coca crops - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
As of 2022, potential global pure cocaine production is estimated to have reached 2,757 mt, an increase of 20% over the previous year, while global cocaine ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[104]
Global cocaine market hit new record highs: UNODC - France 24
Jun 26, 2025 · Illegal production jumped to 3,708 tons, nearly 34 percent more than in 2022, and more than four times higher than 10 years earlier, when it was ...
[105]
Colombia: Potential cocaine production increased by 53 per cent in ...
Cultivation of coca bush in Colombia increased by 10 per cent in 2023 to 253,000 hectares, while potential cocaine production reached 2,664 ...
[106]
UNODC report highlights a further increase in coca production
Jun 29, 2024 · The UNODC notes a 20% increase in the production of cocaine across the three countries which account for virtually all supply: Colombia, Peru and Bolivia.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[107]
Bolivia's Coca Cultivation Climbs 4% in 2023 Tests Government
Feb 19, 2025 · The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports Bolivia's coca cultivation jumped 4% in 2023, hitting 31,000 hectares.
[108]
[PDF] 7.2.4 Main cocaine trafficking flows as described by reported ...
Low volume flow. High volume flow. Global cocaine trafficking routes by amount seized estimated on the basis of reported seizures, 2019–2022. CARIBBEAN. MEXICO ...
[109]
Europe and the global cocaine trade | www.euda.europa.eu
May 6, 2022 · Although cocaine also enters the EU by air, the main route used to smuggle the drug into Europe is still the maritime route from South America ...
[110]
Tracking Transatlantic Drug Flows: Cocaine's Path from South ...
Sep 19, 2023 · The main methods of transportation are via cargo, sailing, and fishing vessels. Some drugs are trafficked through air transportation, but this ...
[111]
[PDF] International Narcotics Control Strategy Report - State Department
Mar 1, 2025 · Cocaine smuggling in the Sahel region has resulted in a change in smuggling routes for cocaine trafficking worldwide. ... Large volumes of ...
[112]
Coca provides vital economic support with fleeting benefits for ...
Aug 31, 2024 · Researchers determine that peasant producers who grow coca leaves have contributed 0.4% growth to the country's economy.Missing: eradication | Show results with:eradication
[113]
[PDF] Monitoring of territories with presence of coca crops 2023 - unodc
Feb 26, 2025 · The Monitoring of Territories with Presence of Coca Cultivation, 2023 report was prepared by the United Nations Office on Drugs and. Crime ( ...
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https://www.statista.com/chart/31551/coca-leaf-producing-countries-worldwide-and-cocaine-users-by-region/
[115]
Deeply Rooted: Coca Eradication and Violence in Colombia
Feb 26, 2021 · Coca gives Colombian small farmers a stable livelihood but also endangers their lives, as criminals battle over the drug trade and authorities ...
[116]
[PDF] The Impact of a Rise in Expected Income on Child Labor
Jun 2, 2023 · 2.1 Coca production and child labor. Since the 1990s, the valleys and upper jungles of the Andean region in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru have ...
[117]
An Econometric Analysis of Coca Eradication Policy in Colombia
Our results indicate that coca eradication is an ineffective means of supply control as farmers compensate by cultivating the crop more extensively. The ...Missing: socioeconomic | Show results with:socioeconomic<|separator|>
[118]
Displacement and Poverty: Explaining Coca Cultivation in Colombia ...
Poverty has a significant, non-linear effect on coca cultivat vation is most intense in regions of moderate poverty. Based on the finding to reduce coca ...<|separator|>
[119]
[PDF] Coca Eradication in the Andes Lessons from Bolivia
Coca became the one crop that enabled farmers to escape abject poverty and its cultivation was a rational choice in the face of economic collapse.12 The coca ...
[120]
As Colombia's coca economy crashes, new opportunities
Nov 15, 2023 · Cocaine production has been longtime driving deforestation in Colombia, but its indirect impact on the environment is much bigger. Image by ...
[121]
[PDF] SINGLE CONVENTION ON NARCOTIC DRUGS, 1961, - INCB
1. The International Narcotics Control Board (hereinafter referred to as the Board) has a secretariat distinct from the Division of Narcotic Drugs;. 2.
[122]
Bolivia to re-accede to UN drug convention, while making exception ...
Bolivia has taken steps to once again become a party to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, as amended, with a reservation on the chewing of coca ...
[123]
Coca, Cocaine and the International Conventions
The coca leaf is controversial due to its inclusion in the 1961 convention, traditional use, and the fact that cocaine can be extracted from it.
[124]
Fact Sheet: Coca leaf and the UN Drugs Conventions
Oct 2, 2012 · The 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (external link) forced states to criminalize coca, ...
[125]
'Time to bury' US-led law, as Bolivia expands coca production - CNBC
Mar 9, 2017 · The new law expands the country's authorized coca plantation zones to 22,000 hectares (55,000 acres) from the previous 12,000 hectares.
[126]
From Crisis to Opportunity: Bolivia's Cooperative Coca Control ...
May 27, 2018 · The strategy legalized the cultivation of a small amount of coca leaf in specific zones, encouraged the coca unions to self-police to ensure growers do not ...
[127]
Coca leaf and cocaine legalization in Peru | Global Initiative
Nov 11, 2024 · Coca legalization in Peru could reshape the economy, drug control policies, and even the influence of organized crime, but the implications are complex.
[128]
[PDF] 2.3 Coca/cocaine - unodc
Peru's share grew from 27% in 2004 to 39% in 2009, due to a decline in coca leaf production in Colombia in absolute terms and an increase in production in Peru ...<|separator|>
[129]
Bolivia requests the UN to conduct a critical review of the ...
Sep 25, 2023 · Bolivia requests a review because the coca leaf's Schedule I classification is inadequate, based on a 1950 report, not WHO criteria, and to ...<|separator|>
[130]
WHO Critical Review of Coca Leaf | Transnational Institute
Nearly 75 years after the United Nations called for the abolition of coca leaf chewing, a real opportunity to correct this is now underway.Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025
[131]
A sacred leaf on trial: Scientists urge WHO to support ... - Phys.org
Oct 15, 2025 · The analysis arrives at a pivotal moment, as the World Health Organization (WHO) is currently reviewing the legal status of coca. An expert ...Missing: shifts | Show results with:shifts
[132]
Scientists: 'Coca leaf' is not cocaine, and it's time to decriminalize it
Oct 17, 2025 · It can ease altitude sickness, nausea, or fatigue. Some research even suggests benefits for blood sugar and liver function. It acts more like ...
[133]
Coca Chronicles Issue #2: Coca Leaf Progress at the UN ...
Apr 23, 2024 · The question arose because the annex of the Yellow List of Narcotic Drugs Under International Control (maintained by the INCB) includes 'coca ...
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Scientific distinctions between coca and cocaine support policy reform
Oct 16, 2025 · The authors call for reforming global drug policy to reflect these facts, urging that coca be removed from the strictest legal category. Doing ...Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025
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The political economy of a failed drug reform: Insights from Peru's ...
Formally, legal coca cultivation and commercialization is under the monopoly of ENACO, but this enterprise faces strong competition from the informal and ...
[136]
Leaf it to the Farmers - Brown Political Review
Jun 9, 2025 · CYCN proved that cocaleros could successfully regulate themselves and that law enforcement was not necessary to control illicit crop production.
[137]
Rescheduling coca: Aligning global drug policy with science ...
Oct 15, 2025 · “Descheduling coca would correct a long-standing scientific and legal misclassification, uphold the rights of Indigenous and other coca-growing ...Missing: shifts 2020-2025
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[PDF] Can coca leaves contribute to improving the nutritional status of the ...
High concentrations of vitamins such as vitamin. A and minerals such as calcium and iron are claimed for coca leaves. Analysis revealed a mean content of. 3,510 ...<|separator|>
[139]
Does Chewing Coca Leaves Influence Physiology at High Altitude?
The experimental findings suggested that chewing coca leaves induces biochemical changes that enhance physical performance at high altitude.
[140]
Coca Chronicles: Bolivia Challenges UN Coca Leaf Ban - WOLA
Oct 17, 2023 · Bolivia's government describes the severely flawed process that led to the decision to classify the coca leaf as a Schedule I drug.
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Discrimination between chewing of coca leaves or drinking of coca ...
Evidence against coca chewing can be obtained by detection of typical adulterants such as levamisole or lidocaine. These are a strong indication of using ...
[142]
Coca Leaf: Key Element in Andean Culture
Apr 4, 2025 · Traditional uses include: Acullico (chewing coca): Chewing coca leaves is a common practice to increase energy, reduce hunger and relieve ...
[143]
Drug Overdose Deaths: Facts and Figures - NIDA - NIH
Aug 21, 2024 · Drug overdose deaths involving cocaine rose steadily from 6,784 in 2015 to 15,883 in 2019. From 2019 to 2023, cocaine-involved deaths rose 85% ...
[144]
Increase in Drug Overdose Deaths Involving Cocaine - CDC
Oct 7, 2020 · The age-adjusted rate of drug overdose deaths involving cocaine was stable between 2009 and 2013, then nearly tripled from 2013 through 2018.
[145]
Oral squamous cell carcinoma in coca chewers from a north region ...
Further studies are needed to demonstrate that chronic coca leaves chewing could be considered as a risk factor for oral cancer development in a multifactorial ...
[146]
Bolivia
The cultivation and marketing of coca leaf is legal, because traditional use of that leaf is part of the countries history, culture and customs. The second part ...
[147]
Drug Policy and Indigenous Peoples - PMC - NIH
Indigenous peoples face persecution, displacement, and disproportionate criminalization due to drug production on their lands, and are often targeted first by ...
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The impacts of the drug war on Indigenous Peoples in Latin America
Mar 3, 2023 · The drug war militarizes Indigenous lands, criminalizes populations, causes displacement, and puts them in crossfire, with a deterioration of ...
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Cocaine use fuels record high in drug deaths - BBC
Oct 23, 2024 · Drug-poisoning deaths in England and Wales have hit the highest level in 30 years, fuelled by a 30% rise in fatalities involving cocaine.
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Colombia: U.S. Counternarcotics Assistance Achieved Some ...
Dec 12, 2018 · Security has improved but cocaine production has more than tripled from 2013 through 2017. The U.S. counternarcotics approach in Colombia ...
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Coca cultivation | Colombia Reports
Aug 8, 2021 · In 2019, Colombia had 154,000 hectares of coca cultivation, according to the United Nations, whose method of measuring is considerably more ...
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Colombia Cultivating More Coca Than Bolivia, Peru Combined: UN
Jul 12, 2016 · The UNODC report put Colombia's 2015 cocaine production potential at 646 metric tons, up 46 percent from the 442 it estimated in 2014.Missing: efficacy | Show results with:efficacy
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[PDF] ON THE UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF ANTI-DRUG ...
Panel endogeneity or feedback effects may arise for the socioeconomic outcomes because areas with worsening conditions could have increasing coca cultivation.
[154]
Aerial Fumigation in Colombia: The Bad and The Ugly
Dec 9, 2020 · The destruction of coca crops comes with the erosion of soil and poisoning of aquatic life. The effects are especially long-lasting because ...
[155]
The health consequences of aerial spraying illicit crops: The case of ...
This paper evaluates the effects that the aerial spraying of herbicides to reduce illicit crop cultivation has on health outcomes in Colombia.
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Effectiveness and Unintended Consequences of a Large Illicit Crops ...
... violence in the context of ... Inside the War on Drugs: Effectiveness and Unintended Consequences of a Large Illicit Crops Eradication Program in Colombia ...