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Considered harmful

"Considered harmful" is a phrasal template frequently employed in the titles of essays, letters, and articles within computer science and related disciplines to convey sharp criticism of a programming construct, language feature, methodology, or technology viewed as problematic or counterproductive.^[1] The template gained prominence through its use in provocative headings that highlight perceived flaws and advocate for alternatives, influencing discussions on best practices and design principles in software development.^[1] The origin of this format traces back to 1968, when Niklaus Wirth, editor of Communications of the ACM, retitled a submitted letter by Edsger W. Dijkstra from "A Case against the GO TO Statement" to "Go To Statement Considered Harmful," marking the phrase's debut in academic publishing.^[1]^[2] In the letter, Dijkstra argued that unrestricted use of the goto statement in programming languages fosters unstructured, difficult-to-maintain code—often termed "spaghetti code"—and undermines the clarity and reliability essential for complex software systems.^[2] This critique played a pivotal role in advancing structured programming paradigms, contributing to the decline of goto in modern languages such as Java and Python, which either omit it entirely or restrict its application.^[1] Dijkstra's piece ignited a enduring debate within the computing community, prompting responses and extensions that further popularized the "considered harmful" idiom.^[2] For instance, in 1987, Frank Rubin published "'GOTO Considered Harmful' Considered Harmful" in Communications of the ACM, challenging Dijkstra's outright rejection of goto by defending its utility in certain scenarios while critiquing the absolutism of the original argument. The template has since proliferated, appearing in titles like "C in the First Course Considered Harmful" (1995), which questioned the suitability of C for introductory programming education, and "Usability Evaluation Considered Harmful (Some of the Time)" (2008), which examined limitations in user interface assessment methods.^[3]^[4] The template has proliferated beyond these examples, solidifying its status as a meme-like convention for incisive commentary in technical literature.^[1]

Origins in Computing

Edsger Dijkstra's Essay

Edsger W. Dijkstra (1930–2002) was a prominent Dutch computer scientist whose career significantly shaped modern programming practices. He earned an undergraduate degree in physics from Leiden University in 1956 and a PhD from the University of Amsterdam in 1959 with a thesis on communication with an automatic computer. He began working as a programmer at the Mathematical Centre in Amsterdam in 1952, where he contributed to the development of the first ALGOL 60 compiler in 1959–1960. In 1962, he became a professor of mathematics at Eindhoven University of Technology, later moving to the University of Texas at Austin in 1984. Dijkstra is renowned for his foundational work in structured programming, a paradigm emphasizing clear, modular code construction to enhance readability and reliability, for which he received the 1972 ACM Turing Award.^[5]^[6] Dijkstra's influential letter, originally titled "A Case against the GO TO Statement," was submitted to the editor of Communications of the ACM and retitled "Go To Statement Considered Harmful" for publication. It appeared in the March 1968 issue (Volume 11, Issue 3, page 147). The short piece, spanning about one page, marked the first prominent use of the phrase "considered harmful" in technical discourse.^[2]^[7] In the letter, Dijkstra critiques the GOTO statement, a common feature in programming languages of the era that allowed unconditional jumps to arbitrary locations in the code. He observes that "the quality of programmers is a decreasing function of the density of go to statements in the programs they produce," linking heavy reliance on GOTO to poorer code quality and less skilled developers. This critique highlights how GOTO contributes to unstructured, hard-to-maintain code often derided as "spaghetti code," where control flow becomes tangled and unpredictable.^[2] Dijkstra's key arguments center on the mismatch between static program text and dynamic execution. He posits that program execution is a computational process best understood through "coordinates" such as nesting levels of blocks, call stack depth, or loop iteration counts, which provide a clear map of progress. The GOTO statement disrupts this by enabling jumps that obscure these coordinates, complicating debugging and comprehension. Instead, he advocates for structured control flows, such as if-then-else constructs for conditionals and while loops for repetition, which enforce disciplined entry and exit points and align more closely with human reasoning about algorithms. These alternatives, he argues, uphold principles of modularity and readability without sacrificing expressiveness, as supported by the 1966 theorem of Corrado Böhm and Giuseppe Jacopini proving that any computable function can be realized using only sequencing, selection, and iteration.^[2] This essay emerged amid mid-1960s debates on programming language design, as software systems grew more complex and maintenance challenges arose in early large-scale projects. Languages like FORTRAN (1957) and COBOL (1959) heavily featured GOTO, while ALGOL 60 (1960)—which Dijkstra helped implement—introduced block structures but retained GOTO for flexibility. Influenced by ALGOL's emphasis on clarity and the nascent field of software engineering, Dijkstra's work responded to these tensions, pushing for paradigms that could tame the "software crisis" of unreliable, unmanageable code.^[2]^[6]

Initial Reception and Influence

Dijkstra's letter, titled "Go To Statement Considered Harmful," was published in the March 1968 issue of Communications of the ACM (CACM), the flagship publication of the Association for Computing Machinery, reaching a wide audience of computer scientists and practitioners across academia and industry.^[2] The essay's provocative title, suggested by CACM editor Niklaus Wirth, contributed to its rapid dissemination, sparking immediate interest and discussion within professional circles as one of the first major critiques of unstructured programming practices.^[7] The reception was largely positive among advocates of disciplined programming methodologies, with Wirth himself endorsing the ideas by altering the title to heighten its impact and aligning it with emerging principles of clarity in code design. This support propelled the essay's role in the nascent structured programming movement, which emphasized sequential execution, selection, and iteration over arbitrary jumps, influencing key figures and organizations in the field.^[1] Debates soon followed in ACM forums, including letters to the editor and conference discussions, where proponents praised its call for provably correct programs while critics questioned the feasibility of eliminating gotos entirely.^[8] The essay's influence extended directly to programming language design in the late 1960s and 1970s, contributing to the decline of unrestricted goto statements. For instance, Wirth's Pascal language, released in 1970, deliberately omitted goto to enforce block-structured programming, reflecting Dijkstra's advocacy for modular, readable code.^[9] Similarly, while the 1972 C language included goto for compatibility with earlier systems like B, the structured programming paradigm promoted by Dijkstra encouraged its sparing use, shifting norms toward functions and control structures that enhanced maintainability.^[10] Throughout the 1968–1970s period, follow-up articles and events underscored the essay's polarizing effect, including Donald Knuth's 1974 CACM paper "Structured Programming with go to Statements," which defended limited goto use for efficiency while acknowledging Dijkstra's concerns, and the formation of language design committees—such as those for subsequent ALGOL revisions—that prioritized avoiding unrestricted jumps to promote verifiable software. These discussions, including early 1970s backlash in ACM publications, highlighted tensions between theoretical purity and practical needs.^[11] Later critiques, like Frank Rubin's 1987 CACM letter defending goto based on empirical studies, built on this initial controversy but affirmed the essay's enduring role in reshaping industry standards. The essay established itself as a cornerstone that shifted industry norms toward prioritizing code readability and long-term maintainability over short-term expediency.

Emergence as a Snowclone

Definition of Snowclone

A snowclone is a type of linguistic neologism referring to adaptable phrasal templates or clichés that allow for the substitution of specific words or elements while preserving the overall structure, often employed for rhetorical, humorous, or emphatic purposes.^[12] The term was coined by economist Glen Whitman on January 15, 2004, in a response to a naming contest initiated by linguist Geoffrey Pullum on the Language Log blog, which sought a label for these multi-use, customizable phrases derived from well-known expressions.^[13] Whitman's suggestion drew inspiration from the clichéd formula "If the Eskimos have N words for snow, then [something else] has M words for [something related]," highlighting how such templates "clone" variations from a prototypical form.^[13] Key characteristics of snowclones include their formulaic structure, which provides a rigid scaffold for adaptation—such as "[X] considered harmful"—enabling quick repurposing in new contexts; an often ironic or emphatic tone that amplifies critique or exaggeration; and their rapid proliferation through media, journalism, and online communities, where they serve as efficient shorthand for commentary.^[12] These elements distinguish snowclones from mere idioms by emphasizing their productivity and recognizability, allowing users to evoke familiarity while inserting novel content for relevance.^[14] Linguistically, snowclones build on longstanding concepts like clichés and fill-in-the-blank games such as Mad Libs, but their formalization emerged within early 2000s internet culture, particularly through academic blogs like Language Log that documented their spread.^[12] The phrase "considered harmful," originating from Edsger Dijkstra's 1968 essay critiquing the GOTO statement in programming, exemplifies a prototypical snowclone due to its enduring template that rigidly pairs a subject with a condemnatory judgment, facilitating frequent repurposing across technical and non-technical discourse.^[15] This adaptability underscores how snowclones like this one transform original utterances into versatile rhetorical tools, maintaining semantic force through structural consistency.^[12]

Early Adaptations in Technical Discourse

Following Edsger Dijkstra's influential 1968 letter, the phrase "considered harmful" quickly evolved into a templated structure for critical essays in computing literature, allowing authors to borrow its authoritative tone for pointed critiques of emerging practices and technologies. By the early 1970s, this adaptation appeared in technical publications, particularly within ACM venues, where writers used the format to challenge aspects of programming paradigms and language features. For instance, Paul Abrahams' 1975 article in ACM SIGPLAN Notices critiqued the rigid dogma of structured programming, arguing that it overly restricted problem-solving flexibility in software design.^[16] Similarly, in the same year, Gerald M. Weinberg, Dennis P. Geller, and Thomas W. S. Plum published a piece in ACM SIGPLAN Notices questioning the universal applicability of conditional statements like IF-THEN-ELSE, highlighting their potential to complicate code readability and maintenance in certain contexts.^[17] This mimicry of Dijkstra's title structure served as a rhetorical device in polemical essays, enabling authors to leverage the original's prestige to spotlight perceived flaws in trends such as excessive formalism or convoluted syntax, often in response to the rapid evolution of languages like PL/I, which faced criticism for its complexity in handling diverse computational needs. By the late 1970s, the pattern gained further traction; Guy L. Steele Jr.'s 1977 contribution to ACM SIGPLAN Notices warned against arithmetic shifting operations in programming languages, demonstrating how the template could address low-level implementation issues with broad implications for portability and error-proneness. These early uses were concentrated in ACM SIGPLAN Notices, a key newsletter for programming language discussions, where the format facilitated concise, provocative interventions in ongoing debates. This period marked a shift from isolated instances to a more established convention, with the phrase appearing in venues like ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes to foster rigorous discourse on abstraction levels. By the 1990s, the template had become commonplace, extending from academic journals to Usenet newsgroups and nascent tech blogs, where it underscored critiques of evolving trends like graphical user interfaces and network protocols, solidifying its role as a hallmark of technical polemics. Initially rare in the 1970s—limited to a handful of high-profile pieces—the format's adoption accelerated through the decade, reflecting computing's maturation and the need for incisive commentary on proliferating tools and methodologies.

Notable Examples

Within Computer Science

In computer science and software engineering, the "considered harmful" snowclone has been employed to critique programming paradigms, technologies, and practices, often highlighting inefficiencies, security vulnerabilities, or design flaws. Classic examples emerged in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, targeting established or rising standards. For instance, the 2002 ACM publication "Pseudo object-oriented programming considered harmful" argued that superficial implementations of object-oriented programming (OOP) in languages entangle coding styles with conceptual principles, leading to confusion and poor software design.^[18] Similarly, XML faced scrutiny in the 2000s for its verbosity and overhead, with early analyses of XSL (XML Stylesheet Language) decrying it as overly complex for practical styling and transformation tasks, complicating development workflows.^[19] In areas of security and system design, the phrase has underscored accessibility and scalability challenges. CAPTCHAs, introduced in the early 2000s to distinguish humans from bots, were criticized for creating barriers for users with disabilities, as noted in usability studies showing that visual and audio variants often fail for those with visual impairments, low vision, or cognitive differences, thus harming inclusive web access.^[20] In blockchain contexts during the 2020s, hashed timelock contracts (HTLCs)—key to scalability in payment channels—have been deemed harmful due to vulnerabilities enabling griefing attacks and inefficiencies in multi-hop transactions, prompting calls for alternative protocols.^[21] More recent applications reflect ongoing debates in emerging domains. Discussions around AI hype in ethics literature portray exaggerated claims about capabilities as detrimental, diverting focus from tangible harms like bias amplification and resource waste to speculative existential risks.^[22] For example, the 2025 paper "Generative AI Personas Considered Harmful? Putting Forth Twenty Principles for Human-Centered Design" critiques AI-generated personas for ethical and design flaws in human-computer interaction.^[23] These examples reveal patterns in usage: the snowclone frequently targets nascent or hyped technologies to provoke debate, appearing in peer-reviewed conference papers (e.g., ACM SIGPLAN or USENIX proceedings), influential blogs such as Joel on Software, and arXiv preprints where authors seek to influence practice before formal publication. A Google Scholar search indicates over 500 instances of the phrase in computer science literature by 2020, reflecting its permeation across subfields like HCI, security, and distributed systems.

Extensions to Other Fields

The "considered harmful" snowclone has transcended its computing roots, appearing in titles and discussions across diverse disciplines to critique practices, theories, and policies deemed detrimental. This migration reflects the phrase's versatility as a rhetorical device for signaling urgent reform, particularly in contexts where established paradigms are challenged for their conceptual or practical flaws. In academia and science, the snowclone has been adopted in peer-reviewed literature to question foundational ideas. A notable example is the 2024 paper "Nature-versus-nurture considered harmful: Actionability as an alternative tool for understanding the exposome from an ethical perspective," published in Bioethics, which critiques the binary nature-nurture framework in environmental health ethics and proposes actionability as a more useful lens for exposome research.^[24] In physics, the 2008 arXiv preprint "Unitary gauge considered harmful" argues against the routine use of unitary gauge in supersymmetric models due to its limitations in handling Goldstone bosons and theoretical consistency.^[25] These usages highlight ongoing debates on testability and methodological rigor, echoing concerns in fields like string theory where untestable hypotheses have sparked similar critiques, though not always under this exact phrasing. Within social sciences, the phrase underscores critiques of economic and psychological structures. For instance, the 2023 working paper "Subsidizing Job Search Considered Harmful: Evidence from a Field Experiment" demonstrates through experimental data that financial incentives for job searching increase applications and earnings but impose high non-financial effort costs, resulting in net negative welfare effects in online labor markets.^[26] In psychology, discussions of social media algorithms link their curation to mental health declines via increased anxiety and social comparison, as evidenced in interdisciplinary reviews on digital well-being.^[27] In the humanities, philosophical inquiries have employed the snowclone to interrogate epistemic tools. The 2014 article "Thought Experiments Considered Harmful" in Perspectives on Science contends that reliance on thought experiments in philosophy and science can mislead by prioritizing intuition over empirical validation, advocating for more grounded methodologies in conceptual analysis.^[28] In media and pop culture, opinion pieces in outlets like Nieman Journalism Lab used "Hashtags considered #harmful" in 2013 to warn against their overuse in diluting journalistic precision on social platforms.^[29] By the 2010s, the snowclone proliferated via blogs, Twitter, and academic forums, enabling rapid dissemination in non-technical debates; its adoption peaked in the 2020s within interdisciplinary journals, where it facilitates cross-field critiques amid growing concerns over societal impacts.^[30]

Cultural and Linguistic Dimensions

Impact on Communication Styles

The phrase "considered harmful" functions rhetorically as a hyperbolic and attention-grabbing title format in technical discourse, designed to provoke debate and highlight perceived flaws in established practices through concise, opinionated critiques.^[31] Originating from Edsger Dijkstra's 1968 letter critiquing the GOTO statement, it signals a polemical stance that prioritizes logical structure and modularity, influencing generations of writers to adopt bold, declarative openings for essays challenging conventional wisdom.^[31] This format encourages brevity and assertiveness, transforming complex technical arguments into accessible calls for reform without diluting their intellectual rigor.^[31] In technical writing, the phrase has standardized the structure of polemical essays, particularly in online platforms where it parallels formats like "Worst Practices" lists by framing critiques as urgent warnings against inefficient or risky methodologies.^[31] Its adoption proliferated in programming literature and web-based publications following Dijkstra's example, fostering a tradition of critical essays that emphasize best practices such as structured coding and unit testing.^[31] Beyond narrow technical contexts, the phrase promotes debate-friendly language in open-source communities and standards bodies, where it facilitates pointed discussions on protocol designs and implementation pitfalls.^[32] For instance, it appears in formal documents like IETF RFC 1263, which uses the template to argue against certain TCP extensions, underscoring risks to network stability and encouraging collaborative refinement.^[32] The evolution of "considered harmful" reflects shifts in digital communication, transitioning from formal letters in academic journals to viral tweets that condense critiques into shareable soundbites, while in the 2020s it has adapted to podcasts and videos that mimic the phrase for engaging discussions on emerging technologies. For example, a 2023 episode of the Future of Coding podcast discussed the phrase in the context of programming paradoxes,[]^[33] and CppCon 2020 featured a video talk titled "OO Considered Harmful."[]^[34] This adaptability maintains its role in sparking rapid, widespread dialogue across media. Usage of the phrase has grown in correlation with internet expansion, with documented proliferation in titles of critical essays rising significantly since the 1990s; for example, Google Ngram data indicates a marked increase in book occurrences from near-zero in 1990 to higher frequencies by 2019, mirroring broader digital discourse trends.^[35]

Criticisms and Alternatives

Critics have argued that the "considered harmful" phrasing often adopts an overly dramatic or dismissive tone, which can stifle nuanced discussion and polarize audiences rather than fostering constructive debate.^[36] This incendiary style, they contend, tends to backfire by entrenching opposition to the critiqued idea instead of building support for alternatives.^[36] In the 1980s, such essays faced accusations of oversimplification, exemplified by Frank Rubin's 1987 critique of Edsger Dijkstra's original "Goto Statement Considered Harmful," which labeled the anti-goto stance as dogmatic and insufficiently evidence-based. Linguistically, the phrase's repetitive use has led to perceptions of cliché fatigue within computer science discourse, diminishing its rhetorical impact and turning it into a predictable trope or even a joke.^[36] By the early 2000s, commentators noted that its ubiquity—appearing in over 4,700 web page titles—had rendered it a stale convention, more likely to elicit eye-rolls than engagement.^[36] This exhaustion persists into the 2020s, with calls in programming communities to retire the format as an outdated relic of earlier technical writing.^[37] As alternatives, proponents of more measured discourse recommend engaging in reasoned analysis without hyperbolic declarations, such as through detailed examinations of trade-offs or empirical evaluations rather than outright condemnation.^[36] In place of "considered harmful," modern suggestions include titles like "Rethinking [X]" or "The Limitations of [X]," which encourage exploration over dismissal, though no formal style guide from organizations like the ACM explicitly bans the original phrasing.^[36] Responses to these criticisms have included ironic meta-essays that playfully subvert the format, such as Eric Meyer's 2002 piece ""Considered Harmful" Essays Considered Harmful," which highlights the trope's self-defeating nature while advocating for evolution in argumentative styles.^[36] Efforts to adapt have proposed variants aiming to shift focus toward positive recommendations.^[10] From a 2025 perspective, the phrase continues to appear in formal academic contexts, such as recent ACM publications including "Prompting Considered Harmful" (2024) and "Datagram Forwarding Considered Harmful" (2024), alongside its endurance in informal media and blog posts where provocative titles drive attention.^[38]^[39]^[40]

Legacy and Modern Usage

Enduring Influence in Technology

The phrase "considered harmful," originating from Edsger W. Dijkstra's 1968 letter critiquing the GOTO statement, has enduringly shaped computer science education by serving as a foundational case study in code quality, structured programming, and the evolution of programming practices. In curricula at institutions like MIT and Stanford, it is routinely discussed to illustrate how unstructured control flow can lead to unmaintainable code, with students analyzing its arguments alongside modern alternatives like exception handling. Textbooks such as "Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach" by Roger S. Pressman reference it to teach principles of readability and modularity, emphasizing its role in shifting paradigms from spaghetti code to disciplined design.^[2]^[41] In industry standards, Dijkstra's critique influenced coding guidelines that prioritize simplicity and avoid excessive branching, echoing in documents like the C++ Core Guidelines, which explicitly advise against using goto for control flow due to its error-prone nature, recommending structured constructs instead. This impact extends to agile methodologies, where the emphasis on clean, iterative code aligns with the letter's advocacy for comprehensible programs, as seen in practices promoting refactoring to eliminate complex flows in frameworks like Scrum. Google's internal style guides, while not directly citing Dijkstra, reflect similar prohibitions on unstructured jumps to maintain large-scale codebase integrity.^[42]^[43] The phrase retains ongoing relevance in the 2020s, applied to emerging risks in AI ethics and cybersecurity for risk assessment frameworks. In AI, works like "Generative AI Personas Considered Harmful" use it to evaluate ethical pitfalls in persona-based systems, such as bias amplification, informing guidelines from organizations like the IEEE. In cybersecurity, analyses like "Trust-Based Security; Or, Trust Considered Harmful" leverage the format to critique over-reliance on trust models in protocols, aiding vulnerability prioritization in standards from NIST. By 2025, the original letter has amassed over 800 citations on platforms like ACM Digital Library, underscoring its persistent influence.^[23]^[44]^[2] Its role persists in open-source communities on GitHub, where debates on code quality often invoke the phrase; empirical studies of C repositories reveal goto usage in about 10% of projects, sparking discussions on maintainability that reference Dijkstra's arguments to advocate for cleaner alternatives.^[45]

Contemporary Variations

In the digital age, the "considered harmful" template has evolved into memes and online critiques, particularly on platforms like Reddit and Twitter, where it critiques emerging technologies. For instance, discussions around non-fungible tokens (NFTs) in 2021 and 2022 frequently invoked the phrase to highlight environmental and ethical issues, with analyses labeling NFTs as harmful due to their energy-intensive blockchain processes contributing to carbon emissions equivalent to thousands of households annually.^[46] Video essays on YouTube have also adopted the format, such as explorations of why certain programming paradigms or tools are "considered harmful," extending the tradition to visual critiques of modern software practices.^[47] Hybrid forms of the phrase have emerged to convey nuance, such as variations like "considered mostly harmful" in debates over balanced tech assessments, allowing for acknowledgment of partial benefits amid drawbacks. Integrations with digital elements, including emojis (e.g., 🚫) and hashtags like #ConsideredHarmful, appear in social media posts targeting specific industries, such as recruitment practices deemed toxic.^[48] In the 2020s, AI tools like ChatGPT have inspired direct applications, with the 2023 paper "Generative AI Considered Harmful" arguing that large language models pose risks to creative and ethical discourse by amplifying biases and misinformation.^[49] Similarly, in climate technology, the phrase critiques flawed solutions; a 2023 analysis deemed carbon offsets "more harm than good" for perpetuating emissions without genuine reductions, while another paper titled "User Experience Considered Harmful (for the Planet)" highlighted how UX designs in tech exacerbate environmental impacts through planned obsolescence.^[50]^[51] The template's global spread is evident in non-English adaptations within tech communities. In Italian, Microsoft's documentation uses "rand() considerato dannoso" to warn against insecure random number generation in programming, echoing original concerns about flawed practices.^[52] French tech discussions translate it as "considéré nuisible," as seen in critiques of web servers like Apache.^[53] Looking ahead, while AI writing aids may dilute unique phrasing through homogenization, the template persists in niche tech and academic circles, as evidenced by contrasting 2023 works like "AI-Generated Code Not Considered Harmful," which defends automated outputs against overly alarmist views.^[54]

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Jan 28, 2021 · Trust-Based Security; Or, Trust Considered Harmful. Authors: Abe ... assessment of vulnerability, from which one can better prioritize and reduce ...
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An empirical study of goto in C code from GitHub repositories
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Blockchain, climate damage, and death: Policy interventions to ...
The article finds that carbon emissions as a result of NFT transactions in October 2021 alone are expected to kill 18 people, and such social costs are severely ...
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"Considered Harmful" Essays Have Been Considered Harmful for 20 ...
May 2, 2023 · ... considered-harmful Big thanks to Eric Meyer for the amazing blog post at the core of this video's message: https://meyerweb.com/eric/comment ...
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Generative AI Considered Harmful - ACM Digital Library
Ethics considered harmful · Ethical Computing Education in the Age of Generative AI · Design Ideation with AI - Sketching, Thinking and Talking with Generative ...
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Does carbon offsetting do more harm than good?
Jul 6, 2023 · Such offsetting creates a false impression that polluting activities can continue without harming the climate or raising global temperatures, ...
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User Experience Considered Harmful (for the Planet) - ResearchGate
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rand() considerato dannoso | Microsoft Learn
rand() considerato dannoso ... Quando è necessario un numero casuale, non chiamare rand() e soprattutto non dire rand() % 100! Questa presentazione spiega perché ...
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AI-Generated Code Not Considered Harmful - ResearchGate
Download Citation | On Jul 19, 2023, Tyson Kendon and others published AI-Generated Code Not Considered Harmful | Find, read and cite all the research you ...Missing: phrase aids