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Cross-presentation

Cross-presentation is a specialized antigen presentation process in which professional antigen-presenting cells, particularly dendritic cells (DCs), internalize exogenous antigens—such as those derived from pathogens, tumors, or apoptotic cells—and load them onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules for presentation to CD8+ T cells, thereby initiating cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses.^[1]^[2] This mechanism contrasts with classical MHC I presentation, which typically involves endogenous antigens synthesized within the presenting cell, and enables immune surveillance of threats that do not directly infect antigen-presenting cells.^[3] The importance of cross-presentation lies in its role in bridging innate and adaptive immunity, facilitating CD8+ T cell priming against intracellular pathogens like viruses, as well as tumors and transplants, while also contributing to peripheral tolerance and preventing autoimmunity under steady-state conditions.^[2] Primarily mediated by specialized DC subsets—such as XCR1+ conventional DCs (cDC1s, including CD8α+ or CD103+ in mice and CD141+ in humans)—cross-presentation is more efficient for particulate antigens (e.g., from dead cells) than soluble ones, and its dysregulation can impair antitumor immunity or vaccine efficacy.^[1]^[2] Mechanistically, cross-presentation occurs via two main pathways: the vacuolar (or endosomal) pathway, where antigen processing and MHC I loading happen within phagosomes or endosomes independently of proteasomes and TAP transporters, involving lysosomal proteases like cathepsin S; and the cytosolic pathway, where antigens are exported from endosomes to the cytosol for proteasomal degradation, followed by peptide transport via TAP into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or endosomes for loading onto recycled MHC I molecules.^[1]^[3] Key regulators include Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling, which modulates phagosomal maturation and ER-phagosome fusion via proteins like Sec22b, and components of the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) machinery, such as Sec61 and p97, that facilitate antigen translocation.^[2] Additional processes, like delayed antigen degradation in DCs and alternative routes such as gap junctions or cross-dressing, further enhance efficiency in specific contexts.^[1]

Introduction

Definition and Process Overview

Cross-presentation is the process by which professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs), particularly dendritic cells, internalize exogenous antigens from the extracellular environment, process them into peptides, and load these peptides onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules for presentation on the cell surface, thereby enabling recognition and activation by CD8+ T cells.^[1]^[4] This mechanism allows APCs to display antigens that originate outside the cell, such as those derived from pathogens, apoptotic cells, or tumors, which would otherwise not be accessible to the conventional MHC I pathway restricted to endogenous antigens.^[3] The general process begins with antigen uptake through mechanisms including phagocytosis, endocytosis, or receptor-mediated endocytosis, followed by transport to specialized intracellular compartments for processing.^[4] In these compartments, the antigens are degraded into peptides, which are then transported and loaded onto recycled or newly synthesized MHC I molecules.^[1] The peptide-MHC I complexes are subsequently transported to the cell surface, where they are recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), priming these cells for effector functions such as target cell lysis.^[3] Biologically, cross-presentation plays a pivotal role in immune surveillance by allowing APCs to detect and respond to infections or malignancies in cells that do not directly present antigens to the immune system, such as non-hematopoietic cells harboring viruses or tumors.^[4] A key feature is the diversion of exogenous antigens, which are typically processed through the MHC class II pathway for CD4+ T cell activation, into the MHC I pathway to elicit cytotoxic responses.^[1] This process is essential for initiating anti-viral and anti-tumor immunity, as well as maintaining peripheral tolerance to self-antigens.^[3]

Distinction from Conventional Antigen Presentation

Conventional MHC class I antigen presentation processes endogenous antigens, such as cytosolic proteins derived from intracellular pathogens like viruses or altered self-proteins, primarily within the cell's cytoplasm. These antigens are ubiquitinated and degraded into peptides by the proteasome, a multicatalytic protease complex. The resulting peptides, typically 8-10 amino acids in length, are then transported from the cytosol into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen via the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), a member of the ATP-binding cassette family. In the ER, these peptides are loaded onto newly synthesized MHC class I molecules, which consist of a heavy chain, β2-microglobulin, and chaperones like calnexin and tapasin for stable assembly; the peptide-MHC I complexes then traffic through the Golgi apparatus to the cell surface for recognition by CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs).^[5] In contrast, conventional MHC class II antigen presentation handles exogenous antigens, such as those from extracellular bacteria or soluble proteins, which are internalized by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) through endocytosis, phagocytosis, or receptor-mediated uptake. These antigens are delivered to endosomal-lysosomal compartments, where they are degraded by acid-dependent proteases, including cathepsins (e.g., cathepsin S), into peptides of 13-25 amino acids. MHC class II molecules, synthesized in the ER and protected by the invariant chain (Ii) to prevent premature peptide binding, traffic to specialized late endosomal compartments known as MHC class II compartments (MIICs). There, Ii is proteolyzed to leave the CLIP peptide, which is exchanged for antigenic peptides with the aid of HLA-DM; the resulting peptide-MHC II complexes are transported to the plasma membrane for presentation to CD4+ helper T cells.^[6] Cross-presentation fundamentally differs by enabling the presentation of exogenous antigens on MHC class I molecules, thereby bridging the gap between extracellular threats and intracellular immune responses without requiring direct infection of the APC. Unlike conventional MHC I presentation, which relies on cytosolic antigens accessing the ER via TAP, cross-presentation diverts endocytosed antigens away from the default MHC II pathway, often involving specialized mechanisms to access proteasomal degradation or endosomal loading while bypassing the need for antigens to enter the cytosol naturally. This process necessitates adaptations in certain APCs to prevent lysosomal degradation from routing antigens exclusively to MHC II, allowing for efficient peptide loading onto recycling or newly synthesized MHC I molecules. Consequently, cross-presentation permits CTL priming against pathogens or tumors that do not infect APCs, eliminating the requirement for physical contact between infected cells and APCs.^[7] By repurposing exogenous antigens for MHC I-restricted presentation, cross-presentation integrates the activation of CD8+ CTLs with CD4+ T cell help, which is typically driven by MHC II, thus linking humoral and cellular immunity in a coordinated response to extracellular antigens. This distinction underscores cross-presentation's critical role in initiating protective immunity against viruses, bacteria, and cancers that evade direct cytosolic entry, enhancing overall T cell-mediated surveillance.^[7]

Mechanisms of Cross-Presentation

Vacuolar Pathway

The vacuolar pathway of cross-presentation involves the processing of exogenous antigens entirely within endosomal or phagosomal compartments, without export to the cytosol. Antigens are internalized by antigen-presenting cells via endocytosis or phagocytosis and degraded by lysosomal proteases such as cathepsin S and cathepsin B within these vacuoles.^[8] The resulting peptides are then loaded onto recycling or newly synthesized MHC class I molecules in the same compartment, facilitating presentation to CD8+ T cells.^[9] This TAP-independent mechanism contrasts with the cytosolic pathway's reliance on TAP for peptide transport.^[7] Key molecular players regulate this process to optimize antigen handling. Sec22b, an ER-Golgi intermediate compartment SNARE protein, promotes fusion between the endoplasmic reticulum and phagosomes, enabling delivery of MHC class I loading machinery while controlling phagosomal maturation to prevent excessive acidification.^[10] NOX2, a phagosomal NADPH oxidase, generates reactive oxygen species that alkalinize the phagosome (to approximately pH 7.4), protecting antigens from rapid degradation by lysosomal enzymes and preserving peptide integrity for MHC loading.^[11] This pathway offers advantages for handling soluble or particulate antigens, such as bacteria or immune complexes, due to its independence from proteasomal degradation and TAP transport, allowing sustained presentation in certain contexts.^[12] However, it has limitations, including potential generation of peptides mismatched to those produced by direct cytosolic processing, which may reduce immunogenicity against certain tumor antigens compared to the cytosolic route.^[7] Experimental evidence supports the vacuolar pathway's distinct features, demonstrated in dendritic cells and macrophage cell lines. Treatment with chloroquine, which blocks endosomal acidification and inhibits cathepsin activity, significantly reduces cross-presentation via this route, confirming reliance on vacuolar proteolysis.^[13] In contrast, lactacystin, a proteasome inhibitor, does not impair vacuolar cross-presentation, underscoring its independence from cytosolic proteasomes.^[9]

Cytosolic Pathway

In the cytosolic pathway of cross-presentation, exogenous antigens internalized by phagocytosis or endocytosis escape from phagosomes or endosomes into the cytosol, where they undergo proteasomal degradation before peptide loading onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules.^[7] This translocation is facilitated by mechanisms such as endosomal membrane permeabilization and retrotranslocation machinery, allowing antigens to access the cytosolic proteasome for processing into short peptides (typically 8-10 amino acids).^[14] The resulting peptides are then transported via the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or directly back into the phagosome, where they associate with nascent or recycled MHC I molecules for surface presentation to CD8+ T cells.^[7] Key molecular players in this pathway include components of the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) machinery, such as the AAA ATPase valosin-containing protein (VCP/p97), which drives antigen unfolding and extraction from endosomal membranes, while Derlin-1 does not appear essential.^[15] Autophagy-related protein 5 (ATG5) contributes to antigen delivery by promoting autophagosome formation, which facilitates the transport of endocytosed antigens to the cytosol for cross-presentation.^[16] Recent findings highlight perforin-2 (also known as MPEG1), a pore-forming protein expressed in dendritic cells (DCs), which permeabilizes endosomal membranes to enable antigen export, thereby supporting efficient cytosolic access in professional antigen-presenting cells.^[17] A 2025 study further identified WDFY4 as a key regulator in a shared pathway for cross-presentation of immune complexes, enhancing antigen handling across DC subsets.^[18] This pathway is particularly advantageous for processing cell-associated antigens, such as those derived from apoptotic cells or infected tissues, due to its ability to generate peptides identical to those from endogenous sources, thereby ensuring consistent epitope recognition by T cells.^[7] However, it is strictly dependent on functional TAP and proteasome activity, rendering it sensitive to inhibitors like epoxomicin, which blocks proteasomal degradation and abolishes cross-presentation.^[7] Experimental evidence underscores the pathway's reliance on cytosolic processing, as demonstrated in vivo studies where TAP-deficient DCs exhibit severely impaired cross-priming of CD8+ T cells against exogenous antigens.^[19] The ovalbumin (OVA) model antigen, particularly tracking the SIINFEKL epitope presentation on H-2Kb MHC I, has been instrumental in visualizing this process, showing that cytosolic escape and proteasomal cleavage are required for efficient T cell activation in mouse models.^[20]

Cross-Presenting Cells

Dendritic Cell Subsets

Dendritic cells (DCs) represent the principal antigen-presenting cells specialized for cross-presentation, with distinct subsets exhibiting varying efficiencies in capturing, processing, and presenting exogenous antigens to CD8⁺ T cells. Among conventional DCs, the cDC1 subset is uniquely equipped for robust cross-presentation, particularly of cell-associated antigens from viruses and tumors, enabling the priming of cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses.^[21] This specialization arises from their developmental dependence on the transcription factor Batf3, which is essential for their ontogeny and function in vivo.^[22] In mice, cDC1s are characterized by expression of CD8α, XCR1, and CLEC9A, while in humans, they are identified by XCR1 and CLEC9A (also known as BDCA3 or CD141).^[23] These cells preferentially employ the cytosolic pathway for antigen processing, supported by elevated expression of transporters associated with antigen processing (TAP) and enhanced endoplasmic reticulum-phagosome membrane contacts that facilitate antigen export to the cytosol for proteasomal degradation.^[1] Seminal studies in Batf3-deficient mice have demonstrated that the absence of cDC1s severely impairs cross-presentation and CD8⁺ T cell immunity against intracellular pathogens and tumors, underscoring their irreplaceable role. The cDC2 subset, in contrast, displays more limited proficiency in cross-presentation compared to cDC1s, primarily serving to prime CD4⁺ T cells through MHC class II presentation.^[21] In mice, cDC2s express SIRPα and CD11b, whereas human counterparts are marked by CD1c and SIRPα (CD172a).^[23] Under inflammatory conditions, cDC2s can engage in cross-presentation via the vacuolar pathway, though with lower efficiency for cell-associated antigens, and they contribute modestly to CD8⁺ T cell activation in specific contexts such as certain infections.^[24] Their development relies on factors like IRF4, and they are more abundant in tissues, aiding in broader immune surveillance but with a focus on helper T cell responses rather than cytotoxic priming.^[21] Other DC populations, including plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) and monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs), exhibit restricted cross-presentation capabilities. pDCs, identified by BDCA2 (CD303) and CD123 expression, primarily produce type I interferons and show minimal antigen presentation at steady state, with limited cross-presentation occurring via endosomal routes only upon activation or in the presence of adjuvants.^[23] Their phagocytic capacity is low, particularly for large particles, limiting their role in this process. moDCs, generated from monocytes during inflammation and marked by CD14 and CD11b, demonstrate enhanced cross-presentation when stimulated by Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands, such as those mimicking viral components, which upregulate antigen processing machinery; however, they are transient and less efficient than conventional DCs in vivo.^[25] Skin-resident Langerhans cells (LCs), a specialized DC subset expressing CD207 (langerin) and residing in the epidermis, utilize endosomal pathways for cross-presentation of keratinocyte-derived antigens, contributing to local immune surveillance that can foster tolerance in non-inflamed tissues.^[26]^[27] Across these subsets, functional adaptations optimize cross-presentation efficiency, including superior phagocytic uptake of apoptotic or necrotic material by cDC1s, chemotactic migration to lymph nodes via CCR7 expression, and rapid upregulation of costimulatory molecules like CD40 and CD86 to provide signals for full T cell activation.^[23] These features collectively enable DCs to bridge innate antigen capture with adaptive immunity, with cDC1s dominating in scenarios requiring strong CD8⁺ T cell responses.^[21]

Other Antigen-Presenting Cells

While dendritic cells are the primary professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) specialized for efficient cross-presentation, other APCs such as macrophages and B cells also exhibit this capability, albeit with lower efficiency and in more context-dependent manners.^[28]^[29] Macrophages, particularly subsets like proinflammatory M1-like macrophages, can cross-present exogenous antigens via both vacuolar and cytosolic pathways, facilitating CD8⁺ T cell activation.^[28] These cells demonstrate high phagocytic uptake of apoptotic cells and debris, enabling antigen acquisition in tissues such as the spleen (red pulp macrophages), lymph nodes (subcapsular sinus macrophages), and tumors (CD206⁺ tumor-associated macrophages).^[28]^[30] However, macrophages often prioritize inflammatory responses over sustained T cell priming, with limited migration to lymph nodes compared to dendritic cells, restricting their role to local antigen presentation.^[28] Anti-inflammatory M2-like macrophages, in contrast, may promote tolerance through cross-presentation, as seen in Kupffer cells of the liver that induce CD8⁺ T cell apoptosis.^[28] B cells perform rare cross-presentation primarily of soluble antigens via the vacuolar route, which is enhanced by B cell receptor (BCR) crosslinking with immune complexes.^[31]^[32] This process supports limited CD8⁺ T cell priming, but B cells are more pivotal in humoral immunity and CD4⁺ T cell help rather than robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses.^[31] Their cross-presentation efficiency is lower due to suboptimal costimulatory molecule expression (e.g., CD80/CD86), often leading to tolerogenic outcomes in autoreactive contexts like type 1 diabetes.^[32] Among other cells, neutrophils exhibit minimal cross-presentation under steady-state conditions but can be reprogrammed into antigen-presenting cells under inflammatory stress via Fcγ receptor engagement, enabling cross-presentation to CD8⁺ T cells with efficiency approaching that of dendritic cells in vitro.^[33]^[34] Epithelial cells, such as proximal tubular epithelial cells in the kidney, show limited capacity for cross-presentation, internalizing antigens via endocytosis and activating inflammatory CD8⁺ T cells in disease settings like lupus nephritis, though without strong costimulation.^[35] Overall, these non-dendritic APCs display reduced peptide loading efficiency and costimulatory capacity relative to dendritic cells, frequently resulting in tolerance induction rather than effective priming, particularly in peripheral tissues.^[28]^[29]

Historical Development

Early Discoveries

The concept of cross-presentation began to emerge in the 1970s through studies on cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses to minor histocompatibility (H) antigens, at a time when the principles of MHC restriction were still being established. In 1974, Zinkernagel and Doherty demonstrated that CTLs recognize viral antigens only when presented in the context of self-MHC molecules, establishing MHC restriction as a fundamental rule of T cell recognition.^[36] This framework highlighted that CTLs typically targeted antigens from infected or endogenous sources, yet observations of CTL activation against antigens from non-infecting cells suggested alternative pathways, particularly involving minor H antigens that differ between individuals despite shared MHC.^[36] A pivotal experiment in 1976 by Michael Bevan provided the first clear evidence of what would later be termed cross-priming. Bevan injected mice with allogeneic spleen cells expressing minor H antigens but differing in MHC (H-2) from the host; this induced CTL responses specific to the minor H antigens, restricted by the host's MHC, without the antigens being expressed directly in host cells.^[37] These CTLs could lyse target cells bearing the minor H antigens only when matched to the host's MHC, indicating that the priming occurred indirectly through host antigen-presenting cells capturing and presenting the exogenous antigens.^[37] This in vivo demonstration revealed that exogenous antigens from donor cells could access the MHC class I pathway in recipient cells, challenging the emerging view that MHC class I presentation was limited to intracellularly synthesized proteins.^[37] Building on these findings, early in vitro evidence in the 1980s confirmed the phenomenon using bone marrow-derived antigen-presenting cells (APCs). In 1988, Moore, Carbone, and Bevan showed that bone marrow-derived macrophages could internalize and process exogenous soluble ovalbumin, presenting it on MHC class I molecules to elicit responses from ovalbumin-specific, MHC class I-restricted CTLs.^[38] This process required the macrophages to actively take up the soluble antigen, distinguishing it from direct infection or endogenous expression, and underscored the role of specialized bone marrow-derived APCs in bridging exogenous antigens to the class I pathway. Collectively, these discoveries marked a conceptual shift, demonstrating that exogenous antigens could indeed enter the MHC class I presentation pathway, thereby expanding the scope of CTL priming beyond infected cells.

Key Advances and Milestones

In the 1990s, seminal work from Ralph Steinman's laboratory and collaborators established dendritic cells (DCs) as the primary cross-presenting cells capable of processing exogenous antigens from apoptotic cells to stimulate MHC class I-restricted CD8⁺ T cell responses. A key study demonstrated that human DCs, but not macrophages, efficiently phagocytose apoptotic cell debris and present derived antigens on MHC class I molecules, inducing cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in vitro. Concurrently, the discovery of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), cloned in 1990, revealed its essential role in shuttling cytosolic peptides into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) for MHC class I loading, which was soon extended to the cytosolic pathway of cross-presentation in DCs during the mid-to-late 1990s. These findings shifted the understanding of cross-presentation from a niche phenomenon to a DC-mediated process critical for initiating immunity against non-infectious threats like tumors. The 2000s brought advances in visualizing the cellular machinery underlying cross-presentation, particularly the ER-phagosome interactions that enable antigen export to the cytosol. In 2003, researchers used electron microscopy and functional assays to show that phagosomes in DCs fuse with ER membranes, forming a hybrid compartment enriched in MHC class I loading machinery, which supports TAP-dependent peptide transport and cross-presentation of phagocytosed antigens.^[39] By the end of the decade, genetic studies linked specific DC subsets to cross-priming efficiency; deletion of the transcription factor Batf3 in mice ablated CD8α⁺ DCs, revealing their indispensable role in generating protective CD8⁺ T cell responses against viruses and tumors in vivo.^[40] The 2010s illuminated molecular transporters facilitating ER-phagosome communication and identified human equivalents of murine cross-presenting DCs. In 2009–2011, investigations identified Sec22b, an ER-Golgi intermediate compartment SNARE protein, as a key mediator that pairs with plasma membrane SNAREs to promote phagosomal recruitment of ER components, thereby enhancing antigen crosspresentation without affecting phagosomal maturation.^[41] Additionally, characterization of human BDCA3⁺ (CD141⁺) DCs expressing CLEC9A (DNGR-1) confirmed their equivalence to mouse CD8α⁺ DCs, with superior capacity for cross-presenting cell-associated antigens via CLEC9A-mediated uptake of necrotic debris.^[42] Recent 2020s developments have refined the mechanistic details and regulatory landscape of cross-presentation. A 2023 study elucidated the perforin-2 (MPEG1) mechanism in DCs, demonstrating that this pore-forming protein is recruited to phagosomal membranes, where it forms pores to enable antigen leakage into the cytosol for proteasomal degradation—a step essential for efficient MHC class I crosspresentation and CD8⁺ T cell priming against tumors and pathogens.^[43] In 2025, analyses of mRNA vaccine platforms highlighted cross-presentation's dual role in priming and tolerance, showing that intramuscular mRNA delivery can induce cross-tolerance to self-antigens via DC-mediated presentation, informing strategies to mitigate autoimmunity in vaccination. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) studies in the early 2020s further uncovered regulatory networks in cross-presenting DCs, revealing Irf8-dependent transcriptional clusters in pulmonary cDC1s that orchestrate genes for antigen processing, ER-phagosome fusion, and T cell activation.^[44]^[45]

Roles in Immunity

Protective Responses Against Pathogens and Tumors

Cross-presentation plays a pivotal role in generating CD8+ T cell responses against intracellular pathogens by enabling dendritic cells (DCs) to present exogenous viral antigens on MHC class I molecules. In viral infections, such as those caused by lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) and influenza, antigens derived from infected apoptotic cells are captured by DCs, processed, and cross-presented to prime cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs).^[46]^[47] This process is particularly critical for infections in non-hematopoietic tissues, where direct priming by infected professional antigen-presenting cells is limited, allowing surveillance and clearance of virus-infected cells.^[48] For instance, in LCMV infection, XCR1+ DCs cross-present viral antigens to CD8+ T cells, supporting their expansion and differentiation into effector cells essential for viral control.^[47] In the context of anti-tumor immunity, cross-presentation facilitates the activation of CTLs against tumor-associated antigens derived from dead or dying cancer cells. Conventional type 1 DCs (cDC1s) are the primary mediators, efficiently processing and presenting these antigens in tumor-draining lymph nodes to initiate de novo CD8+ T cell responses.^[49] Within the tumor microenvironment, cDC1s further enhance CTL infiltration by producing chemokines such as CXCL9 and CXCL10, which recruit CXCR3-expressing effector T cells, thereby promoting tumor clearance.^[50] This localized cross-presentation sustains anti-tumor effector functions, correlating with improved patient outcomes in various cancers.^[49] Mechanisms that enhance cross-presentation amplify these protective responses, broadening immunity through epitope spreading, where initial T cell activation against dominant epitopes leads to responses against subdominant or novel ones. Adjuvants like poly I:C, a TLR3 agonist, upregulate cross-presentation by promoting DC maturation and facilitating the acquisition of MHC class I from apoptotic cells via phosphatidylserine receptors, resulting in stronger CD8+ T cell priming.^[51] This enhancement supports epitope spreading in both viral and tumor settings, enabling more comprehensive immune coverage against diverse antigens.^[1] Experimental models underscore the necessity of cross-presentation for protective immunity. In Batf3-/- mice, which lack cDC1s, CD8+ T cell priming against viral antigens is severely impaired during infections like influenza and SARS-CoV-2, leading to delayed viral clearance due to reduced effector responses in the lungs.^[52] Similarly, these mice exhibit defective anti-tumor CTL priming and fail to reject immunogenic tumors, highlighting the indispensable role of Batf3-dependent DCs in sustaining protective CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity.^[53]

Enhancement in Vaccination Strategies

Cross-presentation plays a pivotal role in enhancing vaccine efficacy by enabling the activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells (CTLs) against exogenous antigens, which is essential for combating intracellular pathogens and tumors. In vaccine design, strategies focus on directing antigens into cross-presentation pathways within dendritic cells (DCs) to promote robust CTL responses, often through the use of adjuvants and advanced delivery systems that mimic natural antigen uptake mechanisms.^[54] Subunit vaccines, which deliver purified antigens, frequently incorporate adjuvants that promote cross-presentation to overcome their inherent limitations in inducing CD8+ T cell immunity. Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, such as monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) in the AS04 formulation, activate DCs to enhance antigen uptake and processing via the cross-presentation pathway, leading to improved MHC class I presentation. For instance, TLR2 agonists like SMIP 2.1 have been shown to stimulate cross-presentation in mouse bone marrow-derived DCs, resulting in stronger CD8+ T cell priming. Viral vector vaccines, particularly those based on adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5), mimic apoptotic antigen delivery by infecting DCs or bystander cells, thereby facilitating endogenous antigen processing and cross-presentation to elicit Th1-biased CD8+ T cell responses. These vectors have been instrumental in generating protective immunity in preclinical models by leveraging the cytosolic pathway for antigen export.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58] Advanced delivery strategies further optimize cross-presentation by targeting specific cellular compartments. Nanoparticle encapsulation allows precise phagosomal targeting of antigens, where particle size influences endosomal escape and cross-presentation efficiency; for example, 20-200 nm nanoparticles promote antigen delivery to phagosomes in DCs, enhancing cytosolic translocation and MHC I loading when combined with TLR agonists. Electroporation enhances cytosolic export of DNA or mRNA vaccines by temporarily permeabilizing cell membranes, increasing antigen expression and access to the proteasome for cross-presentation, as demonstrated in studies where it boosted CD8+ T cell responses in murine models. Recent advancements in mRNA vaccines, as of 2025, utilize lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) optimized for cross-priming; for instance, mRNA-LNPs encoding tumor antigens are internalized by DCs to promote cross-presentation and antitumor CD8+ T cell responses through improved endosomal escape.^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62] These approaches yield improved CTL memory and response breadth, with cross-presentation being critical for vaccine success in several cases. Therapeutic HPV vaccines targeting E6 and E7 oncoproteins, such as mRNA-based platforms, rely on cross-presentation for generating CD8+ T cell responses against high-risk HPV types.^[63] Similarly, the Ebola vaccine rVSV-ZEBOV, a viral vector platform, induces cross-presentation-dependent CD8+ T cell responses that correlate with survival in nonhuman primates, highlighting the pathway's role in broad immunity against filoviruses.^[54]^[64]^[65] Despite these benefits, challenges persist in balancing effective priming with the risk of T cell exhaustion, particularly in vaccines targeting chronic infections where prolonged antigen exposure via cross-presentation can drive PD-1 upregulation and functional impairment. Strategies to mitigate exhaustion include adjuvant combinations that limit excessive DC activation while sustaining memory CTL formation.^[66]^[67]

Roles in Tolerance

Peripheral Tolerance to Self-Antigens

Cross-presentation plays a crucial role in maintaining peripheral tolerance to self-antigens by enabling dendritic cells (DCs) to present exogenous self-antigens on MHC class I molecules to CD8+ T cells, thereby inducing anergy, deletion, or regulatory responses that prevent autoimmunity.^[68] In the steady state, without inflammatory cues, this process ensures that self-reactive T cells encountering their cognate antigens do not mount destructive responses.^[69] The primary mechanism involves the uptake of apoptotic or necrotic self-cells by DCs, particularly conventional DC1 (cDC1) subsets, which process and cross-present self-antigens via MHC class I in a tolerogenic manner.^[70] Immature or steady-state DCs exhibit low levels of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86, leading to incomplete T cell activation and promoting CD8+ T cell anergy or apoptosis.^[71] Additionally, this low-costimulation environment favors the induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs), including FoxP3+ CD8+ Tregs, which suppress effector responses, or directly triggers cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) deletion through Bim-dependent pathways.^[72]^[73] This tolerogenic cross-presentation occurs prominently in peripheral tissues such as the liver and skin during homeostasis, where DCs continuously sample dying cells to avert responses against self-antigens released from physiological turnover.^[74] In the liver, resident DCs and sinusoidal endothelial cells cross-present antigens from apoptotic hepatocytes, contributing to the organ's inherent tolerogenic milieu.^[75] Similarly, in the skin, dermal DCs uptake antigens from apoptotic keratinocytes, enforcing tolerance to maintain barrier integrity without inflammation.^[76] Key regulators of this process include the absence of inflammatory signals, such as type I interferons (IFNs), which in steady-state conditions prevent DC maturation and proinflammatory cytokine production, thereby favoring tolerance over priming.^[77] The expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) on DCs further attenuates T cell activation by engaging PD-1 on self-reactive CD8+ T cells, promoting exhaustion or apoptosis and reinforcing peripheral tolerance.^[78] Experimental evidence from mouse models demonstrates that cross-presentation of self-antigens, such as tissue-restricted antigens like ovalbumin expressed transgenically in pancreatic islets, induces CD8+ T cell tolerance through deletion or anergy when presented by CD8α+ DCs.^[68] Defects in cDC1 function, such as MHC class II deficiency, disrupt cross-tolerization, resulting in fatal autoimmunity driven by unchecked self-reactive CD8+ T cells.^[79]

Cross-Tolerance Mechanisms

Cross-tolerance mechanisms involve the cross-presentation of harmless exogenous antigens, such as those derived from dietary components or commensal microbiota, by specialized dendritic cells (DCs) in the gut mucosa, resulting in the induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) or anergy in CD8+ T cells to maintain peripheral immune homeostasis.^[80] Gut-associated DCs, particularly CD103+ cDC1 subsets, acquire these antigens from the intestinal lumen or epithelial cells and process them for presentation on MHC class I molecules to CD8+ T cells, promoting suppressive responses rather than effector immunity.^[80] This process extends tolerance mechanisms observed for self-antigens by specifically targeting environmental antigens to prevent aberrant inflammation.^[2] In the gut environment, dietary antigens like ovalbumin and commensal bacterial antigens are endocytosed by lamina propria DCs, which migrate to mesenteric lymph nodes for cross-presentation, leading to IL-10 production by responding T cells and differentiation of FoxP3+ Tregs. For instance, CD103+ DCs imprint Tregs with gut-homing properties through retinoic acid (RA), enhancing IL-10 secretion and suppressive function against innocuous antigens.^[81] This IL-10-mediated pathway fosters Treg expansion, which in turn dampens pro-inflammatory CD8+ T cell activation, ensuring tolerance to persistent luminal challenges.^[82] At the molecular level, tolerogenic DCs preferentially utilize the vacuolar pathway for cross-presentation, where exogenous antigens are degraded in endolysosomal compartments by cathepsins, generating peptides that load onto recycling MHC class I molecules without cytosolic escape, a process suited to low-inflammatory contexts.^[83] This pathway's dominance in tolerogenic DCs is complemented by RA and TGF-β signaling; RA, produced by CD103+ DCs via aldehyde dehydrogenase activity, synergizes with TGF-β to drive FoxP3 expression and Treg differentiation from naïve CD8+ or CD4+ T cells. TGF-β further modulates DC phenotype by upregulating inhibitory molecules like PD-L1, reinforcing anergic states in antigen-specific T cells.^[80] Key contexts for cross-tolerance include oral tolerance to food antigens, where cross-presentation by intestinal DCs prevents allergic responses to dietary proteins, and microbiota-specific tolerance, which curbs chronic inflammation in the gut mucosa to avert conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).^[84] In oral tolerance, repeated exposure to food antigens via cross-presenting DCs induces peripheral Tregs that suppress Th2-driven hypersensitivity.^[82] For commensals, cross-presentation maintains a balance where microbiota-derived antigens elicit IL-10-producing Tregs, protecting against dysbiosis-induced colitis.^[84] Recent evidence from 2025 studies highlights PRDM16+ antigen-presenting cells (APCs), a RORγt-dependent subset of tolerogenic DCs, that present microbiota antigens to induce FoxP3+ Tregs, essential for oral and microbial tolerance.^[85] In Prdm16ΔRORγt knockout mice, ablation of these APCs abolishes Treg differentiation, resulting in elevated effector T cells, increased IgE, and allergic pathology, demonstrating tolerance breakdown.^[85] Similarly, cDC1-deficient models show failed cross-tolerance to epithelial antigens, leading to epithelial damage and Treg deficiency, underscoring the role in preventing IBD-like inflammation.^[80] These findings confirm that disrupting cross-presentation pathways precipitates loss of tolerance to exogenous gut antigens.^[84]

Clinical Implications

Applications in Cancer Immunotherapy

Cross-presentation by dendritic cells (DCs) plays a pivotal role in generating cytotoxic CD8+ T cell responses against tumor antigens, forming the basis for DC-based vaccines in cancer immunotherapy. Sipuleucel-T, the first FDA-approved autologous DC vaccine for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, involves ex vivo loading of patient-derived antigen-presenting cells, including DCs, with a fusion protein of prostatic acid phosphatase and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, leading to a 22% reduction in the risk of death in phase III trials.^[86] Personalized neoantigen vaccines extend this approach by targeting patient-specific tumor mutations, with DCs pulsed or loaded ex vivo to promote cross-presentation of neoantigens via the cytosolic pathway, eliciting robust CD8+ T cell priming; clinical trials in melanoma and glioblastoma have shown induction of neoantigen-specific T cells correlating with tumor regression in up to 30% of patients.^[87] Tumor lysates, rich in intracellular antigens, are particularly effective for exploiting the cytosolic cross-presentation pathway in DCs, as they escape endosomal degradation and access the proteasome, enhancing CD8+ T cell responses in preclinical models and early-phase trials.^[88] Synergy between cross-presentation and immune checkpoint inhibitors amplifies antitumor immunity, with PD-1 blockade enhancing the proliferation and effector function of cross-primed cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) by relieving exhaustion in the tumor microenvironment. In mouse models and human trials, PD-1 inhibition promotes epitope spreading from cross-presented tumor antigens, broadening the T cell repertoire and improving response rates in immunogenic tumors like melanoma.^[89] As of 2025, ongoing clinical trials are exploring combinations of cDC1 expansion—using agents like Flt3L to mobilize Batf3-dependent cross-presenting DCs—with CAR-T cell therapies, aiming to boost antigen presentation and sustain CAR-T persistence; preliminary data from phase I studies indicate enhanced CTL infiltration and tumor control in solid tumors.^[90] Targeting strategies to augment cross-presentation include Batf3 agonists such as Flt3L, which mobilize and expand cross-presenting cDC1s in the tumor-draining lymph nodes, potentiating CD8+ T cell priming and synergizing with checkpoint blockade in preclinical cancer models.^[91] Oncolytic viruses deliver tumor antigens directly to DCs by inducing immunogenic cell death, facilitating cross-presentation and systemic antitumor immunity; for instance, engineered viruses expressing neoantigens have shown improved T cell responses and tumor regression in phase I/II trials for melanoma and glioma.^[92] Clinical outcomes from cross-presentation-targeted therapies include improved survival in melanoma, where adjuvant DC vaccines loaded with tumor antigens have demonstrated immunological responses, such as antigen-specific T cell activation, though a phase III trial showed no significant extension in recurrence-free survival.^[93] However, challenges persist due to tumor-induced immunosuppression, which impairs DC function and cross-presentation efficiency, necessitating strategies like STING agonists to overcome these barriers and enhance therapeutic efficacy.^[94]

Strategies for Autoimmunity and Tolerance Induction

Therapeutic strategies leveraging cross-presentation aim to restore immune tolerance in autoimmune diseases by directing dendritic cells (DCs) to present autoantigens in a tolerogenic manner, thereby suppressing autoreactive T cell responses. Tolerance vaccines represent a key approach, involving the encapsulation of autoantigens such as myelin basic protein (MBP) peptides within nanoparticles or liposomes to facilitate uptake and cross-presentation by tolerogenic DCs. This targeted delivery promotes the generation of regulatory T cells (Tregs) while minimizing inflammatory signaling, as demonstrated in preclinical models of multiple sclerosis (MS) where MBP peptide-loaded DCs induced antigen-specific tolerance and reduced disease severity.^[95]^[96] Rapamycin, an mTOR inhibitor, enhances these vaccines by biasing cross-presentation toward the vacuolar pathway in DCs, which favors tolerogenic processing over cytotoxic responses. In vitro and animal studies show that rapamycin-treated DCs cross-present autoantigens like myelin peptides more efficiently via endosomal compartments, leading to impaired CD8+ T cell activation and increased Treg induction, thereby attenuating autoimmune inflammation in models of MS and type 1 diabetes.^[97]^[98] Clinical translation includes phase I trials where vitamin D3-conditioned tolerogenic DCs loaded with MBP peptides were administered to MS patients, demonstrating safety and preliminary evidence of reduced autoreactive T cell proliferation.^[99] Engineering DCs for cross-tolerance further advances Treg induction by modifying cells ex vivo to overexpress tolerogenic factors before reinfusion. For instance, DCs engineered to present autoantigens via cross-presentation pathways, combined with anti-inflammatory cytokines, have shown promise in inducing Foxp3+ Tregs that suppress effector T cells in autoimmune models. Recent 2025 research has identified PRDM16-dependent antigen-presenting cells crucial for promoting microbiota- and food antigen-specific peripheral Tregs in the gut, suggesting potential targets for therapies in food allergy and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).^[100]^[85] Gene therapy strategies upregulate PD-L1 on cross-presenting DCs to reinforce tolerance by inhibiting T cell activation during antigen presentation. Viral vectors delivering PD-L1 genes to DCs have been shown in preclinical models to enhance cross-tolerance to self-antigens, reducing autoreactive CD8+ T cell infiltration in tissues affected by autoimmunity. Nanoparticle-based delivery systems complement this by encapsulating autoantigens for targeted gut tolerance, where PLGA nanoparticles loaded with peptides are taken up by intestinal DCs for cross-presentation, inducing oral tolerance and Tregs in models of IBD and celiac disease.^[101]^[78]^[102] Evidence from phase I trials underscores the safety of these approaches in MS, with ongoing phase II studies evaluating efficacy of tolerogenic DCs for cross-presentation of myelin antigens in dampening autoreactive responses while preserving protective immunity.^[103]^[104]

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