Daqing

Daqing is a prefecture-level city in western Heilongjiang province, northeastern China, situated on the Songnen Plain and bordering Inner Mongolia. With a population of approximately 2.94 million as of 2023, it serves as a major hub for China's petroleum industry, primarily due to the Daqing Oil Field, the country's largest, which has produced over 2.43 billion tons of crude oil since its discovery in 1959.^[1]^[2] The field's rapid development under harsh conditions transformed Daqing from an underdeveloped rural area into an industrial center, symbolizing national self-reliance in energy production during the early years of the People's Republic.^[3] The Daqing Oil Field was discovered in 1959 through exploratory drilling, with commercial production commencing in 1960 and reaching full-scale output by 1963 at 3 million tons annually, representing more than half of China's total oil production at the time.^[4] This achievement enabled China to achieve oil self-sufficiency and become a net exporter in the 1970s, bolstering economic independence amid geopolitical isolation. Sustained high production—exceeding 50 million tons per year from 1976 for 27 consecutive years—underscored efficient management and technological adaptations, though output has since declined to around 30 million tons annually in recent years amid maturing reservoirs.^[5]^[6] The city's economy remains dominated by oil extraction, petrochemicals, and related sectors, generating a GDP of 286 billion RMB in 2023.^[7] Daqing's development featured pioneering efforts, including the legendary 1205 Drilling Team led by Wang Jinxi, whose "iron man" ethos of overcoming extreme winter drilling challenges became a propaganda model for socialist industrialization. Efforts to diversify include shale oil exploration and natural gas production, which surpassed 6 billion cubic meters in 2024, alongside urban infrastructure like Olympic facilities, reflecting adaptation to post-peak oil realities while preserving its status as an energy powerhouse.^[4]^[8]^[2]

Geography

Location and terrain

![Location of Daqing City yellow in Heilongjiang light gray and China](./assets/Location_of_Daqing_Prefecture_within_Heilongjiang_China
Daqing is a prefecture-level city situated in the western part of Heilongjiang Province in northeastern China, occupying the central portion of the Songnen Plain.^[9] The city's administrative area spans approximately 45°46′ N to 47°27′ N latitude and 123°31′ E to 125°42′ E longitude, covering a total land area of 21,219 square kilometers.^[10] It lies between the cities of Harbin to the southeast and Qiqihar to the northwest, forming part of the broader Harbin-Changchun urban cluster in the Songnen Basin.^[5] The terrain of Daqing is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Songnen Plain, a major alluvial plain in China's Northeastern Plain formed by sediments from the Songhua and Nenjiang rivers.^[11] The average elevation across the prefecture is around 230 meters, though the urban center sits at approximately 146 meters above sea level, facilitating extensive oil extraction and agricultural activities.^[12] Landscape features include vast plains interspersed with wetlands, scattered lakes such as Sanyong Lake, and minimal topographic relief, which has supported the development of the region's petroleum industry since the mid-20th century.^[13]

Climate

Daqing experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen Dwb), characterized by long, severely cold and dry winters, a short transitional spring and autumn, and warm, humid summers with the bulk of annual precipitation.^[14]^[15] The region's location in the northern temperate zone of Heilongjiang province contributes to significant seasonal temperature swings, influenced by Siberian air masses in winter and monsoon effects in summer.^[15] The average annual temperature is 4.5 °C (40.1 °F), with extremes ranging from lows below -29 °C (-20 °F) in winter to highs exceeding 32 °C (90 °F) in summer.^[15]^[14] Winters, spanning November to March, feature average January temperatures around -18 °C (0 °F) or lower, with frequent snow cover and wind chills amplified by northerly winds.^[14] Summers, from June to August, see average July highs near 28 °C (82 °F), though heat waves can push temperatures higher.^[14] Spring and fall are brief and variable, with rapid warming or cooling. Annual precipitation averages 509 mm (20.0 in), concentrated in the summer months, peaking at about 99 mm (3.9 in) in July due to convective showers and thunderstorms.^[15]^[14] Winters are arid, with a rainless period extending from mid-October to mid-April, relying on snow for moisture.^[14] Relative humidity averages 60-70% annually, higher in summer, while prevailing winds are from the northwest in winter and southeast in summer.^[14] Climate data derive from long-term observations at Daqing's meteorological stations, reflecting stable patterns with minimal recent shifts attributable to urban heat effects from oil field development.^[15]

History

Pre-oil era and discovery

The territory that later formed Daqing consisted of remote, sparsely populated swamplands and grasslands in the Songliao Plain of Heilongjiang Province, primarily used for limited agriculture and herding by local communities with little industrial or urban development prior to the mid-20th century.^[16] This underdeveloped area, part of larger administrative units like Anda County, featured black soil conducive to farming but was hindered by harsh winters, flooding, and isolation, resulting in negligible economic activity beyond subsistence.^[17] In response to China's status as an "oil-poor" nation reliant on imports, the government initiated extensive geological surveys and exploration across the Northeast China Plain during the late 1950s, focusing on sedimentary basins like Songliao for potential hydrocarbon reserves.^[18] Drilling operations commenced in 1958 under the Ministry of Petroleum Industry, targeting anticlinal structures identified through seismic and aeromagnetic data in the central depression of the basin.^[17] These efforts built on earlier small-scale finds in western China but aimed to uncover major fields in the east to support industrialization.^[4] The Daqing Oil Field was discovered on September 26, 1959, when Well Songji-3, located in the southern portion of the Songliao Basin's central depression, produced a significant commercial oil flow of over 100 cubic meters per day from Cretaceous formations at depths exceeding 2,000 meters.^[19]^[20] This breakthrough, achieved amid challenging conditions including subzero temperatures and rudimentary equipment, confirmed reserves estimated initially at billions of barrels, ending decades of scarcity and prompting immediate scaling of operations.^[21] The timing, just before the 10th anniversary of the People's Republic of China, elevated its national significance as a symbol of self-reliance in energy resources.^[18]

1960s development and national model status

The Daqing oilfield's development intensified in the early 1960s following its discovery on September 26, 1959, when exploratory well Songji-3 produced a commercial oil flow in the Songliao Basin.^[3] Large-scale construction and exploitation commenced in 1960, with the field achieving basic exploration and development within less than three years despite harsh winter conditions and logistical challenges.^[3] By 1963, Daqing reached full-scale production, yielding 22.2 million tons of crude oil annually and contributing to China's shift toward oil self-sufficiency.^[21] In September 1964, Mao Zedong designated Daqing as a national model for industrialization during a Politburo meeting, praising its embodiment of self-reliance, collective effort, and rapid progress under socialist principles.^[22] This endorsement spurred the widespread slogan "In industry, learn from Daqing," which propagated Daqing's practices—such as integrated oilfield management, worker discipline, and technological adaptation—as exemplars for factories and enterprises nationwide.^[23] That year, Daqing accounted for nearly half of China's total oil output, underscoring its pivotal role in alleviating the country's dependence on imported petroleum amid geopolitical tensions.^[4] Daqing's model status facilitated resource mobilization, with the oilfield dispatching over 56,000 cadres and workers, along with 4,900 pieces of machinery (more than one-third of its equipment), to support development at other domestic fields starting in 1963.^[22] This dissemination extended Daqing's operational model, emphasizing labor-intensive techniques and ideological motivation, though it also reflected centralized planning priorities that prioritized output over long-term sustainability.^[22] The field's promotion through state media reinforced its symbolic importance in Mao-era narratives of industrial triumph.^[23]

1970s-1980s peak production and economic contributions

During the 1970s, Daqing Oilfield's crude oil production expanded rapidly through intensified development and application of waterflooding techniques, culminating in a peak annual output of approximately 50 million metric tons by 1976. This level, equivalent to about 1 million barrels per day, marked the onset of a production plateau that persisted through the 1980s, sustained by ongoing infill drilling and enhanced recovery methods despite increasing water cut in reservoirs.^[24]^[4] Daqing's output constituted roughly 50 percent of China's total crude oil production during this era, providing a critical buffer against domestic energy shortages and enabling the country to achieve net oil exporter status from the mid-1970s onward.^[25] The field's contributions extended to foreign exchange generation, as exported Daqing crude—priced competitively below OPEC benchmarks—helped finance imports of industrial machinery and technology, with petroleum exports accounting for 12-13 percent of China's total export earnings in the late 1970s and rising to two-thirds by 1985.^[26]^[27] Economically, Daqing served as China's first tax-paying enterprise model, channeling substantial fiscal revenues to the state through oil sector taxes, which ranked highest among industries in the 1980s.^[25]^[27] These funds supported national infrastructure and debt repayment efforts, underscoring the oilfield's role in bolstering central government coffers amid post-Cultural Revolution reconstruction.^[22] By the mid-1980s, the field's operations indirectly contributed around 3 percent of national state revenue, reflecting its outsized influence on China's resource-dependent economy.^[28]

Post-1978 reforms and diversification attempts

Following the national economic reforms initiated in 1978, Daqing faced mounting pressures from stagnating oil production and rising extraction costs, prompting early adjustments to reduce dependency on crude oil output. Between 1978 and 1989, electricity consumption per ton of oil produced in Daqing's fields increased 1.6-fold, while overall costs escalated, signaling the onset of resource depletion in the aging reservoirs.^[29] These trends aligned with broader Chinese shifts toward market-oriented policies, leading Daqing's state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to explore downstream integration and horizontal expansion beyond primary extraction. Initial efforts focused on leveraging oil revenues to import foreign technology for petrochemical processing, building on pre-reform proposals like the 1976 "Great Leap Outward" initiative, which aimed to develop chemicals, fertilizers, and synthetic fibers but was curtailed by political shifts.^[28] Diversification accelerated in the 1990s amid national SOE reforms, with vertical strategies emphasizing petrochemicals to process local crude into higher-value products. In 1999, the Daqing Petroleum Administration Bureau underwent restructuring, splitting into Daqing Oilfield Company Limited—a China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) subsidiary handling upstream extraction and petrochemicals—and a reorganized administration for equipment manufacturing and services; this coincided with mandated production cuts of 1.5–2 million tons annually to extend field life.^[29] Petrochemical capacity expanded notably, reaching 600,000 tons of ethylene production per year by 2012, supported by increased local refining quotas from 7.573 million tons in 1990 to over 12 million tons by 2012. Horizontal diversification targeted non-oil sectors, including food processing (utilizing regional agriculture), pharmaceuticals, new materials, trade, and logistics, alongside petroleum-related services like equipment fabrication.^[29] National policies bolstered these attempts, particularly the 2003 "Revitalizing the Northeast Old Industrial Base" plan, which provided tax incentives, grants, and infrastructure support to transition resource-dependent cities like Daqing. By 2004, fiscal reforms relieved SOEs of non-core social functions (e.g., housing, education), allowing reinvestment into diversification, while a high-tech industrial zone was established with six pillar industries. Service sectors, such as outsourcing and financial services, emerged as priorities, with goals to exceed 60% non-oil industrial output.^[30]^[29] Despite progress, challenges persisted, including environmental degradation from over-extraction—such as a 3,750 km² underground water funnel—and persistent SOE dominance, which accounted for 70.3% of industrial value added in 2012. Fiscal constraints limited local revenue to 6.6% of GDP that year, hindering broader private-sector growth. By 2012, non-oil sectors comprised 54% of Daqing's gross regional product (GRP), with GDP per capita reaching 142,000 RMB, reflecting partial success in mitigating oil decline—production had fallen from a 1976 peak of 50 million tons to 40 million tons by 2009—but underscoring ongoing vulnerability to resource curse dynamics in a state-heavy economy.^[29]^[29]^[29]

2000s-present: Decline, transitions, and revitalization efforts

Following the peak crude oil production of 56 million tonnes in 1997, Daqing Oilfield experienced a steady decline, averaging 2.9% annually through 2007 when output fell to 41.6 million tonnes, driven by reservoir maturation and natural depletion despite enhanced recovery techniques.^[31] By the 2010s, production stabilized around 30-32 million tonnes per year through tertiary recovery methods, but Daqing's share of national output dropped from 43% in 1995 to 16% in 2024 as newer fields emerged elsewhere in China.^[32] This maturation prompted PetroChina, the field's operator, to intensify waterflooding and chemical flooding, achieving annual tertiary recovery exceeding 10 million tonnes for 21 consecutive years by 2023, cumulatively yielding 300 million tonnes.^[33] To counter the oil downturn, Daqing shifted toward natural gas expansion and integrated energy development, with gas output surpassing 6 billion cubic meters in 2024—a record high—and rising 175 million cubic meters year-on-year in 2021.^[34]^[35] In the first half of 2025, crude output edged up by 10,900 tonnes year-on-year, supported by these efforts and pilot shale oil projects like Gulong, where PetroChina targeted 20,000 barrels per day by 2025 from proven reserves exceeding 1 billion barrels.^[36]^[37] Refinery upgrades further aided transitions, including a 3.5 million tonne per year extension commissioned in 2020 and plans to reach 23.2 million tonnes annual processing capacity by 2025, emphasizing Russian crude imports and petrochemical output.^[38]^[39] Economic diversification accelerated post-2000 to mitigate oil dependency, with non-oil sectors like petrochemicals, automobiles, high-end food processing, electronics, and information manufacturing prioritized under local government plans.^[40] This restructuring contributed to GDP growth of 4% in the first half of 2019, as secondary and tertiary industries expanded, reducing petroleum's dominance from over 60% of GDP in earlier decades.^[41] Rural revitalization initiatives focused on modern agriculture, integrating industrial chains for grain, dairy, and bioenergy to bolster food security and export-oriented farming in Heilongjiang's black soil region.^[42] These efforts have yielded mixed but progressive results, with Daqing's economy showing resilience through upstream-downstream integration and overseas equity oil investments, though challenges persist from global energy transitions and domestic demand shifts.^[43] PetroChina's ESG reports highlight sustained investments in low-carbon technologies and supply chain localization, positioning Daqing as a hub for hydrogen and renewable integration by 2025.^[44] Overall, while oil remains central, diversification has prevented sharp contraction, aligning with national resource city transformation policies.^[29]

Government and administration

Administrative divisions

Daqing is a prefecture-level city in Heilongjiang province subdivided into nine county-level administrative divisions: five urban districts, three counties, and one autonomous county.^[45] These divisions manage local governance, including urban development in the core oilfield areas and rural administration in peripheral regions. The five districts—Saertu (萨尔图区), Longfeng (龙凤区), Ranghulu (让胡路区), Datong (大同区), and Honggang (红岗区)—primarily encompass the central urban and industrial zones, with Saertu serving as the seat of the municipal government and hosting key infrastructure.^[45] The three counties—Zhaozhou (肇州县), Zhaoyuan (肇源县), and Lindian (林甸县)—cover largely agricultural and transitional areas surrounding the urban core.^[45] The Dorbod Mongol Autonomous County (杜尔伯特蒙古族自治县) provides ethnic autonomy for the Mongol population in the northeastern part of the prefecture, incorporating traditional pastoral lands alongside modern economic activities.^[45] Additionally, Daqing includes functional zones such as the Daqing High-Tech Industrial Development Zone, which operates under the municipal administration but supports specialized economic functions without county-level status.^[46]

Division Type	Name (Pinyin/Chinese)
Districts	Saertu District (萨尔图区) Longfeng District (龙凤区) Ranghulu District (让胡路区) Datong District (大同区) Honggang District (红岗区)
Counties	Zhaozhou County (肇州县) Zhaoyuan County (肇源县) Lindian County (林甸县)
Autonomous County	Dorbod Mongol Autonomous County (杜尔伯特蒙古族自治县)

Governance structure and policies

Daqing's governance adheres to the hierarchical structure of the People's Republic of China, where the Communist Party of China (CPC) exercises leadership over state organs at the prefecture-level municipal scale. The CPC Daqing Municipal Committee constitutes the paramount authority, directed by the municipal Party Secretary, who determines policy priorities, cadre appointments, and ideological orientation. Its Standing Committee, generally consisting of around 11 members, incorporates deputy secretaries alongside secretaries for discipline inspection, organization, propaganda, and political-legal affairs, facilitating collective decision-making on matters like economic planning and social stability.^[47] This party apparatus integrates with the Daqing Municipal People's Congress, the nominal legislative body that elects the People's Government while operating under CPC guidance.^[48] The Daqing Municipal People's Government functions as the administrative executive, led by the Mayor—who typically holds concurrent deputy Party Secretary status—and supported by several vice mayors overseeing specialized domains. Organizational units include bureaus for development and reform (coordinating economic strategies), finance (managing budgets amid oil revenue fluctuations), natural resources (regulating extraction), ecology and environment (addressing pollution from petrochemical activities), and public security (maintaining order in a historically company-town setting). These entities implement directives from higher CPC levels, with fiscal and regulatory powers devolved from Heilongjiang Province but constrained by central oversight on resource sectors dominated by state-owned enterprises like China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC).^[30] Municipal policies prioritize transitioning from oil dependency, following national guidelines for resource-based cities identified as maturing or exhausted since the early 2000s, when Daqing's crude output began declining post-50 million tons annual peak in 1997. Strategies emphasize diversification into petrochemical refining, equipment manufacturing, modern agriculture, and digital services, with targeted investments exceeding 100 billion yuan in non-oil projects by 2020 to counter employment losses from shrinking extraction.^[49] High-quality development initiatives promote "smart eco-innovation," integrating AI and green technologies for sustainable urbanization, as modeled in scenario analyses projecting reduced carbon intensity through circular economy practices in petrochemical chains.^[50] These align with central directives for northeast revitalization, including infrastructure upgrades and SOE reforms to enhance competitiveness beyond hydrocarbons.^[51] Policies revive elements of the historical "Daqing spirit"—emphasizing diligence and self-reliance—adapted for contemporary anti-corruption drives and innovation incentives, though implementation faces challenges from path dependency and aging workforce demographics.^[52]

Demographics

Population trends and composition

Daqing's population underwent explosive growth beginning in the late 1950s after the discovery of major oil fields in 1959, transforming a sparsely populated agricultural area into a hub for industrial migration. Workers and support staff were recruited nationwide, leading to a surge from an estimated 180,871 residents in 1950 to over 2.5 million by the 1990s. This expansion peaked at 2,904,532 in the 2010 national census, driven by state-directed resettlement and the city's status as a model for socialist development.^[53]^[54] Subsequent decades saw stagnation and decline amid the maturation of oil reserves, economic diversification challenges, and broader northeastern China's depopulation trends, including net out-migration of younger cohorts to coastal provinces for better opportunities and low fertility rates exacerbated by the one-child policy's legacy. The 2020 census recorded 2,781,562 residents, a 4.27% drop from 2010, with usual residence figures further declining to 2,700,000 by 2023. Average household size fell from 2.86 persons in 2010 to 2.35 in 2020, reflecting smaller families and aging demographics. Urbanization progressed, with the built-up area housing about 1.57 million, though total population contraction offset proportional gains.^[55]^[56]^[1]

Census Year	Total Population
2010	2,904,532
2020	2,781,562

Ethnically, Daqing's residents are overwhelmingly Han Chinese, aligning with Heilongjiang province's composition of approximately 95% Han as of 2000 census data, due to historical Han migration overwhelming indigenous minorities. The remaining share consists of small communities from 31 ethnic minorities, primarily Manchu (the largest local group, with provincial roots in the region's Manchu banner history), alongside Koreans, Mongols, and Hui, typically under 5% combined and concentrated in rural or border-adjacent districts. No city-specific ethnic breakdown from recent censuses indicates significant deviation from provincial norms, underscoring the homogenizing effect of mid-20th-century industrial influxes.^[57]^[58]

Urbanization and migration patterns

The discovery of substantial oil reserves at Daqing in 1959 initiated a period of state-directed mass migration, drawing hundreds of thousands of petroleum workers, veterans, and technical experts from various regions of China to the site in the early 1960s.^[3]^[59] This influx, organized under the Chinese Communist Party's industrialization drive, rapidly urbanized the formerly sparse, marshy, and agriculturally limited area, with migrants establishing modular worker settlements, drilling platforms, and ancillary infrastructure amid harsh northern conditions. By prioritizing oil production over conventional urban planning, the development created integrated "borderless" zones blending industrial, residential, and farming functions, accommodating over 40,000 initial core teams that expanded into self-sustaining communities.^[60] Population growth accelerated accordingly, rising from under 200,000 in the pre-discovery era to approximately 2.9 million by 2010, driven primarily by in-migration tied to oilfield expansion and family relocations that supported on-site agriculture and services.^[1] Urban districts proliferated outward from the oil core, forming five major areas by the late 20th century, though expansion halted in central Saertu after the mid-1990s to preserve extraction space, shifting construction eastward.^[61] This pattern exemplified resource-driven urbanization, where migration was not market-led but centrally allocated via the hukou system, embedding workers in enterprise-based communities rather than free mobility. In recent decades, as oil output declined post-2000s, Daqing has experienced net population shrinkage, dropping to 2.7 million by 2023, indicative of out-migration from resource-dependent sectors amid diversification efforts.^[1] The household registration-based urbanization rate stabilized at 53.2% in 2022, lower than China's national average, reflecting challenges in retaining youth and skilled labor in a maturing oil economy, with some outflow to coastal hubs despite local revitalization policies.^[62] Resource-based cities like Daqing show elevated shrinkage risks, with only limited counter-migration from non-oil industries.^[63]

Economy

Petroleum industry dominance

The Daqing Oilfield, discovered in 1959 and developed under the auspices of the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), has formed the cornerstone of the city's economy, establishing Daqing as China's premier petroleum production hub. Cumulative crude oil output exceeds 2.53 billion tons, representing 36% of the nation's onshore production since inception.^[5] This field alone accounts for approximately 20% of China's current domestic oil production, underscoring its national significance.^[25] Annual crude oil production has stabilized at around 30 million tons in recent years, supplemented by over 5 billion cubic meters of natural gas, as reported for 2022.^[33] The petroleum sector dominates local industrial output, with oil and petrochemical activities contributing 72.2% of Daqing's industrial value added as of 2013, a figure reflective of persistent structural reliance despite diversification efforts.^[30] CNPC's Daqing operations, including subsidiaries, employ tens of thousands directly in extraction, refining, and support functions, while fostering ancillary industries that amplify economic dependence on hydrocarbons.^[22] This dominance has historically propelled Daqing's growth, funding infrastructure and urbanization, but also engendered vulnerability to fluctuating global oil prices and maturing reserves, with production peaking in the 1970s at over 50 million tons annually before stabilizing through enhanced recovery techniques.^[64] Petrochemical extensions, encompassing nearly 500 enterprises with aggregate refining capacity supporting regional supply chains, further entrench the industry's primacy, generating substantial revenue that underpins fiscal stability.^[5] The petrochemical industry in Daqing has developed as a direct extension of the local oilfield, leveraging abundant crude oil feedstock to produce a range of downstream chemical products. Major facilities, such as the PetroChina Daqing Petrochemical Company complex established in 1988, process crude oil into ethylene, fertilizers, synthetic rubber, chemical fibers, and other derivatives.^[65]^[66] This company alone maintains an annual crude oil refining capacity of 10 million metric tons, supporting production of key intermediates like polypropylene and polyethylene.^[67] Production outputs have scaled significantly over time; for instance, ethylene output reached 1.058 million tons by October 2019, surpassing prior records through capacity expansions and process optimizations.^[68] Daqing hosts nearly 500 petrochemical enterprises, including 77 with annual revenues exceeding 20 million yuan, contributing to an overall refining capacity of 19 million tons annually across more than 250 product varieties in eight categories, such as solvents, resins, and additives.^[5] Specialized firms like Daqing Zhonglan Petrochemical Co. Ltd. focus on niche outputs including methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), nonyl phenol, and methylene ethyl ketone, enhancing the sector's diversity.^[69] In response to maturing oilfield reserves and declining crude production— which fell below 800,000 barrels per day by 2015—Daqing initiated reforms in 2020 to overhaul its refining and petrochemical operations, aiming to shift toward high-value products and consolidate capacity. A five-year plan targeted increasing local refining throughput to 23.2 million tons, building on existing combined capacities with nearby facilities like Harbin's at 13 million tons, while emphasizing imports of heavier crudes suitable for petrochemical cracking.^[39] These efforts reflect a strategic pivot to sustain economic viability amid upstream constraints, with crude processing capacities having expanded from 1 million tons in earlier decades to current levels through unit additions like alkylation and MTBE plants.^[70]

Diversification into non-oil industries

In response to declining oil reserves and production peaking in the late 1990s, Daqing initiated economic diversification strategies in the mid-2010s, emphasizing high-end equipment manufacturing, new materials, bio-pharmaceuticals, and food processing to reduce reliance on petroleum.^[71] These efforts included establishing the Daqing High-tech Industrial Development Zone, which by 2019 hosted over 1,000 enterprises, including more than 100 high-tech firms focused on innovation-driven growth.^[41] Non-oil industrial output reached 1.2 trillion yuan in 2016, reflecting an 8.7% year-on-year increase, while the non-oil sector's contribution to GDP rose to 62% that year, up from prior dependence on extraction activities.^[71] By the first three quarters of 2019, the non-oil economy accounted for 72.2% of Daqing's total economic output, supporting a 4% GDP expansion in the first half of that year—outpacing the national average of 2.9%.^[41]^[72] Agriculture has emerged as a pillar of diversification, leveraging Daqing's fertile black soil for modernized grain and livestock production; the city maintains large-scale output of crops and animal products under coordinated urban-rural initiatives.^[73] Equipment manufacturing, integrated into the broader Ha-Da-Qi industrial corridor, targets machinery for farming and other sectors, aligning with national rural revitalization strategies.^[74] Food processing industries capitalize on local agricultural yields, producing high-end products for domestic and export markets.^[71] Despite these advances, diversification faces structural hurdles, including Heilongjiang province's heavy industry reliance and Daqing's overall GDP contraction to 281.58 billion yuan in 2024 from 286.25 billion in 2023, signaling uneven progress amid national economic slowdowns.^[7] Local policies continue to prioritize technological upgrades in these sectors to sustain momentum.^[41]

Trade, banking, and fiscal challenges

Daqing's trade activities are predominantly oriented toward petrochemical products and oil derivatives, reflecting its resource-based economy. The city's refining sector processes both domestic crude from the local oilfield and imported supplies, notably via the China-Russia crude oil pipeline, which has positioned Daqing as a key hub for handling Russian exports since operations commenced in 2011. Exports focus on six main categories of petrochemicals, supported by expansions such as the 2020 five-year plan to increase refining capacity and high-value chemical output, aiming to mitigate dependency on raw crude sales. However, trade remains vulnerable to global commodity price swings; for instance, low oil prices in 2015-2016 exacerbated export revenue declines, as petrochemical margins tightened amid oversupply and reduced demand from downstream industries.^[30]^[39]^[75] Imports, including petroleum coke and refining equipment, primarily originate from Russia, underscoring bilateral energy ties but also exposing Daqing to supply disruptions from geopolitical events, such as Western sanctions on Russian energy post-2022. Efforts to diversify trade through non-oil sectors, including equipment manufacturing and agriculture processing, have progressed slowly, with petrochemicals still comprising the bulk of outbound shipments due to entrenched infrastructure advantages. This structure perpetuates trade imbalances, as import needs for advanced technology and feedstock outpace value-added exports in emerging fields.^[76]^[77] Fiscal management in Daqing grapples with acute resource dependency, where oil extraction and refining contribute roughly half of the city's GDP and a substantial portion of local tax revenues. Declining output from the maturing Daqing oilfield—down to approximately 800,000 barrels per day by 2014 from a peak exceeding 1 million—has eroded fiscal buffers, compounded by volatile international prices that directly impact state-owned enterprise contributions to municipal coffers. In response, local authorities have resorted to debt financing, issuing 20,326 million RMB in special-purpose government bonds in 2023 to fund infrastructure and diversification initiatives amid Heilongjiang province's broader fiscal strains from resource depletion. These measures highlight causal vulnerabilities: high extraction costs in water-flooded reservoirs reduce net revenues, necessitating subsidies or bonds that elevate debt servicing burdens without resolving underlying production declines.^[75]^[78]^[79]^[80] Banking operations, dominated by branches of major state-owned institutions like the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, prioritize lending to the petroleum sector, which absorbs the majority of credit for exploration, refining upgrades, and petrochemical expansions. Challenges arise in channeling funds toward diversification, as banks exhibit caution toward higher-risk non-oil ventures in a city marked by industrial shrinkage and slowing growth post-oil peak. Local financial services face amplified pressures from provincial debt dynamics, where Heilongjiang's reliance on resource taxes limits fiscal transfers, constraining bank liquidity for SME support in nascent sectors like equipment fabrication. This misalignment hampers broader economic resilience, as credit allocation favors short-term energy stability over long-term structural shifts.^[81]^[30]^[82]

Infrastructure

Transportation networks

Daqing maintains an integrated transportation system centered on rail, highway, and air links, facilitating connectivity to major Chinese cities and supporting industrial logistics. The city's networks handle passenger and freight traffic, with rail dominating long-distance travel and highways enabling regional access.^[45] The Daqing Saertu Airport (IATA: DQA), inaugurated on September 1, 2009, as a grade 4C facility, serves as the primary aviation hub, located approximately 20 kilometers from the city center. It features a 2,500-meter runway and operates domestic flights, positioning it as the second-largest airport in Heilongjiang Province. Construction began in 2007 to accommodate growing demand from the oil sector and urban expansion.^[83]^[84] Rail infrastructure includes key stations such as Daqing East and Daqing West, integrated into the Harbin-Qiqihar Intercity Railway, a 286-kilometer line operational since around 2010 with intermediate stops enhancing regional mobility. The Beijing-Harbin high-speed railway, which passes through Daqing, reduced travel time between Beijing and Harbin to under five hours upon its completion phases, with Daqing East handling bullet trains since at least 2022. These lines connect Daqing to Harbin, Qiqihar, and further to Manzhouli, supporting both passenger services and oil-related freight.^[85]^[45] Highway networks feature the G45 Daqing-Guangzhou Expressway, a north-south artery linking Daqing to southern China and integrated into the national system for efficient goods transport. Local facilities like the Daqing West Integrated Highway Passenger Station, operational by 2022 in Ranghulu District, and the Daqing Highway Passenger Transportation Hub at Century Avenue and Longfeng Street, manage bus services with multi-story terminals for intercity routes. These expressways and hubs accelerated urban development post-construction, handling increased traffic from economic diversification.^[86]^[87]^[88]

Urban development and utilities

![Daqing Olympic Park Stadium cropped 01.jpg][float-right] Daqing's urban development originated in the early 1960s as a national project tied to the exploitation of its vast oil reserves, transitioning from a rudimentary socialist mining district to a structured prefecture-level city under the oversight of the Ministry of Petroleum.^[60] The city's planning emphasized a modernist grid layout to house oil workers and support industrial operations, with five major urban districts expanding outward from the central oil fields in tandem with petroleum infrastructure growth.^[61] This radial expansion accommodated rapid population influxes from rural migration, fostering a cohesive urban fabric integrated with extraction sites, though initial designs prioritized functionality over aesthetic or commercial diversity.^[89] Utilities infrastructure in Daqing reflects its resource-based economy and harsh continental climate, with electricity generation predominantly sourced from fossil fuels linked to oilfield operations to meet demands for processing and residential use.^[90] Supplemental renewable capacity includes a 18.73-megawatt water-surface photovoltaic power station at the Daqing Oilfield, generating annually the equivalent of 8,400 tons of standard coal combustion and contributing to grid diversification.^[91] District heating networks, vital for winter heating, supply over 8.6 million square meters via combined systems featuring 50 substations, often leveraging waste heat from industrial processes.^[92] Water supply systems contend with substantial industrial withdrawals for oil extraction—reaching 72 million cubic meters annually in key areas—and require energy-intensive treatment and distribution amid regional scarcity.^[93] Wastewater management has evolved from early untreated discharges into swamps during initial petrochemical phases to more regulated frameworks, though integrated water-energy-food nexus modeling highlights ongoing coordination needs for sustainable urban provisioning.^[60]^[94] Sewage infrastructure supports urban districts but faces pressures from population density and pollutant loads, prompting efficiency analyses in broader Chinese urban contexts.^[95]

Environmental impact

Oil extraction effects on land and water

Oil extraction in the Daqing Oilfield has caused significant soil contamination, primarily from leaks of waste oil and oily sewage containing petroleum hydrocarbons such as alkanes (C12–C28), aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes.^[96] These pollutants alter soil structure and properties, with experimental soil column studies showing maximum migration depths of 25 cm, where lighter components (C12–C22) penetrate more readily than heavier ones (>C22), and most residues accumulate above 10 cm in disturbed soils.^[96] In the surrounding Daqing lakes region, exploitation has led to serious soil pollution, intensifying overall eco-environmental degradation from west to east, with eastern areas most affected by human activities.^[97] Groundwater quality in the oilfield is poor, with most samples classified as Class IV under China's groundwater standards (unsuitable for drinking without treatment), evaluated via the Nemerow Pollution Index and hierarchical methods.^[98] Inorganic pollutants dominate, including excesses in total hardness, total dissolved solids, chloride (Cl⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻), nitrite, and nitrate nitrogen from both natural geogenic sources and human activities; oil-related organic contamination occurs via leakage from pipelines, wells, and surface spills, though it contributes less overall than inorganics.^[98]^[99] Shallow phreatic aquifers exhibit higher vulnerability, with 34.48% rated as severely or extremely polluted, compared to 20% in deeper confined waters.^[98] Surface waters in the Daqing lakes have deteriorated due to oilfield activities, including crude oil drops, petrochemical wastewater discharge, groundwater overexploitation, and associated drainage works.^[97] Land subsidence rates reaching 31 mm per year have been measured around the oilfield periphery, attributable to fluid extraction and pressure depletion rather than directly within production zones.^[100] These effects underscore the trade-offs of prolonged waterflooding and extraction practices in a region with limited surface water, reliant on injected river water and local aquifers for operations.^[98]

Air quality and health consequences

Air quality in Daqing has been significantly influenced by its dominant petroleum industry, which generates emissions of particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and volatile organic compounds through oil extraction, flaring, refining, and petrochemical processing.^[101] Between 2017 and 2021, monitoring data from state-controlled stations indicated PM₂.₅ concentrations ranging from 24.16 to 55.46 μg/m³ in winter and 25.31 to 32.80 μg/m³ in spring, with PM₁₀ levels reaching 44.28–112.14 μg/m³ in winter; hazard quotients (HQ) for PM₂.₅ exceeded 1 (up to 1.645) in some seasons, signaling non-carcinogenic health risks beyond safe thresholds.^[102] SO₂ and NO₂ levels were elevated in northern areas proximate to oil fields, decreasing southward, while overall pollutant trends showed gradual declines amid national emission controls.^[101] By 2023–2025, real-time air quality indices (AQI) in Daqing typically registered as moderate, with PM₂.₅ averaging 11–13 μg/m³, reflecting improvements from stricter regulations but persistent seasonal spikes linked to industrial activity and regional transport from sources including North China and Russia.^[103]^[104] These pollutants, particularly fine particulates and gaseous emissions from petroleum operations, pose documented health risks to residents. Inhalation of airborne hydrocarbons and dust from oil processing has been associated with adverse respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological effects, including elevated incidences of blood disorders, liver damage, and premature mortality.^[60] Daqing-specific analyses indicate that PM₁₀ elevations contribute to a 0.6% increase in daily non-accidental deaths per 10 μg/m³ rise, with PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ driving non-carcinogenic hazards, especially during winter and spring when concentrations peak due to inversion layers and heating demands.^[102] Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil-related sources further exacerbate carcinogenic risks via long-range atmospheric and soil-air exchange, affecting urban and downwind populations.^[105] Broader epidemiological evidence from Chinese industrial cities links such exposures to higher rates of ischemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer, with air pollution accounting for substantial premature deaths nationwide, though Daqing's oil-centric emissions amplify local vulnerabilities.

Mitigation and sustainability initiatives

Daqing Oilfield has implemented ecological restoration projects combining afforestation and wetland restoration to address land degradation from decades of petroleum extraction, particularly in areas like the Gudao Oilfield, where vegetation cover has been evaluated for recovery effectiveness using remote sensing and soil analysis metrics.^[106] These efforts focus on reclaiming salinized and eroded soils, with afforestation targeting species adapted to local conditions to stabilize terrain and reduce dust emissions.^[106] In the Guowu Lake area, restoration initiatives since 2008 include biodiversity monitoring, habitat reconstruction, and protection measures to mitigate impacts on wetlands disrupted by oil infrastructure, establishing the site as a voluntarily contributing biosphere reserve under UNESCO guidelines.^[107] Similarly, the Laohushan reserve employs habitat-specific protections, long-term ecological monitoring networks, and targeted conservation for key species, aiming to preserve biodiversity amid ongoing extraction activities.^[108] China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), the primary operator, has also planted campaign forests in Daqing to enhance carbon sequestration and combat desertification, integrating these with broader reforestation drives.^[109] Sustainability measures extend to technological applications like CO2-enhanced oil recovery (EOR), initiated experimentally in Daqing in 1963, which captures and injects CO2 to boost extraction while sequestering emissions, contributing to reduced greenhouse gas intensities compared to conventional methods.^[110] Under China's Sustainable Development Plan for Resource-Based Cities (2013–2020), Daqing has pursued green industrial transitions, including energy efficiency upgrades and diversification to lower environmental footprints, though evaluations indicate persistent challenges in achieving high green development indices due to resource dependency.^[111] Urban afforestation projects, such as composite humanistic forest landscapes in the main city area, blend ecological restoration with recreation to improve air quality and urban resilience.^[112]

Society and culture

Daqing spirit and ideological campaigns

The Daqing spirit, also known as the spirit of Daqing oil workers, originated during the intensive development of the Daqing Oil Field starting in 1959, encapsulating principles of patriotism, collectivism, arduous struggle, and selfless dedication to national industrialization under socialist ideology.^[113] This ethos was exemplified by Wang Jinxi (1923–1970), a drilling team leader dubbed "Iron Man" for feats such as personally mixing cement in a mud pit with his team under freezing conditions in September 1960 to secure the first productive well, symbolizing triumph over natural and technical adversities through human will and collective effort.^[114] Wang's No. 1205 Drilling Team became a national model, with his background from impoverished Gansu province underscoring the narrative of proletarian heroism transforming China from oil scarcity to self-sufficiency.^[113] Ideological campaigns promoting the Daqing spirit intensified in the early 1960s as part of Mao Zedong's push for rapid industrial growth amid post-Great Leap Forward recovery. In late 1963, nine lessons derived from Daqing's operational successes were codified, stressing dialectical materialism, self-reliance, and the application of Mao Zedong Thought to overcome bureaucratic inertia and technical challenges in petroleum extraction.^[27] The flagship "In Industry, Learn from Daqing" movement, initiated by Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai in 1964, directed factories and enterprises nationwide to emulate Daqing's methods of mass mobilization, on-site problem-solving, and rejection of expertise-dependent approaches in favor of ideological fervor.^[115] This campaign contrasted with personality-focused drives like "Learn from Lei Feng" by targeting systemic industrial practices, involving delegations visiting Daqing to study techniques and attitudes, and integrating propaganda posters and media to propagate slogans such as holding high the banner of Mao Zedong Thought for the Third Five-Year Plan.^[116] During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), the Daqing spirit served as a tool for ideological purification, with Daqing held up as a bastion against "capitalist roaders" in industry, enforcing political study sessions and work-style reforms modeled on oil field austerity and productivity metrics.^[22] Official accounts from state-affiliated sources emphasize voluntary dedication yielding over 50% of China's crude oil output by the 1970s, crediting the spirit for ending oil imports; however, these narratives, produced by entities like the China National Petroleum Corporation, reflect party-directed historiography that prioritizes heroic collectivization over potential coercive elements inherent in Mao-era mobilizations.^[113] The campaigns extended beyond oil, influencing sectors like steel and manufacturing, where Daqing-style "battles" against production shortfalls were staged, though independent assessments note exaggerated outputs and human costs in harsh northeastern conditions.^[115] Post-Mao, the spirit persisted in diluted form as a patriotic emblem, invoked in modern state media to evoke resilience without the era's radicalism.^[113]

Local landmarks and daily life

Prominent local landmarks in Daqing center on its petroleum heritage and natural features. The Iron Man Wang Jinxi Memorial Hall, established in 1971 as China's first museum dedicated to a worker, commemorates Wang Jinxi, the drilling team leader who led the 1960 breakthrough in tapping the Daqing oil field; it houses 5,324 artifacts, including over 200 historical photographs documenting his life and the industry's early struggles.^[117] The Daqing Museum features exhibits on the region's Quaternary natural environment, ancient mammals, and human fossils, with a collection exceeding 100,000 specimens from 43 species, illustrating prehistoric life in northeast China.^[118] Sanyong Lake serves as a reservoir and recreational area, offering scenic views and opportunities for outdoor activities amid the surrounding wetlands.^[119] The Daqing Olympic Park Stadium, opened in 2012 with a capacity of 32,000 seats including 58 skyboxes, hosts sports events and reflects the city's modern infrastructure development.^[120] Daily life in Daqing revolves around its identity as China's oil capital, with a significant portion of the population employed in the petroleum sector since the field's discovery in 1959, fostering a culture of industrial dedication embodied in the "Daqing spirit" of self-reliance and perseverance.^[45] The city spans five urban districts that have expanded radially from the oil fields, providing modern amenities in a relatively clean environment with frequent clear skies, contrasting with more polluted northern Chinese cities.^[61] Average monthly living costs stand at approximately $600, supporting affordable housing and routines centered on work, family, and recreation in parks like Longfeng Wetland, where residents engage in sports such as tennis and basketball during summers.^[121] Culinary habits feature hearty northeastern dishes, with local markets and eateries emphasizing bold flavors tied to the region's agricultural and resource-based economy.^[122]

Sports and education

Daqing hosts several institutions of higher education, reflecting its industrial focus on petroleum and regional needs in agriculture and teacher training. Northeast Petroleum University, originally established as Daqing Petroleum Institute, specializes in petroleum engineering and related fields, serving as a key training ground for the local oil industry.^[123] Daqing Normal University offers undergraduate programs across disciplines including literature, science, education, engineering, law, management, and art, with 45 majors distributed among 14 colleges.^[124] Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, with an enrollment of approximately 16,000 students, emphasizes agricultural sciences and related vocational training.^[125] These institutions collectively provide around 72 study programs, including 39 bachelor's degrees, supporting the city's workforce development in energy, education, and agriculture.^[126] In sports, Daqing's primary venue is the Olympic Park Stadium, a multi-purpose facility with a capacity of 32,031 seats, constructed between 2010 and 2012 at a cost of 560 million CNY.^[120] The stadium, featuring a distinctive red steel ring and wicker-inspired roof, forms part of a larger sports complex that includes indoor halls, with the total project costing 1.55 billion CNY and providing 3,000 parking spaces.^[120] Locally, the Heilongjiang Dragons Daqing women's basketball team competes in the Women's Chinese Basketball Association (WCBA), achieving regular season runner-up in 2006 and semifinals appearance that year, playing home games at Heilongjiang University Stadium with 5,000 capacity.^[127] The city also hosts provincial student sports events, such as the 17th Student Sports Meeting of Heilongjiang Province in 2021 at Northeast Petroleum University, promoting youth athletic participation.^[128]