Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Devil ray

Devil rays are large, pelagic marine rays comprising seven within the genus (family ), which also includes three ; they are characterized by their diamond-shaped pectoral fins that form expansive "wings," prominent cephalic fins rolled into horn-like structures, and a filter-feeding lifestyle that involves sieving and small organisms from the using specialized gill plates. These cartilaginous , closely related to and other rays, inhabit tropical and subtropical waters worldwide, often migrating long distances in search of food and suitable conditions. The devil ray , including the giant devil ray (M. mobular), spinetail devil ray (M. japanica), and pygmy devil ray (M. munkiana), are distinguished by variations in size, spines, and patterns, with disc widths ranging from about 1 meter in smaller to over 5 meters in the largest. Biologically, devil rays are slow-growing and late-maturing, reaching at 8–15 years and producing only one pup every 2–3 years after a period of 9–12 months, resulting in low reproductive rates and vulnerability to population declines. They exhibit complex behaviors, such as breaching acrobatically to dislodge parasites or during , and form large aggregations in coastal and epipelagic zones at depths typically between 0 and 1,000 meters, preferring water temperatures of 20–26°C. Habitat preferences vary by species, but devil rays are generally oceanic or coastal, with some like the bentfin devil ray (M. thurstoni) favoring deeper waters and others aggregating seasonally in nutrient-rich areas for feeding. Their diet consists primarily of , small , and crustaceans, filtered through their mouths while swimming with mouths agape, supported by a constant forward motion essential for due to their lack of an operculum. Conservation efforts are critical, as all devil ray species are listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or by the (as of October 2025), primarily due to through targeted fisheries for their meat, skin, and gill plates (used in ), as well as high bycatch rates in gillnets, purse seines, and longlines. Additional threats include vessel strikes, entanglement in , and habitat degradation from . International protections under Appendix II and Appendices I and II regulate trade and promote conservation measures like fishing gear modifications and marine protected areas, though enforcement remains challenging in many regions.

Taxonomy and evolution

Classification

Devil rays are classified within the family , which belongs to the order in the class . This family comprises pelagic rays characterized by their filter-feeding adaptations, with all species unified under the single genus following recent taxonomic revisions. Historically, devil rays were separated from rays, with the latter placed in the distinct family ; however, comprehensive genetic analyses using mitogenomes and nuclear sequences demonstrated that rays nest within the clade, leading to the synonymization of with and the unification of all taxa under in 2017. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) adopted this revised taxonomy for its Red List assessments, reflecting the monophyletic nature of the group. Phylogenetically, mobulids evolved from ancestors within the family Myliobatidae, diverging approximately 30 million years ago during the , as evidenced by analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear genes. This close relationship highlights their shared traits, such as diamond-shaped pectoral fins, while mobulids specialized in open-ocean lifestyles. The family currently includes 11 recognized under the genus Mobula, comprising three and eight devil ray :
  • Mobula alfredi (reef manta ray)
  • Mobula birostris (giant oceanic manta ray)
  • Mobula yarae (Atlantic manta ray; described 2025)
  • Mobula eregoodoo (longhorned pygmy devil ray)
  • Mobula hypostoma (Atlantic devil ray)
  • Mobula japanica (bentfin devil ray)
  • Mobula kuhlii (shortfin pygmy devil ray)
  • Mobula mobular (spinetail devil ray; also known as giant devil ray)
  • Mobula munkiana (Munk's pygmy devil ray)
  • Mobula tarapacana (sicklefin devil ray)
  • Mobula thurstoni (Thurston's devil ray)
Key species include the spinetail devil ray (), noted for its circumpelagic distribution, the sicklefin devil ray (Mobula tarapacana), distinguished by its curved pectoral fin tips, and the bentfin devil ray (Mobula japanica), which features a prominent dorsal fin spine.

Etymology and nomenclature

The common name "devil ray" originates from the species' prominent cephalic fins, which extend forward like horns, evoking demonic imagery in where such rays were feared as monstrous creatures capable of ensnaring divers or ships. This nomenclature may trace back to the early 19th-century binomial Raja diabolus coined by George Shaw in 1804, a junior synonym for , potentially alluding to tales of rays with horn-like appendages devouring humans. sailors from the onward contributed to this perception, dubbing large rays "" due to their intimidating appearance during encounters in tropical waters. Variations in common names reflect regional and linguistic influences, with "devil fish" commonly applied to Mobula mobular in English-speaking areas, while Spanish-speaking regions use terms like "raya diablo" (devil ray) or "manta del golfo" (Gulf manta) for species such as Mobula hypostoma. Other examples include "diablito de Guinea" (little Guinea devil) in parts of and "manta mobula" in , highlighting adaptations based on local fisheries and cultural interpretations. These names often overlap with those for rays, leading to historical misidentifications in . The scientific genus Mobula, established by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1810 for what is now Mobula mobular, derives from the Latin mobilis, meaning "mobile" or "movable," in reference to the rays' agile, flapping swimming motion. For the type species Mobula mobular (Bonnaterre, 1788), the epithet "mobular" likely reinforces this etymology, emphasizing the undulating pectoral fins that propel the animal. Naming controversies have persisted, particularly with manta rays (Manta spp.), which were reclassified into the Mobula genus in 2017 following genetic studies, exacerbating past confusions where oceanic manta rays (Mobula birostris) were erroneously labeled as "giant devil rays" in Mediterranean records. This taxonomic shift underscores the challenges in distinguishing mobulids based on morphology alone.

Fossil record

The fossil record of devil rays (family ) is sparse, primarily consisting of isolated teeth due to the cartilaginous nature of their skeletons, which rarely fossilize completely. The earliest definitive mobulid fossils date to the Late to Early Miocene epochs (approximately 28–20 million years ago), with key specimens recovered from deposits in the Tethyan and Atlantic Oceans, including regions of present-day and . For instance, teeth attributed to early mobulids have been described from Late Eocene to strata in southwest , indicating an initial diversification in warm, shallow marine environments. Paleontological evidence reveals evolutionary adaptations toward filter-feeding and a pelagic , likely originating from benthic myliobatiform ancestors. teeth show a gradual reduction in cusps and interlocking features, correlating with the development of specialized cephalic lobes and rakers for filtration, distinct from the durophagous of earlier relatives. This is inferred from morphometric analyses of Oligo-Miocene specimens, where wing-like pectoral fins expanded to spans estimated at up to 3 meters in some extinct forms, facilitating open-water cruising. Diversification accelerated during the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, possibly driven by global ocean warming and that supported blooms. Several extinct genera highlight this radiation, including Archaeomanta from deposits in and , Paramobula from sites in , and Eomobula from similar aged strata, all exhibiting transitional dental morphologies between benthic and planktivorous forms. These taxa disappeared from the record by the (around 11 million years ago), leaving a gap until rare fossils of modern lineages. analyses, calibrated with these fossils, estimate the divergence of from the related family Myliobatidae (e.g., cownose rays like Rhinoptera) at approximately 30 million years ago, aligning with the onset of mobulid evolution.

Physical description

Anatomy and morphology

Devil rays, belonging to the genus Mobula, exhibit a distinctive body plan adapted for a pelagic lifestyle, characterized by a flattened, diamond-shaped disc formed by the fusion of their pectoral fins to the head, creating a broad, rhomboidal outline. The tail is typically longer than the disc width, providing propulsion and stability during swimming, and may include a serrated spine in certain species, such as Mobula japanica, while others lack this feature. Prominent cephalic fins, paired and often rolled forward from the head, extend anteriorly and aid in channeling water flow, with the mouth positioned terminally—unlike the ventral orientation seen in most other ray species. The head features small spiracles located behind the laterally placed eyes, which provide a wide field of vision, and an elaborate filter-feeding apparatus comprising numerous elongated gill rakers attached to the branchial arches, enabling the straining of plankton from seawater. These rakers form plate-like structures that replace traditional gills, optimized for efficient particle retention during ram ventilation. The skeletal system is entirely cartilaginous, contributing to a lightweight structure that enhances in open water without the need for a , as is typical of elasmobranchs. Notably, devil rays lack an anal fin, with reproductive and excretory functions consolidated in a single . Sensory capabilities include the , a network of electroreceptive pores distributed across the ventral , allowing detection of weak electric fields from prey or environmental cues. Complementing this, the is disproportionately large relative to body size among fishes, with encephalization quotients exceeding 1 in species like Mobula japanica, suggesting advanced cognitive processing.

Size and coloration

Devil rays of the genus Mobula typically attain disc widths of 1 to 2 meters across most species, though the largest, the giant devil ray (M. mobular), reaches up to 5.2 meters. Weights range from approximately 100 kg to 450 kg or more, varying by species and individual; for example, the sicklefin devil ray (M. tarapacana) can weigh up to 450 kg. Females are generally larger than males, reflecting sexual dimorphism in maximum size. The dorsal coloration of devil rays is predominantly dark, ranging from slate blue or olive-green to brown or black, often with lighter margins or bands for that aids in pelagic environments. The ventral surface is typically bright white, sometimes marked with darker patches near the head or edges. Species-specific variations include a thick black band across the head in M. mobular and banded patterns on M. tarapacana. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in reproductive structures, with mature males possessing paired claspers that elongate and calcify, often reaching significant proportions relative to body length for internal fertilization. Juveniles exhibit lighter overall coloration than adults, gradually darkening with growth.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Devil rays refer to non-manta species belonging to the genus Mobula in the family Mobulidae and inhabit tropical and subtropical waters worldwide, with distributions varying by species across the Atlantic, Indo-Pacific, and Eastern Pacific oceans. The spinetail devil ray (Mobula mobular) is circumtropical, occurring in all major oceans and adjacent seas, including the Atlantic from Portugal southward along the African coast to South Africa and across the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in the western Atlantic extending to Argentina. In the Indo-Pacific, it ranges from the Arabian Sea to the western Pacific, often extending into warm temperate latitudes. The Atlantic pygmy devil ray (Mobula hypostoma) is primarily found in tropical and warm temperate waters of the western Atlantic, from the United States (including the Gulf of Mexico) southward to Brazil, with recent genetic evidence from 2025 confirming its presence in the eastern Atlantic off Cameroon, indicating a broader transatlantic distribution than previously recognized. Several devil ray species exhibit circumglobal or wide-ranging distributions in tropical waters. The sicklefin devil ray (Mobula tarapacana) is distributed throughout tropical and warm temperate seas across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, with records from scattered localities including off in the western Atlantic, Côte d'Ivoire and in the eastern Atlantic, and the to in the . The bentfin devil ray (Mobula thurstoni) has a similarly broad tropical range, occurring in the western , , and other global locations, often in coastal waters less than 100 m deep. In contrast, the shorthorned pygmy devil ray (Mobula kuhlii) is more restricted to the Indo-West Pacific, with records from eastern Africa (including ) to , , , and the , primarily in nearshore environments. The longhorned pygmy devil ray (Mobula eregoodoo) is confined to the Indo-West Pacific, mainly in the off , , and possibly . Endemic to the Eastern Pacific, Munk's pygmy devil ray (Mobula munkiana) ranges from the (Sea of Cortez, ) southward to , frequently aggregating in large schools in coastal waters. Devil rays share overlapping ranges with manta rays (Mobula birostris, Mobula alfredi, and the recently described Mobula yarae in 2025) in tropical and subtropical waters, but devil rays tend to occupy more oceanic and habitats, while manta rays are often associated with coastal and environments. For instance, the widespread oceanic (M. birostris) occurs across the and Atlantic in pelagic zones similar to many devil rays, yet it frequents productive coastal areas more consistently than the predominantly devil rays. Vagrant records of devil rays occasionally extend into temperate waters beyond their core ranges, such as M. mobular sightings off the , including , likely driven by oceanographic anomalies. Devil ray distributions are influenced by annual migration patterns linked to zones of high productivity, such as regions where blooms support their filter-feeding lifestyle; these movements are explored in greater detail in the social behavior section. While current ranges reflect stable tropical distributions, emerging research indicates potential future shifts due to climate-driven changes in sea surface temperatures and ocean currents, though historical contractions remain undocumented.

Preferred environments

Devil rays, members of the family , exhibit a predominantly pelagic lifestyle, occupying the epipelagic zone from the ocean surface to depths exceeding 1,000 meters, with some species capable of dives reaching up to 2,000 meters. This vertical range allows them to exploit productive layers where they engage in filter-feeding on and small fishes. They are particularly associated with epipelagic areas featuring , where nutrient-rich deep waters rise to the surface, fostering high densities that support their dietary needs. These rays prefer warm tropical and subtropical waters, with temperature ranges typically between 18°C and 30°C, often centered around 20–26°C, and salinities of 30–35 parts per thousand, aligning with open-ocean conditions. They frequently aggregate near seamounts, coral reefs, or coastal fronts during late spring and summer, drawn to these features for enhanced opportunities and seasonal concentrations. In contrast, their often occurs in the expansive open ocean, where they traverse vast distances while avoiding regions of low productivity. Key adaptations enable devil rays to thrive in these dynamic environments, including buoyancy regulation via a large liver containing low-density oils, which provides without the need for a and facilitates efficient movement across depth gradients. Their physiology also supports tolerance to rapid changes during dives, linking surface and layers. Additionally, coastal microhabitats serve as aggregation sites, while broader expanses support daily excursions. Climate influences further shape their environmental preferences, with ocean warming potentially driving habitat shifts through altered current patterns and temperature gradients that affect prey distribution. exacerbates vulnerabilities for these filter-feeders by disrupting planktonic food webs upon which they depend, potentially reducing available resources in preferred zones.

Biology and behavior

Feeding and diet

Devil rays, belonging to the genus Mobula, are obligate ram filter feeders that primarily consume zooplankton, including copepods, euphausiids (such as krill), and mysids, along with small fish, fish eggs, and gelatinous zooplankton like jellyfish and comb jellies. Unlike benthic-feeding rays, devil rays do not target bottom-dwelling prey, focusing instead on pelagic sources that aggregate in the water column. Their feeding strategy relies on continuous forward swimming to ram water into the mouth, where cephalic fins direct the flow and specialized filter pads—composed of fine spongy tissue—trap prey particles while expelling water through gill slits. This mechanism allows efficient processing of large water volumes with minimal energy expenditure, as the rays' minimizes clogging even at high flow rates. Foraging techniques vary by species and prey density but often involve straight-line swimming with the mouth agape to engulf patches of , or more acrobatic maneuvers such as surface rolls and somersaults to access concentrated schools near the surface. In some species, like the spinetail devil ray (Mobula mobular), cooperative feeding occurs in schools, where individuals form chains to herd and concentrate prey, enhancing capture efficiency. As secondary consumers in food webs, devil rays occupy a of approximately 3.5–4.0, inferred from stable isotope analysis of (δ¹⁵N), reflecting their position just above primary producers and herbivores. Their plankton-based results in low energy transfer efficiency, typically 10–20% from prey to predator, which contributes to their slow growth and vulnerability to . Feeding intensity shows seasonal variations, with increased activity during upwelling events that bring nutrient-rich waters to the surface, boosting abundance; for example, species like Munk's devil ray (Mobula munkiana) concentrate in upwelling zones off and during cooler months. In contrast, during long migrations between feeding grounds, intake may decrease as rays prioritize movement over foraging.

Reproduction and life cycle

Devil rays (genus Mobula) reproduce through internal fertilization, facilitated by males using paired claspers—modified pelvic fins that transfer sperm packets (spermatophores) to the female's cloaca during copulation. Courtship behaviors are elaborate and often involve multiple males pursuing a single receptive female in formations known as "mating trains," where males perform synchronized swimming, breaching leaps out of the water, and close-range displays such as biting or nipping at the female's pectoral fins to position themselves for mating. These displays can last for hours and occur in aggregation sites, with up to 26 males competing for one or two females in some observed events. Devil rays are viviparous, with embryos developing inside the female's and receiving nutrients through a combination of yolk reserves and maternal histotrophy (uterine secretions providing lipid-rich nourishment), rather than a direct placental connection. typically lasts about 12 months, after which females give birth to a single large pup, though twins are rarely documented (occurring in less than 2% of cases). This low fecundity is characteristic of mobulids, contributing to their vulnerability, as females invest heavily in each . Sexual maturity is reached relatively late, between 4.5 and 9 years of age, corresponding to disc widths of approximately 1.5–2.2 meters for females across species like Mobula japanica and Mobula thurstoni, with males maturing at slightly smaller sizes. Breeding cycles are infrequent, with inter-pregnancy intervals ranging from 2 to 5 years, allowing females to recover energy reserves before the next reproduction. Embryonic development occurs entirely , where the pup forms fully functional cephalic fins early in , enabling feeding behaviors shortly after birth. Pups are born tail-first to minimize risk during emergence, measuring 60–100 cm in disc width at birth depending on the species (e.g., 60–70 cm for M. thurstoni), and are immediately independent, capable of swimming and foraging on their own without . Devil rays exhibit slow growth throughout their lives, with post-maturity rates modeled by the yielding low coefficients (k ≈ 0.05–0.08 per year), reflecting their K-selected life history strategy. Lifespans are estimated at 20 years for most species, underscoring their long-term investment in reproduction over high reproductive output.

Social behavior and migration

Devil rays, belonging to the genus Mobula, exhibit a range of social structures, often occurring solitarily but also forming schools of 10 to over 150 individuals, particularly in productive waters or at specific sites. These aggregations display fission-fusion dynamics, where groups temporarily form and dissolve based on environmental cues such as prey availability, with segregation by size and sex occasionally observed in species like the shortfin devil ray (Mobula kuhlii). Cleaning stations serve as key social hubs, where individuals gather for parasite removal by cleaner fish, fostering interactions; for instance, at sites off South Africa, M. kuhlii groups averaged 12 individuals during cleaning, with up to 23 observed simultaneously. Reproductive aggregations also occur at these locations, briefly overlapping with mating behaviors detailed elsewhere. Communication among devil rays primarily involves physical displays and rather than vocalizations, though breaching—leaping clear of the water—and pectoral fin slapping upon re-entry may serve signaling functions, potentially transmitting low-frequency sounds through water for social or purposes. In , males use body positioning, such as unfurling cephalic lobes or following females closely, to convey interest; these maneuvers have been documented in M. kuhlii at cleaning stations, where mature males pursue pregnant females in observed events. Such interactions highlight coordinated group behaviors, including "following" and "cruising," which facilitate social bonding. Migration in devil rays is predominantly seasonal and long-distance, driven by oceanographic factors like and , with individuals traveling thousands of kilometers. Satellite tagging of the spinetail devil ray (Mobula mobular) in the revealed movements of 1,430 to 14,802 km over tracking periods, averaging 30 km daily, with rays shifting from western and central regions in summer (24–25°C) to the warmer in winter (>17°C). For example, one tagged M. mobular migrated from to and back over 330 days, demonstrating extensive basin-scale connectivity. Similar patterns occur in other species, such as M. kuhlii, which peaks in presence at subtropical sites during summer months. To avoid predation from and orcas, devil rays rely on group formations for collective vigilance and evasive maneuvers, with larger aggregations reducing individual risk through diluted predation pressure. Injuries like scarred fins and truncated tails, observed in 42% and 16% of M. kuhlii individuals respectively, indicate occasional encounters with predators, but at cleaning or feeding sites likely enhance escape via synchronized swimming. Indicators of intelligence in devil rays include their large brain-to-body mass ratio, the highest among fishes, with encephalization quotients exceeding 1 and hypertrophied telencephalons comprising up to 61% of mass, supporting complex social navigation and learning. This cerebral correlates with observed problem-solving in feeding, such as coordinated formations to concentrate , though tool use remains undocumented. Their foliated cerebellums further enable advanced during schooling and breaching.

Conservation and threats

Population status

All species in the genus Mobula (devil rays) are classified by the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, reflecting severe threats from overexploitation and bycatch. In October 2025 (IUCN Red List version 2025-2), the three oceanic devil ray species—spinetail devil ray (Mobula mobular), bentfin devil ray (Mobula thurstoni), and sicklefin devil ray (Mobula tarapacana)—were uplisted to Critically Endangered due to ongoing population declines driven by fisheries interactions. For instance, the spinetail devil ray was previously assessed as Endangered in 2019 but reassessed as Critically Endangered based on evidence of steep reductions exceeding 80% in some regions over three generations. Other species, such as the pygmy devil ray (Mobula kuhlii) and shortfin devil ray (Mobula hypostoma), remain Endangered, while the Munk's pygmy devil ray (Mobula munkiana) is Vulnerable, highlighting the genus-wide vulnerability. Population estimates for devil rays are limited due to their wide-ranging, pelagic habits, but available data indicate critically low numbers in several regions. In the Atlantic, stocks of species like the shortfin devil ray are estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals in key areas, with regional declines of 50-79% over the past three generations inferred from fishery-dependent data. Indo-Pacific populations appear more abundant in some locales, such as off Indonesia and Australia, but significant data gaps persist, particularly in under-monitored small-scale fisheries across Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, where catches exceed 200,000 individuals annually without corresponding abundance surveys. Globally, devil ray populations have declined by 50-79% over three generations for many species, with sighting rates dropping up to 92% in long-term monitoring sites over the past two decades. Monitoring efforts rely on non-invasive techniques to track trends amid these declines. Photo-identification (photo-ID) catalogs individual spot patterns for abundance estimation and residency assessment, while genetic sampling from tissue biopsies or helps delineate population structure and connectivity. Fisheries logs and observer programs provide catch-per-unit-effort data to infer trends, revealing stabilization or slight recoveries in protected areas following the 2014 CITES Appendix II listing, such as in the Revillagigedo Marine Park where enforcement reduced . However, overall trends indicate continued declines outside these zones, with low sighting frequencies underscoring the need for expanded surveys. Demographic traits exacerbate recovery challenges for devil ray populations. These species exhibit low , producing typically one pup every 2-3 years after a period of 12 months, coupled with late maturity at 5-15 years. This results in an intrinsic population growth rate (r) of less than 0.05 year⁻¹, among the lowest for elasmobranchs, rendering them highly sensitive to even moderate mortality. Regional variations are stark: Mediterranean populations of the spinetail devil ray are critically low, with suspected reductions over 50% and rare sightings indicating near-collapse. In the Pacific, stocks show variability, with some stabilization linked to gillnet bans in areas like Mexico's and Ecuador's Galápagos, though illegal persists elsewhere.

Major threats

The primary threats to devil ray populations stem from fisheries exploitation, encompassing both and directed fishing efforts. in gillnets and purse seines represents the dominant pressure, with global fisheries mortality estimated at approximately 264,520 individuals annually, of which small-scale vessels account for 87%. In regions like and , artisanal gillnet fisheries alone contribute significantly, with high incidental capture rates reported across multiple landing sites, often exceeding 13,000 individuals per year from industrial operations in the . Directed fisheries target devil rays primarily for their gill plates, used in traditional Asian medicines, and for meat in Asian and African markets, driving landings of around 94,000 rays yearly in key areas such as , , , and . These targeted harvests have led to substantial population reductions. Climate change exacerbates these pressures by altering conditions critical to devil ray survival. warming disrupts patterns and prey availability, as shifts in surface temperatures affect the distribution of , the primary food source for these filter-feeding species. Additionally, reduces productivity and impacts the physiological processes of mobulids, potentially hindering growth and hunting efficiency in related elasmobranchs. These environmental changes compound the vulnerability of devil rays, whose broad-scale migrations are sensitive to oceanographic variations. Habitat degradation further imperils devil rays through direct physical interactions with human infrastructure. Entanglement in and mooring lines poses a lethal risk, as these ram ventilators can suffocate when restricted, with incidents documented in coastal aggregation sites. Boat strikes from increasing vessel traffic in tourist hotspots, such as the , cause severe injuries and mortality, as evidenced by cases of wounds in identified individuals. Other factors, including pollution-induced parasite increases, amplify these threats, while the species' K-selected life history—characterized by slow maturity (8-15 years), low (one pup every 2-5 years), and predictable aggregations—heightens overall susceptibility to cumulative impacts. These vulnerabilities have contributed to observed global population declines across multiple devil ray species.

Conservation efforts

International conservation efforts for devil rays have been bolstered by key legal protections under global agreements. All species of mobulids, including devil rays ( spp.), were listed in Appendix II of the following the 17th in 2016, with the listing taking effect in 2017; this requires permits for to ensure it does not threaten species . A November 2025 study reported ongoing global declines, with fisheries mortality estimated at approximately 265,000 individuals annually, primarily from small-scale fisheries, and called for transferring mobulids to CITES Appendix I to strengthen trade regulations. Additionally, all manta and devil ray species are protected under Appendices of the , which mandates strict protection and cooperative international management for these highly migratory species. Regional and national initiatives complement these frameworks. In the , national bans such as Spain's 2011 prohibition on the capture, injury, and trade of giant devil rays exemplify early protective measures within member states. has established comprehensive bans on mobulid fishing and created sanctuaries, including the Revillagigedo National Park, designated a in 2017 with no-take zones spanning over 14 million hectares to safeguard aggregation sites for devil rays. Similarly, the implemented a nationwide ban on the harvest, sale, and trade of and rays through amendments to its fisheries code in 2015, aiming to halt targeted fisheries that previously decimated local populations. Marine protected areas (MPAs) play a crucial role in habitat conservation. The in serve as a key refuge, prohibiting to allow devil ray populations to aggregate and recover without disturbance. In , Raja Ampat's network of MPAs includes no-take zones that protect critical cleaning and feeding sites for mobulids, supported by local conservation projects that monitor and enforce restrictions. Research and advocacy organizations drive and policy influence. The coordinates global efforts, including the development of MantaBase, a photo-identification database that catalogs individual devil rays using unique ventral fin patterns to track population dynamics and movements across regions. The IUCN Shark Specialist Group provides assessments and recommendations, informing protections for all species classified as Vulnerable or Endangered. Sustainable fishing practices are promoted to minimize incidental capture. Guidelines for safe handling and release of devil rays in commercial fisheries, developed by NOAA Fisheries, emphasize keeping rays in water, avoiding tail cuts, and using de-hooking tools to reduce post-release mortality from gillnets and longlines. Alternatives to gillnets, such as circle hooks and modified gear, are encouraged in regions with high bycatch. For ecotourism, interaction guidelines based on Manta Trust protocols advise maintaining distances and avoiding flash photography to prevent behavioral disruption and stress to aggregating devil rays. These efforts have yielded measurable outcomes, including enhanced global trade monitoring through annual reports and permitting systems, which have documented reduced illegal exports of devil ray gill plates since the listing. In protected Philippine waters, post-2015 bans have contributed to reported increases in sightings and aggregations, signaling early signs of population stabilization in managed areas.

Relationship to humans

Commercial use and fisheries

Devil rays (genus ) are primarily exploited in commercial fisheries for their , which are dried and traded for use in as a treatment for ailments such as and skin conditions, and for their , which is consumed locally or exported in various forms. can fetch prices ranging from $4.8 to $1,260 USD per kilogram depending on the source and consumer market, with high-end values in reaching up to $1,260 USD/kg for premium products as of 2024. , often considered low-quality and sold dried, filleted, or fresh, is consumed in over 35 countries and exported from at least 10, including significant local use in where it supports artisanal fisheries, and in where it forms part of the regional trade. Global fishery scales for devil rays have historically been substantial, with pre-regulatory estimates indicating annual catches of 300,000 to over 1 million individuals, driven by targeted harvesting in regions like the . Recent assessments as of 2025 estimate ongoing global catches at approximately 264,000 individuals per year, with 87% from small-scale vessels and persistent underreporting in industrial fisheries. In , for example, artisanal net fisheries—often classified as small-scale—account for the majority of interactions, with rates exceeding those in global industrial fleets and contributing to over 16,000 exports annually in recent years despite bans. Post-2014 Appendix II listings and national prohibitions, reported trade volumes have declined to around 26,000 individuals per year based on 2018–2021 data, but total catches remain high at ~264,000 annually as of 2025 due to underreporting and illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) , with online gill plate sales increasing to 94 platforms in 2023. Artisanal operations dominate over industrial ones in key areas like and , including high landings in as of 2024. Trade routes primarily channel gill plates and fins from fishing nations in and to major hubs in and in , where they are processed and distributed through established seafood networks, generating an estimated $10–20 million annually in value as of 2021, with persistent trade documented through 2024. Exports from countries like , , and feed into these routes, often via intermediate ports before reaching Asian markets. Historically, rampant targeted harvests escalated in the and due to rising demand for gill plates, with sales in Chinese markets like increasing by 9–204% between 2011 and 2013, leading to a shift toward incidental as primary capture post-listings. Management challenges persist, particularly IUU fishing, which evades quotas and monitoring through underreporting—only 9 of 43 fishing countries submit data to the FAO—and weak enforcement in areas. Incentives for live releases have been introduced and expanded in some regions, such as Sri Lanka's fisher-led programs, but these are limited by economic pressures and the persistence of trade routes. remains a concern in these fisheries, often retained for commercial value despite regulations.

Ecotourism and cultural significance

Ecotourism involving devil rays (genus Mobula) has developed in regions with seasonal aggregations, such as Peru's northern coast at Huanchaco, where viewing opportunities support local economies through non-consumptive activities like boat tours and , contributing to via the Peru Mobulid Project. In , , massive mobula ray migrations attract tourists for ethical viewing, aiding transitions from to . These efforts provide benefits including job creation for local guides and funding for research through organizations like the , which uses revenue to support population monitoring and awareness campaigns. Additionally, ecotourism raises public awareness about devil ray vulnerabilities, fostering broader support for marine protection. To minimize stress on devil rays, tourism operators adhere to strict non-contact guidelines established by bodies like the and incorporated into broader responsible frameworks. Key rules include maintaining a minimum distance of 3 meters from rays, prohibiting any touching or chasing to prevent disruption of natural behaviors such as feeding or cleaning, limiting group sizes to no more than 10 participants, and restricting encounter durations to 90 minutes or less. Boat operations must also stay at least 10 meters away and operate at low speeds near aggregation sites to avoid collisions. These protocols help preserve ray welfare while enhancing visitor experiences, though enforcement varies by site. Culturally, devil rays hold in broader traditions as embodiments of deities, guiding fishermen and symbolizing and . In contrast, the "" moniker stems from Western European maritime , where sailors misinterpreted their cephalic fins as horns and their breaching leaps as aggressive, dubbing them "" in tales of maritime peril that persisted until scientific understanding in the late reframed them as gentle . Devil rays have gained prominence in media and art, amplifying their role as conservation icons. The BBC's (2017) captured groundbreaking footage of mobula devil rays (Mobula tarapacana) in the Pacific actively hunting and consuming fish, revealing previously unknown behaviors and highlighting their ecological importance. Organizations like the feature them in educational art and campaigns, portraying their graceful forms as symbols of ocean health and preservation. However, challenges persist, as over-tourism at aggregation sites can disturb rays by scaring them from essential cleaning stations, increasing risks of boat strikes and behavioral alterations. Balancing these economic gains with requires ongoing adherence to best practices and limits on visitor numbers to prevent aggregation site abandonment observed in high-pressure areas.

References

  1. [1]
    What are mobulids? | Manta & Devil ray ecology and biology
    Close relatives of all sharks and rays, these cartilaginous, filter-feeding fish range throughout the tropical and sub-tropical oceans of the world.Missing: Mobulidae | Show results with:Mobulidae
  2. [2]
    [PDF] Fact Sheet
    Feb 15, 2021 · Devil and Manta Rays (family Mobulidae, the Mobulids or Mobulid Rays) are slow-growing, large- bodied animals with some species occurring in ...
  3. [3]
    Giant Devil Rays / Devil Fish - MarineBio Conservation Society
    Mobulids, which is the collective term for Devil rays and Manta rays, have a tropical to subtropical distribution with a water temperature preference ranging ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  4. [4]
    FAMILY Details for Mobulidae - Devilrays - FishBase
    Family Mobulidae - Devilrays ; Order, : Myliobatiformes ; Class, : Elasmobranchii ; No. in FishBase, : Genera : 1 | Species : 9 Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes.Missing: devil | Show results with:devil
  5. [5]
    Phylogeny of the manta and devilrays (Chondrichthyes: mobulidae ...
    Jun 24, 2017 · The members of the genus Manta were found to consistently nest within the Mobula species and consequently the genus Manta is placed into the synonymy of Mobula.Missing: unification | Show results with:unification
  6. [6]
    [PDF] Mobula mobular, Spinetail Devil Ray - View on www.iucnredlist.org
    The IUCN SSG Global Devil and Manta. Ray ... A dated molecular phylogeny of manta and devil rays (Mobulidae) based on mitogenome and nuclear sequences.Missing: unification genetic
  7. [7]
    [PDF] A revised generic arrangement for the eagle ray family Myliobatidae ...
    Sep 4, 2014 · In this paper, we treat the Myliobatidae as only consisting of the eagle rays following Aschliman (2011). There are four currently recognised ...
  8. [8]
    Manta and Devil Ray Species
    Taxonomically within the Mobulidae family there is just one genus: Mobula, which contains ten species - three manta ray species and seven devil ray species.Missing: scientific common
  9. [9]
    WoRMS Taxon list - WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species
    Mobula thurstoni (Lloyd, 1908) · Mobula tobijei (Bleeker, 1854) accepted as Myliobatis tobijei Bleeker, 1854 · Mobula yarae Bucair & Marshall, 2025 · Mobular ...
  10. [10]
    [PDF] Family MOBULIDAE - The ETYFish Project
    1 The vernacular name Devil Ray may derive from Raja diabolus Shaw 1804, now a junior synonym of Mobula mobular. Shaw did not explain the meaning of “diabolus” ...
  11. [11]
    Manta Rays Myths and Legends Around the World
    Apr 28, 2025 · The Devil Fish Misconception. Not all cultural interpretations of manta rays have been positive; European sailors often misunderstood the nature ...
  12. [12]
    Mobula hypostoma - Species+
    English, Lesser guinean devil ray, Lesser devil ray, Atlantic devilray ; Portuguese, Raia-manta ; Spanish, Diablito de Guinea, Manta del golfo ...
  13. [13]
    Common Names List - Mobula mobular - FishBase
    Devil ray, France, English, Vernacular, No. Devil ray, Azores Is. English ... Spanish, FAO old, No. Manta de espina, Mexico, Spanish, Vernacular, No. Manta mobula ...
  14. [14]
    The giant devil ray Mobula mobular (Bonnaterre, 1788) is not giant ...
    Apr 30, 2020 · Mobula mobular, a mobulid species once considered a Mediterranean Sea endemic, has received its common name “giant devil ray” based on repeated ...
  15. [15]
    Manta rays reclassified as mobula after DNA study - Biopixel
    Jul 7, 2017 · DNA studies on members of the genus Manta have revealed these rays actually belong to the genus Mobula.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
  16. [16]
    [PDF] A dated molecular phylogeny of manta and devil rays (Mobulidae ...
    Nov 13, 2014 · Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a widely used tool for delineating species relationships (Moritz,. 1994) because of its ...
  17. [17]
    Evolutionary history of the devilrays (Chondrichthyes ...
    Jul 6, 2015 · In addition, all extinct mobulid species are reviewed with comments on their dentition, fossil record, and geographical distribution.Missing: devil | Show results with:devil
  18. [18]
    https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00844.x
  19. [19]
    [PDF] Myliobatiformes) from fossil and morphological inference
    The exact affinities of the fossil teeth attributed to the devilrays (mobulids) are critical for resolving the debated origin of these giant pelagic rays ...
  20. [20]
    the Mobulids - Lee Creek Batoids - ELASMO.COM
    Cappetta (1987) traces the devil rays back to the Upper Paleocene. Like other members of the order, the mobuloids have broad, well-developed pectoral fins, in ...
  21. [21]
    Contribution to the Knowledge of Anatomy of Species of Genus ...
    May 21, 2007 · Devilrays are the largest of all rays, some exceeding 9 m in disc width, and include two genera (Mobula and Manta) and 13 species (Nelson, 1994) ...
  22. [22]
    https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.20526
  23. [23]
    Filter feeding in devil rays is highly sensitive to morphology - PMC
    Jan 22, 2025 · Mobulid rays (manta and devil rays) use a highly specialized filtering apparatus to separate plankton food particles from seawater.
  24. [24]
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11750363/
  25. [25]
    [PDF] Encephalization and Brain Organization of Mobulid Rays ...
    The gross morphology of the enlarged Mobulid telencephalon and cerebellum prominently resembled to that of Sphyrna mokarran (great hammerhead shark). A ...
  26. [26]
    Spinetail Devil Ray (Mobula mobular) Species Guide - Manta Trust
    Inhabiting offshore habitats, spinetail devil rays are among the most commonly caught mobulid rays in fisheries throughout their range.
  27. [27]
    [PDF] Devil Rays - Mobula spp. - CITES
    A revisionary study of the genus Mobula. Rafinesque 1810 (Chondrichthyes, Mobulidae) with the description of a new species. Zool. J. Linnean Soc., 9(1): 1- 91.
  28. [28]
    Life History, Growth, and Reproductive Biology of Four Mobulid ...
    Aug 5, 2018 · This study focused on life-history parameters and reproductive cycles of four mobulid rays (Mobula thurstoni, Mobula japanica, Mobula tarapacana, and Manta ...
  29. [29]
    Complete sequence and characterization of the Mobula tarapacana ...
    The genetic divergence study reveals genetically indistinguishable pairs in Mobulidae species. Cephalic lode length, tooth morphology, and bronchial filter ...Missing: unification Mantidae
  30. [30]
    Age, growth, and intrinsic sensitivity of Endangered Spinetail Devil ...
    Dec 30, 2024 · The oldest individuals of Spinetail Devil Ray (n = 79) and Bentfin Devil Ray (n = 59) were 17.5 and six years, respectively.
  31. [31]
    Atlantic Pygmy Devil Ray (Mobula hypostoma) Species Guide — Manta Trust
    ### Geographic Range and Distribution of Atlantic Pygmy Devil Ray (Mobula hypostoma)
  32. [32]
    Sicklefin Devil Ray (Mobula tarapacana) Species Guide - Manta Trust
    IUCN Red List classification. Sicklefin devil rays (Mobula tarapacana) are easily distinguished by their olive-green to brown dorsal surface, ...
  33. [33]
    Bentfin Devil Ray (Mobula thurstoni) Species Guide — Manta Trust
    ### Geographic Range and Distribution of Bentfin Devil Ray (Mobula thurstoni)
  34. [34]
    Mobula kuhlii - Shorthorned pygmy devil ray - Manta Trust
    IUCN Red List classification. Shorthorned pygmy devil rays (Mobula kuhlii), with their triangular pectoral fins and relatively short cephalic fins, ...
  35. [35]
    Mobula eregoodoo, Longhorned pygmy devil ray : fisheries - FishBase
    IUCN Red List Status (Ref. 130435: Version 2025-1). Endangered (EN) (A2bd+3d); Date assessed: 20 January ...
  36. [36]
    Munk's Pygmy Devil Ray (Mobula munkiana) Species Guide
    IUCN Red List classification. The distribution of Munk's pygmy devil rays (Mobula munkiana) is limited to coastal waters of the Eastern Pacific ...
  37. [37]
    Manta and devil ray aggregations: conservation challenges and ...
    Manta and devil rays (mobulids) are filter feeding elasmobranchs with extreme K-selective life histories found circumglobally from temperate to tropical waters.
  38. [38]
    Determination on the Designation of Critical Habitat for Giant Manta ...
    Dec 5, 2019 · As such, we consider this individual to be a vagrant of the species (an individual that occurs outside of the species' normal range). Therefore, ...
  39. [39]
    Spatio-temporal distribution of spinetail devil ray Mobula mobular in ...
    Dec 17, 2020 · The spinetail devil ray's distribution is linked to seasonal upwelling, found in Angolan and Mauritanian upwellings, and the coast of Ghana. ...
  40. [40]
    The Devil We Don't Know: Investigating Habitat and Abundance of ...
    Nov 18, 2015 · Giant devil rays are believed to range widely throughout the Mediterranean Sea, both in neritic [2, 15, 16, 17] and offshore waters [34], over ...Missing: climate | Show results with:climate
  41. [41]
    Diving Devil Rays - California Academy of Sciences
    Jul 1, 2014 · the devil rays are deep divers. Measurements revealed frequent dives to depths of up to two kilometers—among the deepest dives recorded for ...
  42. [42]
    Environmental characteristics associated with the presence of the ...
    Aug 7, 2019 · Presence of the species was predicted in waters with chlorophyll concentrations between 0.5–1 mg·m-3 and with sea surface height values close to ...
  43. [43]
    Research Priorities to Support Effective Manta and Devil Ray ...
    In elasmobranchs, growth is usually modeled by estimating the age of individuals of known size (disc width in rays) by counting growth bands on vertebral centra ...
  44. [44]
    Sharks and rays: buoyancy - SUBMON
    Jul 8, 2021 · The main element that provides a certain degree of buoyancy to sharks and rays is the presence of a large liver (up to 25% of body weight in some species)
  45. [45]
    Research Priorities to Support Effective Manta and Devil Ray ...
    Manta and devil rays are filter-feeding elasmobranchs that are found circumglobally in tropical and subtropical waters ... ocean acidification (OA) ...
  46. [46]
    DNA metabarcoding assays reveal a diverse prey assemblage for ...
    Specifically, Mobula rays are known to consume unspecified fish eggs and are often seen feeding around gelatinous zooplankton—jellyfish (cnidarians), comb ...
  47. [47]
    Filter feeding in devil rays is highly sensitive to morphology - Journals
    Jan 22, 2025 · Gut content analysis indicates that mobulid rays consume a diversity of prey items, but their diet is largely euphausids and copepods [20–22].
  48. [48]
    Diet and trophic position of the devil rays Mobula thurstoni and ...
    Jun 2, 2010 · On the basis of fractionation factors we determined that bentfin and spinetail devil rays fed mainly on Nyctiphanes simplex, the most abundant ...
  49. [49]
    and long‐term diets of the threatened longhorned pygmy devil ray ...
    May 16, 2020 · Analyses revealed that surface zooplankton and zooplanktivorous teleosts were important dietary components across short- and long-term temporal ...
  50. [50]
    Feeding behavior of juvenile Munk's devil rays (Mobula munkiana ...
    Munk's devil rays showed a repetitive swimming movement parallel to the beach, feeding exclusively in the shallow breaking zone of the low tide waves at depth ...<|separator|>
  51. [51]
    The Filter Pads and Filtration Mechanisms of the Devil Rays
    Aug 6, 2025 · Filter feeding in devil rays is highly sensitive to morphology ... Evolutionary history of the devilrays (Chondrichthyes: Myliobatiformes) ...
  52. [52]
    Mobula, Bioinspiration, Filter Feeding, Form and Function
    Mobulas (manta and devil rays) are large-scale ram filter feeders that separate planktonic food particles from large volumes of water with minimal clogging.Missing: cephalic daily
  53. [53]
    Mobulid Behavioural Ecology | Feeding, Cleaning & Courtship
    Manta and devil rays are fascinating creatures with diverse and complex reproductive ecology as well as intricate feeding and cleaning behaviours.Missing: Asteracla | Show results with:Asteracla
  54. [54]
    Mobula Rays Facts & Information | AQUA-FIRMA
    The cephalic fins look like horns when rolled up in Mobula Rays, giving them the name “Devil Rays”; and these fins are smaller than those of Manta Rays when ...Missing: anatomy | Show results with:anatomy
  55. [55]
    [PDF] Feeding ecology and habitat use of the reef manta ray (Mobula ...
    Sep 4, 2022 · Values of δ15N increase by approximately 3-4 ‰ per trophic level, a process called isotopic discrimination (Post, 2022). Therefore, the trophic ...
  56. [56]
    (PDF) Trophic overlap in mobulid rays: Insights from stable isotope ...
    Oct 4, 2017 · Here, we use stable isotope data from mobulids landed in fisheries to examine the feeding ecology of 5 species at 3 sites in the Indo-Pacific.
  57. [57]
    Reproductive behavior, seasonality, and distribution of three devil ...
    Nov 18, 2023 · We examined the reproductive behavior (courtship and mating), seasonality and its distribution in three Mobula species, spinetail, bentfin, and Munk's devil ...Missing: anal | Show results with:anal
  58. [58]
    First observation of the courtship behaviour of the giant devil ray ...
    During courtship events, several individuals are generally involved, with one or two females chased by as many as 26 males (Stevens et al., 2018b). ... Manta ...
  59. [59]
    PRESS RELEASE
    Aug 6, 2018 · Females are known to give birth to one large offspring every one to five years, with a gestation period of approximately one year.
  60. [60]
    [PDF] The power of ultrasound: observation of nearly the entire gestation ...
    Jan 24, 2020 · Abstract—The aim of this study was to make ultrasound observations of 2 cap- tive reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi),.
  61. [61]
    The Manta Ray - All You Need To Know | Blog Post - Travel To Dive
    Jun 26, 2023 · The newborns are born tail-first to prevent water inhalation. Due to their low reproductive rate, females give birth every two to five years ...
  62. [62]
    Age, growth, and intrinsic sensitivity of Endangered Spinetail Devil ...
    Disc width-weight relationship​​ Mobula mobular sampled in this study ranged between 62 and 260 cm DW, whilst M. thurstoni ranged between 75 and 190 cm DW (Fig.Missing: coloration dimorphism
  63. [63]
    Behavior, site use and demographics of shortfin devil rays, Mobula ...
    May 14, 2024 · All mobulids are listed as Vulnerable or Endangered on the IUCN Red List ... Mobula kuhlii is listed as Endangered (Rigby et al. 2022) with ...
  64. [64]
    Insights into spinetail devil ray spatial ecology in the Mediterranean ...
    Jan 18, 2025 · A revisionary study of the genus Mobula Rafinesque, 1810 (Chondrichthyes, Mobulidae), with the description of a new species. Zool. J ...
  65. [65]
    All oceanic devil rays are now Critically Endangered. The IUCN Red ...
    Oct 10, 2025 · The IUCN Red List has just reassessed the conservation status of all three oceanic devil rays; the spinetail (Mobula mobular), bentfin (M.
  66. [66]
    Global manta and devil ray population declines - ScienceDirect.com
    These countries overlap with areas of highest species diversity for mobulids, and the widespread use of non-selective fishing gear leads to high catches (Raje ...
  67. [67]
    Mobulid Genetics Study - Manta Trust
    Data generated within this study opens the door for defining distinct populations of manta and devil rays, and informing monitoring and regulatory efforts.
  68. [68]
    Global Population Trends and Human Use Patterns of Manta and ...
    We show that mobulids as a group, which includes eleven species, have globally and regionally restricted distributions, typically have low sighting frequency.
  69. [69]
    Global assessment of manta and devil ray gill plate and meat trade
    Dec 14, 2024 · Using these ratios, and the data provided in the CITES Database, approximately 757 oceanic manta rays, 41,590 spinetail devil rays, 17,792 ...
  70. [70]
    High bycatch rates of manta and devil rays in the “small-scale ... - NIH
    These included pups of two M. mobular (one female: DW 74 cm; one male: unmeasured), three M. tarapacana (two females: DW 132 cm and 149 cm; ...
  71. [71]
    [PDF] The Global Threat to Manta and Mobula Rays - WildAid
    Market analysis suggests total annual gill raker trade volume in excess of 61,000 kg (and perhaps as high as 80,000 kg) with an estimated value of ...
  72. [72]
    [PDF] Draft Recovery Plan for the Giant Manta Ray (Mobula birostris)
    Oct 20, 2024 · Vulnerabilities and fisheries impacts: the uncertain future of manta and devil rays. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  73. [73]
    evaluating spatial and temporal variation in the distribution of manta ...
    Climate change can alter the abundance and composition of algae (Moore et al., 2008; Okuhata et al., 2023), which disrupts plankton assemblages and abundance ( ...
  74. [74]
    (PDF) Effects of climate‐change‐driven gradual and acute ...
    Climate change is altering distributions and abundances of marine species through both gradual and acute changes in temperature and productivity.
  75. [75]
    Other human-originated Threats - Manta Trust
    Although the largest threats to manta and devil rays comes from targeted and bycatch fisheries, other human activities can have detrimental impacts on mobulid ...
  76. [76]
    Sharks and manta rays - CITES
    As of October 2016, twelve species of sharks and all manta and devil rays (which belong to the same subclass Elasmobranchii) are included in Appendix II, and ...
  77. [77]
    Protections & Management - Manta Trust
    In addition to CITES, all manta and devil ray species are listed on Appendices I and II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), ...
  78. [78]
    [PDF] EU Shark Conservation - The Pew Charitable Trusts
    In February 2011,. Spain prohibited all capture, injury, and trade of these species as well as giant devil rays, basking sharks, and white sharks. In January.
  79. [79]
    Archipiélago de Revillagigedo - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
    The property harbours abundant populations of sharks, rays, large pelagic fish, Humpback Whales, turtles and manta rays; a concentration of wildlife that ...
  80. [80]
    12-Month Finding on a Petition To List Giant and Reef Manta Rays ...
    Jan 12, 2017 · Although a ban on hunting and selling giant manta rays was implemented in the Philippines ... (2015) found that manta rays comprised the ...
  81. [81]
    Raja Ampat Manta Project Indonesia | Affiliate Project - Manta Trust
    Manta and devil rays are targeted for their gill plates, they are dried and sold as traditional Chinese medicines. In other locations in Indonesia, manta rays ...
  82. [82]
    MantaBase - Manta Trust
    MantBase is an online platform that centralises manta and devil ray (mobulid) sightings and survey data from around the world. MantaBase was created to ...
  83. [83]
    [PDF] SAFE HANDLING AND RELEASE GUIDELINES FOR MANTA AND ...
    Safe Handling and Release Guidelines for Manta and Devil Rays (Mobulid species). ... Movement, depth distribution and survival of spinetail devilrays.Missing: geographic | Show results with:geographic
  84. [84]
    [PDF] MOBULID RAYS (MANTA AND DEVIL RAYS) INTERACTION ...
    MOBULID RAYS (MANTA AND DEVIL RAYS) INTERACTION GUIDELINES. The following code of conduct is based on the Manta Interaction Guidelines by the Manta Trust.
  85. [85]
    [PDF] Global assessment of manta and devil ray gill plate and meat trade
    Dec 14, 2024 · Three mobulid spe- cies were listed on the 39 requested (Unique Identi- fier Code) exports and/or documented imports of gill plates and fins ...
  86. [86]
    DNA analysis of traded shark fins and mobulid gill plates reveals a ...
    Aug 25, 2017 · Across the entire study, 20 species of sharks and at least 5 species of mobulid rays (assuming Mobula japonica and Mobula mobular are not ...
  87. [87]
    High bycatch rates of manta and devil rays in the “small-scale ...
    Sep 8, 2021 · Size range (including pups) ; Females, 180–478 cm, 60–252 cm ; Mature males, 396–449 cm, 184–242 cm ; Immature males, 136–375 cm, 62–222 cm ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  88. [88]
    Evidence for a fisher‐designed solution to manta and devil ray ...
    Oct 22, 2025 · In any case, successful implementation in these contexts may require improved monitoring strategies, for example, use of electronic monitoring ...
  89. [89]
    The Global Economic Impact of Manta Ray Watching Tourism
    Direct economic impact of manta ray watching tourism was estimated at $140 million annually (Table 3, Table S2). Analysis of the expenditure data from the dive ...Missing: devil | Show results with:devil
  90. [90]
    Valuing conservation and natural wealth: The blue economy of manta ray watching in the Maldives
    **Summary of manta ray tourism in Maldives from bioRxiv article:**
  91. [91]
    [PDF] Responsible Shark and Ray Tourism – A Guide to Best Practice
    MOBULID RAYS (MANTA AND DEVIL RAYS) INTERACTION GUIDELINES. The following code of conduct is based on the Manta Interaction Guidelines by the Manta Trust. It ...
  92. [92]
    The Significance of Manta Ray in Hawaiian Culture
    ### Manta Ray Symbolism in Hawaiian Culture
  93. [93]
    Blue Planet II: What's happening in week four? - BBC Newsround
    Nov 19, 2017 · Mobula rays (also known as devil rays) were filmed for the very first time eating fish in the Pacific. Previously it was thought these rays only ...