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Diagnosis of exclusion

A diagnosis of exclusion is a medical diagnosis established by systematically ruling out all other plausible causes of a patient's symptoms through clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, imaging, and other diagnostic procedures, particularly when no specific confirmatory test exists for the suspected condition.^[1] This approach relies on the clinician's judgment to identify the remaining diagnosis once alternatives have been excluded, often representing the best-educated guess in the absence of objective proof.^[2] The process of reaching a diagnosis of exclusion begins with a thorough differential diagnosis, where common and serious conditions are prioritized for elimination using evidence-based tests.^[1] It is commonly employed in specialties such as rheumatology, gastroenterology, neurology, and psychiatry, where certain disorders lack definitive biomarkers or require invasive procedures that are rarely feasible.^[2] For instance, conditions like fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and adult-onset Still's disease are frequently diagnosed this way after excluding infectious, inflammatory, or structural pathologies.^[1] Despite its utility, the diagnosis of exclusion carries inherent uncertainties, as it depends on the completeness of the exclusion process and may evolve with advancing diagnostic technologies.^[2] Critics note the absence of standardized criteria, which can lead to diagnostic delays, misdiagnosis, or over-reliance on subjective clinical assessment, emphasizing the need for ongoing re-evaluation and patient communication.^[1] In practice, it underscores the probabilistic nature of medicine, where no formal historical definition exists, but the concept has been refined through clinical literature to mitigate risks like inappropriate treatments.^[2]

Definition and Conceptual Framework

Definition

A diagnosis of exclusion, also known as diagnosis per exclusionem, derives its name from the Latin phrase meaning "by exclusion," signifying a diagnostic approach achieved through the systematic ruling out of alternative conditions rather than direct confirmation.^[3] This method is employed when a medical condition lacks a specific confirmatory test or definitive biomarker, requiring clinicians to eliminate all other plausible causes via comprehensive evaluation, including history, physical examination, and targeted investigations.^[2] Unlike affirmative diagnoses that rely on positive evidence—such as characteristic symptoms, imaging findings, or laboratory results—a diagnosis of exclusion emerges as a residual determination based primarily on negative findings, where the absence of indicators for competing diagnoses supports the suspected condition.^[4] This distinction underscores its dependence on thorough differential diagnosis rather than singular diagnostic criteria.^[3] Philosophically, the approach is grounded in the logical principle of elimination, positing that if all other potential explanations are disproven, the remaining one represents the most probable cause, drawing inspiration from parsimony concepts like Occam's razor adapted to clinical reasoning.^[5] For instance, conditions such as fibromyalgia are frequently identified this way after excluding rheumatic, endocrine, and infectious disorders.^[6]

Historical Development

While the practice of differential diagnosis through observation and history-taking has roots in ancient Greek medicine—where Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BC) and his followers emphasized natural causes, meticulous assessment of factors like age, environment, and clinical signs to distinguish diseases—the specific concept of diagnosis of exclusion as a formalized method developed in modern medical practice.^[7]^[8] In the 19th century, advances in pathology significantly enhanced the precision of exclusionary approaches. The development of cellular pathology by Rudolf Virchow in the mid-1850s shifted focus to microscopic tissue examination and autopsy, allowing physicians to exclude diseases by confirming or refuting pathological changes at the cellular level, moving beyond symptomatic description to verifiable evidence. Concurrent innovations, such as René Laennec's stethoscope in 1816 and Leopold Auenbrugger's percussion technique in the 1760s, further supported differential exclusion through physical signs correlated with postmortem findings.^[9]^[7] The 20th century refined this method amid the expansion of laboratory diagnostics post-1920s, enabling objective exclusion via blood tests, imaging, and microbiology, which reduced ambiguity in complex cases. The English term "diagnosis of exclusion" and Latin phrase diagnosis per exclusionem appeared in medical literature by the mid-20th century to describe this eliminative process, with early uses in neurology contexts around the 1930s.^[10] Influenced by deductive paradigms, such as those popularized in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories—modeled after surgeon Joseph Bell's observational techniques—the approach permeated diagnostic education, emphasizing logical elimination of improbabilities.^[11]^[12] By the 1990s, the advent of evidence-based medicine prompted critiques of diagnosis of exclusion for its potential subjectivity and dependence on negative findings, which could overlook subtle positives or lead to over-testing. Guidelines from organizations like the American College of Gastroenterology, for instance, recommend positive diagnostic criteria over pure exclusion to improve efficiency and accuracy in conditions like irritable bowel syndrome. This evolution highlights a tension between traditional eliminative logic and modern demands for verifiable, probabilistic evidence.^[13]^[14]

Methodology

Diagnostic Steps

The diagnosis of exclusion follows a structured, iterative process aimed at systematically eliminating alternative explanations for a patient's symptoms until a single viable diagnosis remains. This method begins with foundational clinical assessment and progresses through prioritization, targeted exclusion, and ongoing scrutiny, ensuring a logical elimination based on evidence rather than assumption. As a form of eliminative reasoning within the broader conceptual framework of differential diagnosis, it relies on clinical judgment to navigate uncertainty. Recent conceptual reviews propose refining this with probabilistic frameworks, including test thresholds for certainty levels and prioritizing safe, simple tests to rule out prevalent diagnoses first.^[1]^[2] The first step involves conducting a comprehensive patient history and physical examination to generate a broad differential diagnosis list. This initial phase captures detailed symptoms, onset patterns, risk factors, and physical findings to identify all plausible conditions, avoiding premature narrowing that could overlook rare or atypical presentations. Thorough documentation of this history establishes the baseline for subsequent exclusions.^[2] Next, clinicians prioritize the differentials based on likelihood, often employing Bayesian reasoning to rank probabilities informed by prior clinical knowledge and emerging evidence from the patient's presentation. This step refines the list by assessing the pretest probability of each alternative, focusing efforts on the most probable causes first without relying on complex computations. Prioritization ensures efficient resource use while maintaining a comprehensive view.^[2]^[15] Subsequent steps entail targeted testing to rule out high-priority alternatives, iterating as needed until only one diagnosis remains viable. Each test or evaluation is selected to disconfirm specific differentials, with results prompting revisions to the list; this process continues until exclusions sufficiently support the remaining option, acknowledging that absolute confirmation may be absent. Iteration allows adaptation to new findings, preventing diagnostic fixation.^[2] Finally, re-evaluation addresses potential overlooked factors, incorporating watchful waiting or close follow-up if initial exclusions are inconclusive. This phase involves reassessing the patient over time, potentially with repeated assessments to detect evolving symptoms or new evidence that could alter the diagnosis. If uncertainty persists, ongoing monitoring helps validate the exclusion process.^[2] Throughout all steps, meticulous documentation is essential, particularly recording negative findings to justify the final diagnosis both clinically and legally. Detailed records of the rationale for exclusions, test selections, and iterative decisions provide a defensible audit trail, mitigating medicolegal risks by demonstrating adherence to standard practice. Failure to document these elements can undermine the diagnosis's validity in reviews or disputes.^[2]^[16]

Supporting Tools and Techniques

Laboratory tests form a cornerstone of the supporting tools in diagnosis of exclusion, enabling clinicians to systematically rule out organic etiologies such as infections, tumors, or metabolic disorders. Blood work, including complete blood counts, inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, and serologic assays, identifies abnormalities that exclude infectious or autoimmune causes by revealing elevated white cell counts or specific antibody profiles.^[17] Imaging modalities, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans, provide detailed visualization to exclude structural pathologies like neoplasms or vascular anomalies, with MRI offering superior soft tissue contrast for neurological differentials.^[4] Biopsies, when indicated, deliver histopathological confirmation to eliminate malignancies or inflammatory conditions, ensuring that tissue sampling targets suspected sites based on prior imaging. Non-invasive techniques further aid in targeted exclusion by assessing physiological functions without procedural risks. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) effectively rule out cardiac etiologies in symptoms like chest pain or palpitations by detecting arrhythmias or ischemic changes, facilitating rapid elimination of acute coronary syndromes.^[18] Ultrasounds, valued for their real-time imaging and lack of radiation, exclude biliary or vascular obstructions in abdominal complaints, while pulmonary function tests (PFTs) quantify lung capacity to dismiss obstructive or restrictive respiratory diseases in dyspnea evaluations. Advanced diagnostic aids, such as genetic testing and biomarkers, enhance precision in excluding hereditary or molecular-specific pathologies. Genetic panels screen for mutations associated with inherited disorders, thereby narrowing differentials in familial presentations.^[19] Biomarkers provide quantifiable thresholds to exclude targeted conditions, with high sensitivity ensuring few false negatives in exclusion strategies. Multidisciplinary input strengthens exclusion processes through specialist consultations that validate or refute preliminary findings. Such collaborations integrate diverse expertise.^[20] Integration with electronic health records (EHRs) supports systematic tracking of tested differentials, leveraging databases to document exclusions and prevent redundant investigations. EHRs facilitate algorithmic alerts for unaddressed possibilities and longitudinal review of prior tests, enhancing diagnostic alignment and patient safety in iterative exclusion workflows.^[21]

Clinical Applications

Common Conditions Diagnosed by Exclusion

Diagnosis by exclusion is a common approach in primary care for conditions presenting with nonspecific or overlapping symptoms, where organic causes must be systematically ruled out through clinical evaluation and testing. Medically unexplained symptoms account for approximately 15–30% of primary care consultations.^[22] Fibromyalgia is typically diagnosed after excluding other potential causes of widespread pain and fatigue, such as autoimmune disorders (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis), infectious diseases, and endocrine conditions (e.g., hypothyroidism). This involves comprehensive laboratory testing, including complete blood counts, inflammatory markers like erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and thyroid function tests, alongside physical examinations that may include assessment of tender points, though modern criteria emphasize symptom patterns over tender point counts. For instance, a patient with chronic musculoskeletal pain undergoes these evaluations to confirm no underlying inflammatory or metabolic pathology before attributing symptoms to fibromyalgia.^[23]^[24] Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is confirmed following the exclusion of structural and inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis), celiac disease, and malignancies such as colorectal cancer. Diagnostic steps often include colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy for visualization, stool studies for occult blood or calprotectin levels to detect inflammation, and serologic tests for celiac disease (e.g., anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies). In a typical case, a patient with recurrent abdominal pain and altered bowel habits receives these tests to rule out organic pathology, allowing for a positive IBS diagnosis based on Rome criteria once alternatives are negated.^[25]^[26] Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME/CFS), is established after ruling out treatable contributors like anemia, thyroid dysfunction, and primary sleep disorders. This process entails blood panels to assess hemoglobin levels, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and other metabolic markers, as well as polysomnography or actigraphy for sleep evaluation. A patient reporting profound, unexplained fatigue lasting over six months would undergo these assessments to exclude physiological explanations, meeting diagnostic criteria only if fatigue persists without identifiable cause.^[27]^[28] Somatoform disorders, now often classified under somatic symptom and related disorders in updated nosology, are diagnosed psychiatrically after negating physical etiologies such as neurological conditions (e.g., multiple sclerosis) or metabolic imbalances (e.g., electrolyte disturbances). Evaluation includes neuroimaging (e.g., MRI), neurological exams, and laboratory workups to exclude organic bases for symptoms like unexplained pain or pseudoneurological deficits. For example, persistent somatic complaints without medical explanation lead to psychiatric assessment once physical investigations yield negative results, emphasizing the role of exclusion in confirming the diagnosis.^[29]^[30] Adult-onset Still's disease is diagnosed after excluding infectious, neoplastic, and other autoimmune or inflammatory conditions through extensive evaluations, including blood cultures, tumor markers, autoantibodies (e.g., antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor), inflammatory markers, and imaging or biopsy if needed. Classification criteria such as Yamaguchi require the absence of these alternatives alongside fever, arthralgia, rash, and leukocytosis. For instance, a young adult with high spiking fevers, evanescent rash, and sore throat undergoes these tests to rule out infections or malignancies before confirming AOSD.^[31]

Applications in Specific Medical Fields

In rheumatology, diagnosis of exclusion plays a key role in identifying seronegative spondyloarthropathies, such as ankylosing spondylitis, by first ruling out rheumatoid arthritis through serological testing for rheumatoid factor and anti-citrullinated protein antibodies, followed by HLA-B27 genotyping and radiographic imaging to confirm sacroiliitis or spinal involvement.^[32] This approach ensures that inflammatory back pain and enthesitis are not attributed to seropositive conditions, with HLA-B27 positivity present in up to 90% of cases, though its absence does not preclude the diagnosis. In neurology, the diagnosis of idiopathic epilepsy, particularly idiopathic generalized epilepsy, relies on excluding symptomatic causes such as structural brain lesions or metabolic disorders through electroencephalography (EEG) to detect generalized epileptiform discharges and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to rule out focal abnormalities like tumors or hippocampal sclerosis.^[33] Normal EEG findings do not fully exclude the diagnosis if clinical history supports it, but persistent focal features necessitate MRI to differentiate from lesional epilepsy, with guidelines emphasizing this stepwise exclusion to avoid misclassification.^[34] Psychiatry employs diagnosis of exclusion for adjustment disorder by systematically ruling out primary mood disorders like major depressive disorder or anxiety disorders using structured DSM-5 criteria, which require symptoms to develop within three months of an identifiable stressor and not meet thresholds for other Axis I conditions, supported by clinical interviews and standardized psychological assessments such as the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders (SCID). This process ensures that the emotional or behavioral response is stressor-specific and transient, with studies highlighting the need to differentiate from exacerbations of preexisting conditions through longitudinal evaluation.^[35] In pediatrics, functional abdominal pain is diagnosed by exclusion after negating organic etiologies like appendicitis, inflammatory bowel disease, or infections through laboratory tests including complete blood count, C-reactive protein, and stool studies, alongside abdominal ultrasound to assess for structural anomalies such as intussusception or masses.^[36] Rome IV criteria facilitate this by requiring recurrent pain without evidence of organic disease after initial evaluation, emphasizing that while not purely exclusionary, targeted testing prevents overlooking treatable causes.^[37] Emerging applications in oncology involve diagnosing paraneoplastic syndromes, such as Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, by excluding underlying primary tumors through whole-body 18F-FDG positron emission tomography (PET) scans, which detect occult malignancies with high sensitivity when conventional imaging like CT is negative.^[38] Updated diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes stress this exclusion process, with PET detecting underlying tumors in up to 80% of cases where conventional imaging is negative.^[39]

Advantages and Challenges

Key Benefits

Diagnosis of exclusion offers significant cost-effectiveness by prioritizing targeted, high-yield investigations to rule out serious conditions, thereby minimizing the need for extensive or invasive testing in appropriate clinical contexts. In irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), for instance, adherence to evidence-based diagnostic criteria that emphasize exclusion of organic diseases has been linked to substantial healthcare savings in health maintenance organization settings. This approach conserves resources without compromising diagnostic accuracy, particularly when supported by clinical algorithms that limit low-yield imaging or endoscopy.^[40] A key patient-centered advantage lies in its role in preventing overtreatment by first confirming benign etiologies through systematic exclusion, which enhances outcomes for patients with nonspecific or ambiguous symptoms. In conditions like immune thrombocytopenia, where the diagnosis relies on excluding secondary causes, this method avoids premature initiation of aggressive therapies such as immunosuppression, reducing exposure to unnecessary risks and improving quality of life. Similarly, in urinary tract infections among older adults, treating the diagnosis as one of exclusion helps curb antibiotic overuse, aligning care with actual clinical needs.^[41]^[42] This diagnostic paradigm facilitates early intervention by enabling provisional treatment of the most likely condition while ongoing exclusions are completed, proving especially valuable for time-sensitive presentations. In peripartum cardiomyopathy within resource-limited environments, basic exclusion of alternative cardiac pathologies allows prompt initiation of supportive therapies like diuretics and beta-blockers, potentially averting rapid deterioration in ejection fraction. Such flexibility supports timely symptom relief without delaying care pending comprehensive testing.^[43] From an educational standpoint, engaging in diagnosis of exclusion cultivates rigorous differential thinking among clinicians, fostering skills in history-taking, pattern recognition, and judicious test selection that extend beyond specific cases. Training programs emphasizing this approach for medically unexplained symptoms, such as fibromyalgia, have demonstrated improved clinician confidence and reduced reliance on exhaustive investigations, thereby enhancing long-term diagnostic proficiency.^[44] Major health organizations implicitly endorse diagnosis of exclusion for syndromes lacking pathognomonic tests, as seen in World Health Organization guidance for multiple sclerosis, where it remains the standard amid limited access to confirmatory biomarkers in many settings. The American Medical Association similarly recognizes its utility in primary care for IBS, advocating symptom-based exclusion to streamline evaluation in resource-constrained environments, thereby broadening access to effective management. Benefits of this method are evident in IBS cases, where it balances thoroughness with practicality to support symptom control.^[45]^[46]

Limitations and Potential Risks

One significant limitation of diagnosis by exclusion is the elevated risk of misdiagnosis, particularly when rare or atypical conditions are not thoroughly ruled out, which can result in delayed or inappropriate treatment. Retrospective studies have reported diagnostic error rates ranging from 2.2% to 62.1% across various conditions, with a median of 13.6%.^[47] For instance, in conditions like functional neurological disorder, where exclusion is central, misdiagnosis can occur if organic causes are prematurely dismissed, leading to persistent harm.^[48] The approach is inherently subjective, relying heavily on clinician judgment to evaluate and exclude possibilities from complex differential lists, which introduces susceptibility to cognitive biases and oversights. Clinicians may anchor on common presentations or exhibit confirmation bias, favoring exclusions that align with initial assumptions rather than exhaustive investigation.^[49] This subjectivity is compounded in ambiguous cases, where varying interpretations of test results or symptom patterns can lead to inconsistent outcomes across providers.^[50] Prolonged diagnostic uncertainty inherent in exclusion-based processes can profoundly affect patients, fostering anxiety, depression, and emotional distress during extended evaluation periods. Additionally, trial-and-error treatments pursued to confirm exclusions may cause iatrogenic harm, such as adverse reactions from unnecessary medications or procedures.^[51]^[48] From a legal standpoint, diagnoses of exclusion carry heightened vulnerability to malpractice claims, especially when undocumented steps in the exclusion process fail to identify serious conditions like undiagnosed cancers, which account for a substantial portion of diagnostic error-related harms in claims data. Analysis of malpractice cases shows that over 70% of such diagnostic errors occur in outpatient settings, where exclusion relies on iterative testing without clear affirmative markers.^[52]^[47] Ethically, the overuse of diagnosis by exclusion in underserved populations exacerbates health disparities, as limited access to comprehensive testing hinders thorough exclusion of alternatives, potentially leading to higher misdiagnosis rates among those with barriers to care. For example, patients with rare diseases facing access challenges experience misdiagnosis odds up to 3.5 times higher when information and resources are scarce.^[53] This practice can perpetuate inequities by defaulting to exclusion without equitable diagnostic support.^[54]

Comparison with Other Approaches

Versus Definitive Diagnostic Methods

Definitive diagnostic methods rely on pathognomonic signs or gold-standard tests that provide direct, objective confirmation of a condition, such as histopathological biopsy for cancer or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing for infectious diseases.^[2]^[55]^[56] These approaches yield positive proof by identifying specific pathological features or genetic markers, enabling high-confidence verification without reliance on ruling out alternatives.^[2] In contrast, diagnosis of exclusion is an indirect, presumptive process that arrives at a conclusion only after systematically eliminating other potential causes through clinical evaluation and available tests, lacking objective confirmation.^[2]^[1] While definitive methods are confirmatory and grounded in empirical evidence, diagnosis of exclusion depends on clinician judgment and thorough differential assessment, making it inherently more subjective and used primarily when definitive tests are unavailable or inconclusive.^[2] This distinction highlights exclusion's role as an "educated guess" versus the precision of direct validation.^[2] Diagnosis of exclusion is often preferred in early disease stages, where symptoms are nonspecific and confirmatory tests may not yet be indicated, or in low-resource settings lacking access to advanced diagnostics like biopsies or PCR.^[57] Conversely, definitive methods are prioritized for high-stakes conditions, such as suspected malignancies or acute infections, where rapid confirmation is critical to guide treatment.^[2] In resource-limited environments, exclusion-based approaches facilitate initial management despite diagnostic constraints.^[57] Outcomes differ markedly in reliability: definitive tests typically exhibit low false-positive rates, often below 5%, as seen in biopsy error rates of 1-2% and PCR false positives around 0.1% in controlled settings.^[55]^[56] Diagnosis of exclusion, however, carries higher uncertainty due to its reliance on incomplete exclusion, though it enables broader applicability for conditions without gold-standard tests, such as fibromyalgia or adult-onset Still's disease.^[2]^[1] A diagnosis of exclusion frequently transitions to a definitive one as new evidence emerges, such as through follow-up testing or evolving clinical features, underscoring its provisional nature.^[2]

Versus Probabilistic Diagnosis

Probabilistic diagnosis represents a statistical approach to medical decision-making that relies on prevalence data and likelihood ratios to estimate the probability of various conditions within a differential diagnosis. Clinicians assign a pretest probability based on patient history, symptoms, and epidemiological factors, then update this with posttest probabilities using results from targeted tests, often visualized through nomograms or Bayesian calculations. This method avoids the need for exhaustive testing by focusing on thresholds of clinical confidence, such as accepting a diagnosis when the probability exceeds 70-90%, thereby streamlining the process without fully eliminating all alternatives.^[58]^[1] In contrast, diagnosis of exclusion prioritizes certainty through the systematic elimination of all plausible alternatives via comprehensive testing, which can be more resource-intensive but aims to minimize residual uncertainty. Probabilistic diagnosis tolerates degrees of ambiguity, enabling quicker decisions based on weighted likelihoods, whereas exclusion demands near-complete ruling out, particularly when initial probabilities are low or overlapping. This fundamental difference highlights exclusion's emphasis on specificity in ambiguous scenarios, while probabilistic methods excel in sensitivity for broad initial screening.^[1]^[59] Probabilistic approaches are ideally suited for time-sensitive environments, such as emergency triage, where rapid probability assessments guide immediate interventions and resource allocation based on common presentations. Conversely, diagnosis of exclusion is better applied to chronic or nonspecific symptoms requiring meticulous evaluation to identify rare or atypical causes that might otherwise be overlooked. In contemporary practice, these paradigms are frequently combined, with probabilistic tools generating prioritized differentials that exclusionary steps then validate, enhancing overall efficiency without sacrificing thoroughness.^[59]^[1] Empirical evidence from early 2000s studies and meta-analyses underscores that probabilistic diagnosis accelerates the diagnostic timeline by focusing tests on high-yield options, often reducing decision time in acute settings, though it may introduce minor uncertainties in low-prevalence cases. Diagnosis of exclusion, by contrast, bolsters accuracy for residual or rare differentials, improving specificity through exhaustive verification, as seen in frameworks integrating both for complex diagnostics. This complementary use refines probabilistic leads, mitigating risks of premature closure while leveraging statistical speed.^[59]^[1]

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May 14, 2020 · Just 15 diseases from these "Big Three" categories account for nearly half of all serious misdiagnosis-related harms in malpractice claims.
[56]
Why is misdiagnosis more likely among some people with rare ...
Oct 28, 2020 · Patients who had difficulties accessing RD information were more likely to experience misdiagnosis (OR = 2.214 [95% CI = 1.732–4.133] and 3.496 ...
[57]
Invisible Illness, Invisible Inequalities: Gender, Race, Class, and ...
fibromyalgia is a diagnosis of exclusion in which rheumatologists (who take professional ownership of the syndrome) examine patient histories, conduct ...
[58]
Can a Cancer Biopsy Result Be Wrong?
Oct 9, 2020 · While data are limited, an incorrect biopsy result generally is thought to occur in 1 to 2% of surgical pathology cases. Here at Roswell Park, ...
[59]
Experience With False-Positive Test Results on the TaqPath Real ...
Mar 1, 2021 · Of 34 383 tests, 2861 (8.3%) were positive and 336 of those met the criteria for retesting; 40 (0.1%) were identified as false positives. During ...
[60]
Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) disease diagnostic error in low ...
Feb 9, 2023 · However, in low-resource settings, data relating to harmful diagnostic error remains sparse due to limited access to diagnostic resources ...
[61]
Making Sense of Diagnostic Test Results Using Likelihood Ratios
For clinical diagnosis, a LR above 1 raises the probability of the disorder. When a ratio is smaller than 1, the numerator is smaller than the denominator, ...
[62]
[PDF] Improved Diagnostic Accuracy Through Probability-Based Diagnosis
Medical diagnosis is fundamentally based on probability. 3 Thus, more accurate execution of probability- based diagnosis is needed to reduce diagnostic errors ...