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Cross-polarization

Cross-polarization is a fundamental concept in the physics of transverse waves, particularly electromagnetic waves, where it denotes the component of the electric field vector that oscillates perpendicular to the intended or principal direction of polarization.^[1] This orthogonal component can arise due to various mechanisms, such as antenna imperfections, scattering, or material properties, and is typically minimized in applications to optimize signal integrity and efficiency.^[2] In electromagnetics and antenna engineering, cross-polarization is critically important for systems like radar, satellite communications, and wireless networks, where it represents signal loss or interference when the transmitting and receiving antennas have mismatched polarizations.^[1] For instance, in dual-polarized radar systems, configurations such as horizontal-transmit horizontal-receive (HH) and horizontal-transmit vertical-receive (HV) distinguish co-polarization (matching orientations, yielding maximum signal) from cross-polarization (orthogonal orientations, often resulting in 20–30 dB attenuation).^[1] The precise definition of cross-polarization has evolved, with at least three variants proposed in the literature—based on rectangular coordinates, spherical coordinates, or measurement practices—but the standard adopted in antenna pattern evaluations aligns the cross-polarized component orthogonal to the reference at the boresight direction to ensure consistency in efficiency calculations and interference assessments.^[2] In optics, cross-polarization commonly refers to the technique of employing two linear polarizers oriented at 90° to each other—one on the light source and one on the detector—to selectively block or attenuate light based on its polarization state, effectively eliminating glare and specular reflections.^[3] This method, governed by Malus' law (where transmitted intensity I = I_0 \cos^2 \theta), achieves near-zero transmission for aligned polarizations but is limited in practice by imperfect extinction ratios; it is widely applied in machine vision for inspecting reflective surfaces like semiconductors, in photography to reveal submerged details in water or behind glass, and in polarized light microscopy to enhance contrast in birefringent samples.^[3] In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, particularly solid-state NMR, cross-polarization (CP) is a signal-enhancement technique that transfers magnetization from abundant, high-gyromagnetic-ratio nuclei (e.g., ^1H) to low-abundance or low-sensitivity nuclei (e.g., ^{13}C or ^{15}N) via heteronuclear dipolar couplings under magic-angle spinning conditions.^[4] This process, pioneered by Hartmann and Hahn in 1962, satisfies the Hartmann-Hahn matching condition (\gamma_I H_{1I} = \gamma_S H_{1S}) through simultaneous radio-frequency spin-locking pulses, boosting signal intensity by factors up to the gyromagnetic ratio difference (e.g., \gamma_H / \gamma_C \approx 4) and enabling structural analysis of rigid solids like proteins and polymers.^[4] Contact times typically range from microseconds to milliseconds, limited by spin-lattice relaxation in the rotating frame (T_{1\rho}), and CP is often combined with techniques like rotary resonance for broadband efficiency.^[4]

Polarization Fundamentals

Types of Polarization

Polarization of electromagnetic waves refers to the orientation of the electric field vector as the wave propagates. The concept was first discovered in the context of light by French physicist Étienne-Louis Malus in 1808, who observed that light reflected from a glass surface at certain angles exhibited polarization, a property he described using the cosine-squared law now known as Malus's law.^[5] This discovery laid the foundation for understanding wave polarization in optics. Later, in 1895, Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose extended these ideas to radio waves, demonstrating the polarization of millimeter-wavelength electromagnetic waves through experiments involving double refraction and novel polarizers, such as interleaved tinfoil sheets from a railway timetable.^[6] Bose's work showed that high-frequency radio waves behave like light in terms of polarization properties.^[7] Linear polarization occurs when the electric field vector oscillates in a single plane containing the direction of propagation. In horizontal linear polarization, the electric field vibrates parallel to the Earth's surface, while in vertical linear polarization, it oscillates perpendicular to the surface. These orientations are fundamental in applications like antenna design, where matching the polarization between transmitter and receiver maximizes signal efficiency.^[1] Circular polarization arises when two orthogonal linear components of the electric field have equal magnitude but are phase-shifted by 90 degrees, causing the field vector to rotate in a circular path as the wave advances. Right-hand circular polarization (RHCP) describes rotation in the direction of a right-handed screw advancing along the propagation direction, while left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) follows the opposite sense. Elliptical polarization generalizes this, occurring when the orthogonal components differ in amplitude or phase shift, resulting in an elliptical trace rather than a circle.^[8] The geometric representation of polarization uses the polarization ellipse, which traces the tip of the electric field vector over one cycle. The ellipse's major and minor axes define its shape, with the axial ratio quantifying the degree of ellipticity as the ratio of the major to minor axis lengths (1 for circular, infinite for linear). The tilt angle measures the orientation of the major axis relative to a reference direction, typically the horizontal plane, and ranges from -90° to 90°. This representation unifies linear, circular, and elliptical cases, providing a visual tool for analyzing wave behavior.^[9]

Mathematical Representation of Polarization

The electric field of a monochromatic, transversely polarized electromagnetic plane wave propagating in the z-direction can be described by its orthogonal components in the x-y plane using the Jones vector formalism, introduced by R. Clark Jones in 1941. The Jones vector is given by

\mathbf{E}(t) = \begin{pmatrix} E_x \\ E_y \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} a_x e^{i \delta_x} \\ a_y e^{i \delta_y} \end{pmatrix} e^{-i \omega t},

where a_x and a_y represent the real-valued amplitudes of the x and y components, respectively, \delta_x and \delta_y are their relative phases, and the overall time dependence is factored out for convenience. This two-dimensional complex vector fully characterizes the polarization state for fully coherent, monochromatic light, assuming the wave is observed at a fixed position.^[10] Specific polarization states emerge from particular choices of amplitudes and phase differences in the Jones vector. Linear polarization occurs when the phase difference \delta = \delta_y - \delta_x = 0 or \pi, resulting in the electric field vector tracing a straight line in the x-y plane; for example, horizontal linear polarization corresponds to \mathbf{E} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}. Circular polarization arises when a_x = a_y and \delta = \pm \pi/2, yielding right-handed or left-handed rotation of the field vector; the Jones vector for right-circular polarization is \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ -i \end{pmatrix}. Elliptical polarization is the general case with arbitrary a_x, a_y > 0 and $0 < |\delta| < \pi/2, where the field traces an ellipse, with the orientation and ellipticity determined by these parameters.^[11] An alternative representation uses the Stokes parameters, which are real-valued quantities derived from the Jones vector components and suitable for both coherent and partially polarized light. They are defined as

\begin{align*} S_0 &= |E_x|^2 + |E_y|^2, \\ S_1 &= |E_x|^2 - |E_y|^2, \\ S_2 &= 2 \Re(E_x E_y^*), \\ S_3 &= 2 \Im(E_x E_y^*), \end{align*}

where S_0 represents the total intensity, S_1 and S_2 describe linear polarization components along horizontal-vertical and \pm 45^\circ axes, respectively, and S_3 captures circular polarization. For fully polarized light, the parameters satisfy S_1^2 + S_2^2 + S_3^2 = S_0^2, and these can be mapped onto the Poincaré sphere, a unit sphere in (S_1/S_0, S_2/S_0, S_3/S_0) space where points on the surface denote pure polarization states—equator for linear, poles for circular—and interior points indicate partial polarization.^[12]^[13] The time-averaged intensity I of the wave, which quantifies the power flow per unit area, is directly related to the Jones vector magnitudes via the formula I = \frac{1}{2\eta} (|E_x|^2 + |E_y|^2) = \frac{S_0}{2\eta}, where \eta is the impedance of the medium (e.g., \eta \approx 377 \, \Omega in free space). This expression follows from the time average of the Poynting vector for a plane wave, emphasizing that intensity depends only on the total field strength regardless of polarization details.^[14]

Definition and Principles of Cross-Polarization

Core Definition

Cross-polarization in electromagnetics refers to the component of the electric field that is orthogonal to the intended or reference polarization direction within a specified reference frame. This concept is particularly relevant in the analysis of electromagnetic wave propagation, where the total polarization state can be decomposed into co-polarized (aligned with the reference) and cross-polarized components. According to the IEEE Standard for Definitions of Terms for Antennas, cross-polarization is defined as "the polarization orthogonal to a specified reference polarization," providing a general framework applicable to both linear and elliptical polarizations.^[15] In antenna theory, the most widely adopted definition for far-field patterns is the Ludwig-3 criterion, which defines the co-polarized component as aligned with the principal polarization plane of the antenna (e.g., the E-plane or H-plane) and the cross-polarized component as perpendicular to it within the far-field spherical coordinate system. Under this definition, the reference frame rotates with the azimuthal angle to ensure that in principal planes, the co-polarization matches the antenna's intended linear polarization, while cross-polarization captures any orthogonal deviation. This approach is standard in antenna measurements because it minimizes artificial cross-polarization in ideal sources like dipoles when observed in their principal planes.^[16] Variations in definitions arise depending on the context, such as aperture fields versus far-field patterns. The Ludwig-1 definition employs a fixed Cartesian coordinate system, suitable for near-field or aperture evaluations, where co-polarization aligns with a global axis (e.g., y-direction) and cross-polarization with the orthogonal axis (e.g., x-direction), expressed in spherical components. In contrast, the Ludwig-2 definition uses a non-rotating spherical coordinate system, with co-polarization along the θ-direction and cross-polarization along the φ-direction, which is simpler but less accurate for full spherical coverage in measurements. These alternatives, proposed in seminal work on polarization ambiguity, highlight the need for context-specific choices to avoid inconsistencies in cross-polarization assessment.^[16] For instance, in a communication system where the transmitter emits a horizontally polarized wave (reference along the horizontal plane), the cross-polarized component received would correspond to the vertical electric field orientation, representing unwanted orthogonal coupling that can degrade signal isolation.^[16]

Co-Polarization and Discrimination

Co-polarization denotes the component of an electromagnetic wave's electric field that is parallel to a designated reference polarization, representing the intended or dominant polarization state of the signal. In radar systems, this corresponds to configurations such as HH (horizontal transmit and receive) or VV (vertical transmit and receive), where the transmit and receive polarizations are identical, maximizing power transfer in the aligned channel.^[17] A key metric for evaluating the isolation between polarization states is cross-polarization discrimination (XPD), which measures the ratio of power in the co-polarized signal to that in the cross-polarized signal. Mathematically, it is expressed as

XPD = 10 \log_{10} \left( \frac{P_{co}}{P_{cross}} \right) \ \text{dB},

where P_{co} is the co-polarized power and P_{cross} is the cross-polarized power received from a signal transmitted in the co-polarized state. Higher XPD values indicate better suppression of unwanted cross-polarized components, with typical targets exceeding 20 dB in practical systems to minimize interference.^[18]^[19] Closely related is the cross-polarization ratio (XPR), which assesses the propagation channel's inherent tendency to preserve or depolarize the incident wave's polarization, defined similarly as the ratio of attenuation for co-polarized versus orthogonal paths. In multipath environments above 6 GHz, XPR typically ranges from 10 to 30 dB, reflecting partial depolarization due to scattering; for a direct path with zero excess loss, models predict a mean XPR around 28 dB. Cross-polarization effects stem primarily from antenna asymmetries, which cause unequal gain and pattern distortions between polarization axes, and multipath propagation, where reflections alter the field's orientation. In an ideal lossless case with perfect symmetry and no environmental perturbations, cross-polarization is absent, as orthogonal polarizations remain uncoupled.^[20]^[21]

Applications in Electromagnetics

In Antennas

In antenna systems, cross-polarization manifests as the orthogonal component to the intended polarization in the radiated electric field, impacting the overall radiation pattern efficiency. Co-polarized patterns represent the desired main beam with maximum gain in the intended direction, while cross-polarized patterns typically appear as weaker sidelobes or distinct lobes displaced from the boresight axis. These cross-pol lobes arise primarily from feed misalignment, which introduces phase gradients across the aperture, and reflector curvature in parabolic designs, which generates second-order field components that couple into the orthogonal polarization.^[22]^[23] In parabolic reflector antennas, cross-polarization effects are pronounced off-boresight, where dual lobes symmetric about the main beam can exhibit peaks at approximately -24 dB relative to the co-polarized peak for balanced feed excitations. For a center-fed parabolic reflector with diameter 100λ and focal length-to-diameter (F/D) ratio of 0.5, fed by a half-wavelength dipole, the on-axis cross-polarization level reaches -26.3 dB. Optimized configurations, such as those with predominantly electric or magnetic feed moments, can suppress these peaks to -33.2 dB or lower in offset reflectors. Industry specifications for such antennas commonly demand cross-polarization levels below -20 dB to maintain polarization purity and minimize losses.^[22]^[23] Dual-polarized antennas incorporate orthogonal ports to enable simultaneous transmission or reception of two polarizations, enhancing spectral efficiency in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems by effectively doubling the channel capacity without additional spectrum. These designs must achieve high port isolation to prevent cross-talk between co- and cross-polarized signals, typically targeting levels above 30 dB. A magneto-electric dipole-based dual-polarized antenna for 5G MIMO arrays, employing differential feeding, attains a cross-polarization level of -35.7 dB across 3.3–5.1 GHz while supporting 16-element configurations with low correlation.^[24] Mitigation of cross-polarization in these antennas relies on specialized components like septum polarizers and orthomode transducers (OMTs), which separate orthogonal modes with minimal coupling. Septum polarizers, using a stepped conductive septum in circular waveguide, provide cross-polarization isolation exceeding 30 dB over broad bandwidths in feed networks. OMTs further enhance performance by combining or isolating linear polarizations, achieving up to 45 dB port isolation and 35 dB cross-polarization discrimination in millimeter-wave applications such as Ka-band systems.^[25]^[26]

In Radar Systems

In polarimetric radar systems, signals are transmitted and received using orthogonal linear polarizations—horizontal (H) and vertical (V)—to characterize target scattering properties. The co-polarized channels, HH and VV, capture returns where the transmitted and received polarizations match, while the cross-polarized channels, HV and VH, measure the orthogonal components induced by the target. These elements form the core of the target's scattering matrix, expressed as \mathbf{S} = \begin{pmatrix} S_{HH} & S_{HV} \\ S_{VH} & S_{VV} \end{pmatrix}, which quantifies the transformation of the incident electromagnetic field into the backscattered field.^[27]^[28] Cross-polarization plays a key role in applications such as weather radar for detecting rain depolarization, where non-spherical raindrops cause power leakage into the cross-polar channels, enabling estimation of hydrometeor shape and type. For example, the linear depolarization ratio (LDR), defined as the ratio of cross-polar to co-polar power, quantifies this effect and helps distinguish rain from hail or melting particles. Complementing this, differential reflectivity Z_{DR} = 10 \log_{10} (Z_{HH}/Z_{VV}) provides a co-polar measure of drop oblateness due to terminal velocity, but cross-polar returns enhance depolarization analysis in heavy precipitation. In target classification, the relative strength of cross-polarized returns distinguishes scatterer types; for instance, man-made objects like dihedrals produce stronger HV/VH responses compared to natural clutter, aiding discrimination in synthetic aperture radar imagery.^[29]^[30]^[31] For monostatic radar systems, where transmitter and receiver are co-located, the reciprocity theorem imposes symmetry on the scattering matrix such that S_{HV} = S_{VH}, simplifying polarimetric calibration and data interpretation. This equality holds for most reciprocal targets but can be violated by non-reciprocal media; notably, spherical raindrops interacting with circularly polarized waves reverse the rotation sense upon backscattering, leading to near-total rejection of rain clutter by a co-polar receiver.^[27]^[1] Polarization mismatch, where the received signal's orientation differs from the antenna's, results in substantial signal reduction, typically 20-30 dB in practical radar scenarios, degrading detection range and accuracy. To counter this, circular polarization is employed to suppress rain-induced clutter, as the sense reversal from hydrometeors allows the receive antenna to nullify backscattered returns while preserving target signals, improving signal-to-clutter ratios by up to 20 dB in adverse weather.^[1]^[32]

Applications in Optics

Reflection and Refraction Effects

In optical systems, cross-polarization emerges during interactions of polarized light with boundaries between media, such as reflection and refraction at dielectric interfaces. When unpolarized or linearly polarized light encounters a planar boundary, the reflected and transmitted components exhibit different behaviors for parallel (p-) and perpendicular (s-) polarizations relative to the plane of incidence, leading to partial or complete polarization changes. The p-polarization aligns with the plane of incidence (often considered co-polarized for certain configurations), while s-polarization is perpendicular (cross-polarized). These effects are governed by the Fresnel equations, which quantify the amplitude reflection coefficients for each polarization.^[33] The Fresnel reflection coefficient for p-polarization is given by

r_p = \frac{n_2 \cos \theta_i - n_1 \cos \theta_t}{n_2 \cos \theta_i + n_1 \cos \theta_t},

where n_1 and n_2 are the refractive indices of the incident and transmitting media, respectively, \theta_i is the angle of incidence, and \theta_t is the angle of transmission determined by Snell's law. For s-polarization, the coefficient is

r_s = \frac{n_1 \cos \theta_i - n_2 \cos \theta_t}{n_1 \cos \theta_i + n_2 \cos \theta_t}.

These equations demonstrate that |r_p| and |r_s| differ, with |r_s| typically larger at oblique angles, enhancing cross-polarization in the reflected beam by preferentially reflecting s-components. For refraction, the transmission coefficients follow similarly, preserving or altering the polarization state based on the boundary conditions.^[34]^[35] A key phenomenon is Brewster's angle, where the reflection coefficient for p-polarization vanishes (r_p = 0), occurring at \theta_B = \tan^{-1}(n_2 / n_1). At this angle, the reflected light is purely s-polarized, maximizing the contrast between co- and cross-polarization components and enabling selective polarization filtering. This zero-reflection condition for p-polarization arises because the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular, preventing dipole radiation in the reflection direction.^[36] In total internal reflection (TIR), when \theta_i > \theta_c = \sin^{-1}(n_2 / n_1), the evanescent field in the rarer medium induces a lateral displacement known as the Goos-Hänchen shift, which differs for s- and p-polarizations due to their distinct phase shifts upon reflection. This differential shift, on the order of wavelengths, couples the polarizations in finite beams, generating cross-polarization components even from initially pure linear input. The shift magnitude is d_{s,p} = -\frac{\lambda}{2\pi} \frac{\partial \phi_{s,p}}{\partial \theta_i}, where \phi_{s,p} are the phase terms from the complex reflection coefficients, leading to beam walk-off and polarization conversion.^[37]^[38] A practical application is glare reduction in polarized sunglasses, which are oriented to transmit vertically polarized light while blocking horizontally polarized s-components reflected from horizontal surfaces like water or roads. At typical viewing angles near normal incidence, the reflected glare is predominantly s-polarized (cross-polarized relative to vertical transmission), allowing the lenses to suppress it effectively without dimming direct overhead light.^[39]^[40]

Scattering Phenomena

In Rayleigh scattering, light interacts with particles much smaller than the wavelength, such as atmospheric molecules, inducing an oscillating dipole that reradiates the energy. Due to the slight anisotropy in molecular polarizability, a small cross-polarization component emerges in the scattered light, quantified by the depolarization ratio \delta = \frac{I_{cross}}{I_{co}}, typically around 0.021 for nitrogen and 0.056 for oxygen at 632.8 nm, leading to about 3.2% for dry air.^[41] The overall scattered intensity scales as I \propto \frac{1}{\lambda^4}, favoring shorter blue wavelengths over red, which preferentially scatters the perpendicular polarization component at 90-degree scattering angles relative to the incident direction.^[42] This perpendicular dominance explains the observed linear polarization of the blue sky, with the electric field vector oriented perpendicular to the plane formed by the sun, observer, and sky point, reaching up to 80% polarization under clear conditions.^[43] For larger particles comparable to the wavelength, Mie scattering governs the interaction, described by the amplitude scattering matrix elements S_1(\theta) and S_2(\theta), where S_1 corresponds to the perpendicular (cross-polarization relative to the scattering plane) component and S_2 to the parallel (co-polarization) component.^[44] In the case of spherical particles, the matrix is diagonal with no off-diagonal cross-polarization terms (S_3 = S_4 = 0), preserving the incident polarization state, but for non-spherical particles common in aerosols, off-diagonal elements arise, generating significant cross-polarization and depolarization.^[45] The cross-polarization terms depend on particle size parameter x = 2\pi a / \lambda and refractive index, with S_1 and S_2 computed via infinite series of Mie coefficients, leading to angularly varying polarization patterns distinct from Rayleigh's near-isotropic dipole radiation.^[44] The depolarization ratio \delta = \frac{I_{cross}}{I_{co}} serves as a key indicator of particle shape in atmospheric scattering, remaining near zero for spherical water droplets but rising to 0.1–0.3 for irregular aerosols like dust or pollution, reflecting their non-sphericity.^[46] In Mie-sized non-spherical particles, enhanced cross-polarization arises from multiple internal reflections and surface irregularities, amplifying the ratio compared to Rayleigh's molecular-scale effect.^[47] In applications, light detection and ranging (LIDAR) systems exploit cross-polarization from scattering to identify non-spherical particles, such as ice crystals in clouds, which exhibit high \delta \approx 0.4–0.5 at 532 nm due to their platelike or columnar shapes, enabling discrimination from spherical water droplets (\delta < 0.05).^[48] This depolarization signal in the cross-polarized channel provides insights into cloud phase and aerosol type, improving remote sensing of atmospheric composition.^[49]

Measurement and Analysis

Techniques for Measuring Cross-Polarization

Far-field antenna measurements for cross-polarization quantification typically employ anechoic chambers to minimize reflections and ensure accurate far-field conditions. In these setups, a dual-polarized probe antenna is used as the source, with its polarization rotated to isolate co-polar and cross-polar components of the antenna under test (AUT). By measuring the received power for both orientations while scanning the far-field pattern, the cross-polar level relative to the co-polar can be determined, often achieving accuracies better than 1 dB for low cross-polarization antennas.^[50] In radar systems, polarimetric calibration addresses channel imbalances that distort cross-polarization measurements. Corner reflectors, known for their high radar cross-section and well-defined polarization response, serve as calibration targets to estimate and correct co-polarization channel imbalance phases and amplitudes. For instance, trihedral corner reflectors produce strong co-polar returns with minimal cross-polar, allowing the derivation of distortion parameters through comparison of observed and theoretical scattering matrices. This method has been validated in systems like UAVSAR, where it reduces calibration errors to approximately 0.7 dB in amplitude and 5° in phase.^[51]^[52] Optical techniques for measuring cross-polarization utilize polarization analyzers comprising quarter-wave plates, linear polarizers, and photodetectors to fully characterize the polarization state via Stokes parameters. The setup involves passing the light through a rotating quarter-wave plate followed by a fixed linear polarizer, with the detector measuring intensity at multiple orientations to compute the four Stokes parameters (S0, S1, S2, S3). This enables quantification of cross-polar components, particularly in partially polarized beams, with self-calibrating variants achieving uncertainties under 1% for ellipticity and orientation angles.^[53]^[54] Key metrics for assessing cross-polarization include the axial ratio, which measures the purity of circular polarization by quantifying the ratio of major to minor ellipse axes (ideally approaching 1 for perfect circularity), and cross-polarization discrimination (XPD), defined as the ratio of co-polar to cross-polar power in dB. For comprehensive evaluation, XPD is often averaged by integrating over the radiation pattern or beamwidth, providing a global figure of merit; values exceeding 20 dB are typical for high-performance systems. Axial ratio is measured directly from Stokes parameters in optics or via three-antenna methods in antennas.^[55]^[18] In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, cross-polarization (CP) efficiency is measured through variable contact time experiments, where the magnetization transfer from abundant spins (e.g., ^1H) to rare spins (e.g., ^{13}C) is monitored as a function of CP contact time under magic-angle spinning. The signal intensity build-up curve is fitted to models incorporating the CP transfer time constant (T_{IS}) and spin-lattice relaxation in the rotating frame (T_{1\rho}), yielding efficiency factors and enabling quantification of dipolar couplings for structural analysis. Typical efficiencies reach up to the ratio of gyromagnetic ratios (e.g., \gamma_H / \gamma_C \approx 4), with measurements performed using standard pulse sequences on high-field spectrometers.^[56]

Suppression and Mitigation Methods

In antenna designs for satellite communications, balanced feeds and polarizers are employed to achieve high isolation and suppress cross-polarization. Balanced feeds, such as those using differential feeding networks, minimize coupling between orthogonal ports, enabling isolation levels exceeding 40 dB while reducing cross-polar components in the radiation pattern.^[57] Orthomode transducers acting as polarizers further enhance this by separating orthogonal polarizations at the feed, with reported cross-polarization discrimination greater than 40 dB over wide bandwidths in dual-polarized systems.^[58] For instance, slotted waveguide array antennas optimized with such feeds demonstrate cross-polarization below -40 dB and port isolation above 47.5 dB, crucial for maintaining signal integrity in satellite links.^[59] In radar systems, processing techniques like adaptive nulling target cross-polarized returns to mitigate interference from unwanted polarization components. Adaptive nulling algorithms adjust antenna weights to place nulls in the direction of cross-polar signals, effectively suppressing them while preserving co-polar returns, as demonstrated in polarization nulling evaluations comparing favorably to conventional adaptive arrays.^[60] Cross-polarization discrimination methods further exploit polarization differences by weighting orthogonal channels to cancel clutter.^[61] Additionally, circular polarization mitigates rain clutter by reducing backscattering from precipitation, which depolarizes less for circular waves than linear ones; systems transmitting one sense of circular polarization and receiving the same sense achieve significant clutter suppression, with effectiveness depending on the differential response between targets and rain.^[32]^[62] Optical filters, including dichroic polarizers and metamaterials, are used to suppress cross-polarization in imaging applications by selectively absorbing or redirecting unwanted polarization states. Dichroic polarizers, which exhibit anisotropic absorption, transmit one linear polarization while absorbing the orthogonal component, enabling background suppression in polarimetric imaging; plasmonic dichroic circular polarizers, for example, achieve high extinction ratios in the infrared for enhanced contrast in thermal imaging.^[63] Metamaterials provide broadband suppression through engineered resonances that interfere multipoles to cancel cross-polar fields, as in patch arrays where electromagnetic multipole interactions yield low cross-polarization levels across optical frequencies.^[64] Advanced metasurfaces enable polarization conversion with near-zero cross-polarization during beam steering by precisely controlling phase and amplitude for orthogonal components. These structures, often composed of anisotropic nanoresonators, convert incident linear polarization to circular or orthogonal linear while steering beams, achieving efficiencies over 95% and cross-polarization ratios below -20 dB over wide angles.^[65] For instance, varactor-integrated metasurfaces dynamically adjust for simultaneous steering and conversion, minimizing residual cross-polar leakage in reconfigurable optical systems.^[66] Such designs leverage full Poincaré sphere coverage for multifunctional operation, ensuring high-fidelity polarization control in beam deflection applications.^[67]

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Note that the cross-polarized maxima are now at HV and VH, with corresponding zeros at HH and VV. The three-dimensional signature in. Fig. 2-11 shows that ...
[29]
Estimation of Depolarization Ratio Using Weather Radars with ...
By definition, the linear depolarization ratio Ldr is the ratio of the power of a cross-polar radar return to the power of a copolar radar return if a wave with ...
[30]
[PDF] Dual-Polarization Radar Principles and System Operations
With dual-pol, reflectivity (Z) and differential reflectivity (ZDR) require calibration. Though the calibration of Z will remain transparent, ZDR.
[31]
Radar Polarimetry - Natural Resources Canada
Jan 8, 2025 · The strength is displayed on the z-axis of the signatures. Co-polarized signature, Cross-polarized signature. Co-polarized signature, Cross- ...
[32]
[PDF] Investigation of Radar Rain Clutter Cancellation Using a ... - DTIC
This effort involved a method for cancelling the backscatter polarization from raindrops. In contrast to the ordinary circular polariza- tion cancellation ...
[33]
Fresnel Equations - The University of Arizona
Developed in the years 1821-1823, the Fresnel equations[1] describe the amplitude of transmitted and reflected light at the boundary between two materials.
[34]
[PDF] Reflection and transmission at oblique incidence - UF Physics
The equations are called the “Fresnel equations” and it is conventional (and correct) to work them out separately for the electric field parallel and ...
[35]
[PDF] 5 reflection and transmission (fresnel 's equations )
This angle is called Brewster's Angle, p θ , and is given by tan t p i n n θ = . All the parallel-polarized light is transmitted. What about the ...
[36]
The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 33: Polarization
It was discovered empirically by Brewster that light reflected from a surface is completely polarized if the reflected beam and the beam refracted into the ...
[37]
[PDF] arXiv:1204.0315v1 [physics.optics] 2 Apr 2012
Apr 2, 2012 · In total internal reflection rp and rs are unimodular (i.e. |rp|2 ... for circular cross-polarization. As optical beams shifts can be ...
[38]
Goos-Hanchen shift - Jens Nöckel - University of Oregon
Nov 17, 2012 · The Goos-Hänchen effect is a phenomenon of classical optics in which a light beam reflecting off a surface is spatially shifted as if it had briefly penetrated ...
[39]
Science, Optics, and You: Light and Color - Polarization of Light
Nov 13, 2015 · Below, Figure 2 demonstrates how polarized sunglasses eliminate the glare from the surface of a highway. As illustrated, the electric field ...Missing: reduction | Show results with:reduction
[40]
Polarization of Light - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 29, 2023 · Polarized eyewear reduces glare, enhances visual acuity and contrast sensitivity, and improves overall visual comfort. Applications of polarized ...
[41]
Depolarization ratio of Rayleigh scattered radiation by molecules
Jan 12, 2007 · The depolarization ratios of Rayleigh scattered radiation by molecules has been used to measure the ratio of anisotropic polarizability to ...
[42]
[PDF] ON THE MEASUREMENT OF RAYLEIGH SCATTERING BY GASES ...
The problem of laboratory measurements of Rayleigh scattering and depolarization ratio for atoms and molecules in the gaseous state is described.
[43]
Skylight Polarization - HyperPhysics
Skylight Polarization. The sky is blue because of the light scattered from the sky by Rayleigh scattering. That Rayleigh scattering partially polarizes ...
[44]
[PDF] Scattering and Polarization - Oregon State University
The same Rayleigh scattering that gives us the blue sky also polarizes the scattered light. ... detecting the polarization of the light from a patch of blue sky.
[45]
The math of Mie scattering - ECE 532, 3. Optical Properties - OMLC
Mie theory calculates the angular dependence of the two elements, S1(θ) and S2(θ), of the Scattering matrix, from which the scattered intensities of polarized ...
[46]
[PDF] Light Scattering by Nonspherical Particles
This effect is demonstrated by the figure on the cover, which shows T -matrix computations of the degree of linear polarization versus scattering angle and ...
[47]
Depolarization ratio
The ratio of rotational Raman signal to Rayleigh signal is chosen so, that a 1.44 % depolarization for the clear air is observed.
[48]
Lidar Ratio–Depolarization Ratio Relations of Atmospheric Dust ...
Feb 2, 2022 · (2016), depolarization ratios up to 37.5% and 35.5% were obtained for sub-micron-size particles at wavelengths of 355 and 532 nm, respectively.Introduction · Methods and Data · Results: Lidar Ratio... · Summary
[49]
Observations by Lidar of Linear Depolarization Ratios for ...
Abstract. Measurements by monostatic lidar have been performed in the laboratory and in the field of the linear depolarization ratios for hydrometeors.
[50]
Lidar depolarization characterization using a reference system - AMT
Mar 25, 2024 · Lidar depolarization measurements represent valuable information for aerosol typing and for the quantification of some specific aerosol types ...
[51]
https://uavsar.jpl.nasa.gov/science/documents/uavsar_polcal_ieee.pdf
[52]
[PDF] UAVSAR Polarimetric Calibration
In this paper, we present details of the UAVSAR radar performance, the radiometric calibration, and the polarimetric calibration. For the radiometric ...
[53]
Co-polarization channel imbalance phase estimation by corner ...
Polarimetric calibration is a critical step to suppress the potential system distortion before implementing any applications for polarimetric synthetic ...
[54]
[PDF] Rotating-wave-plate Stokes polarimeter for differential group delay ...
The advantage of the rotating-wave-plate method of measuring the Stokes parameters is that all four parameters are measured with the same detector. This ...<|separator|>
[55]
Simple self-calibrating polarimeter for measuring the Stokes ...
All polarization measurements require a calibrated delay δ = π / 2 + ϵ between the fast and slow axis of the waveplate. This wavelength-dependent delay can be ...
[56]
[PDF] LECTURE 8: Basic Methods in Antenna Measurements
Another approach for measuring far-field patterns, which allows for the most compact chambers, is the near-field/far-field (NF/FF) method. The field amplitude, ...
[57]
Performance analysis and feed location optimization for enhanced ...
Maintaining a high isolation between feeding ports is essential for antennas with polarization diversity. ... However, if a -40 dB isolation is the target ...Missing: polarizers | Show results with:polarizers
[58]
Dual Polarized Wideband Feed with Cross-Polarization Reduction ...
The achievable wide-band cross-polar discrimination of 40dB in the QZ is confirmed on an operational bandwidth of 1:1.5. The conjugate matched feeding concept ...Missing: satellite | Show results with:satellite
[59]
A Dual-Polarized Slotted Waveguide Array Antenna with High ...
Sep 5, 2025 · Through unit cell optimization, the designed antenna achieves cross-polarization levels below − 40 dB and antenna isolation exceeding 47.5 dB.
[60]
[PDF] Simulation and Evaluation of an Antenna Polarization Nulling ... - DTIC
Compare measured performance to conventional interference nulling techniques such as: Adaptive Array Nulling and Spread Spectrum techniques. 4.1.4 Figure of ...
[61]
[PDF] the application of adaptive nulling, spectral cancellation and cross ...
Cross polarization takes advantage of polarization differences between desired and interfering signals by cross polarizing the weighted sum of orthogonally ...Missing: radar | Show results with:radar
[62]
Rain Clutter - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
When compared with linear polarization, the response of wanted targets will also be reduced by the use of circular polarization. In general, cancellation ...
[63]
Dichroic Circular Polarizers Based on Plasmonics for ... - NIH
This paper proposes and analyses a plasmonic DCP structure operating in the visible, from 400 nm to 700 nm which overcomes these drawbacks.
[64]
Cross-polarization suppression for patch array antennas via ...
In this letter, we apply the generalized Kerker effect to suppress the cross-polarization of the patch array antennas by overlapping different multipolar ...
[65]
Simultaneous Beam-Steering and Polarization Conversion Using a ...
The designed metasurface acts as a multifunctional metasurface achieving CPC over a fractional bandwidth of 31.6% (8–11 GHz) with more than 95% efficiency ...Missing: near- zero
[66]
Electrically Tunable Optical Metasurfaces for Dynamic Polarization ...
Jul 21, 2021 · In this work, we demonstrate electrically tunable optical metasurfaces for dynamic polarization conversion at visible frequencies.<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
Efficient polarization conversion metasurface for scattered beam ...
Nov 1, 2024 · This study proposes and experimentally validates a multifunctional, ultra-wideband polarization conversion metasurface.