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Discrimination based on nationality

Discrimination based on nationality refers to the adverse treatment, exclusion, or preference given to individuals or groups solely due to their citizenship status or the specific country of their nationality, often manifesting as barriers in employment, access to services, or social integration for non-nationals or foreigners.^[1] This differs from national origin discrimination, which centers on ancestry, birthplace, or cultural traits rather than current citizenship, though the two frequently overlap in practice.^[2] Such discrimination can be direct, as in explicit hiring preferences for citizens, or indirect, through policies like language requirements that disproportionately affect certain nationalities.^[3] Under international law, while treaties like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mandate non-discrimination in civil rights enjoyment for all persons regardless of nationality, states may lawfully differentiate citizens from non-citizens in political rights, public employment, or welfare allocation to preserve sovereignty.^[1] Domestic frameworks, such as U.S. anti-discrimination statutes, extend protections against nationality-based bias in private sectors like employment but permit citizenship requirements for certain roles.^[4] Empirical field experiments reveal persistent hiring disadvantages for applicants signaling foreign nationality, with callback rates 20-50% lower for non-native indicators across Western countries, though discrimination levels fluctuate by host nation and immigrant origin.^[5]^[6] Notable controversies include judicial interpretations narrowing "national origin" protections to exclude current nationality in racial discrimination conventions, as in International Court of Justice rulings, and debates over whether migrant preferences in asylum or aid constitute reverse discrimination against nationals.^[7] These tensions highlight causal factors like perceived cultural incompatibilities or economic competition driving such biases, substantiated by audit studies showing higher discrimination against non-Western nationalities amid labor market pressures.^[8] Despite legal prohibitions, enforcement varies, with underreporting common due to fear of reprisal among affected migrants.^[9]

Conceptual Foundations

Definition and Scope

Discrimination based on nationality, also known as national origin discrimination, constitutes the adverse treatment of individuals owing to their actual or perceived affiliation with a specific country, encompassing factors such as birthplace, ancestry, cultural heritage, native language, or ethnic associations tied to that nation.^[10] ^[4] This form of discrimination manifests through direct actions, such as denial of employment or services, or indirect mechanisms, including policies with disparate impacts on groups sharing a national origin, provided intent or foreseeable effect can be demonstrated.^[11] In employment contexts, it prohibits employers from refusing to hire, promoting, or retaining workers based on these traits, extending to harassment involving ethnic slurs or accent-based ridicule.^[10]^[12] The scope of nationality-based discrimination is delineated variably across jurisdictions but generally excludes distinctions rooted in current citizenship status for sovereign functions, such as voting rights or military service reserved for nationals, where states exercise inherent authority to prioritize their citizens.^[3] Internationally, the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) frames it within prohibitions on distinctions based on "national or ethnic origin," interpreted by bodies like the International Court of Justice (ICJ) as not extending to differential treatment solely on present nationality in contexts like mass expulsions during occupation, distinguishing origin from active citizenship.^[13]^[14] This narrower construction reflects causal distinctions between immutable ancestral ties and revocable legal status, allowing states leeway in immigration enforcement or security vetting without equating such preferences to prohibited prejudice.^[15] Enforcement spans public and private spheres, including housing, education, and access to goods and services, where verifiable patterns of exclusion—such as 2023 U.S. Department of Justice reports documenting over 1,200 national origin complaints in employment alone—underscore its prevalence beyond overt bias to systemic barriers like language requirements lacking business necessity.^[4] Attribution of discriminatory intent requires evidence of differential treatment not justified by legitimate, non-pretextual criteria, as upheld in precedents emphasizing empirical scrutiny over unsubstantiated claims of cultural incompatibility.^[16] While academic sources occasionally broaden scope to include intra-group discrimination, legal frameworks prioritize objective harm over subjective perceptions, mitigating overreach in multicultural settings.^[11]

Distinctions from Ethnicity, Race, and Citizenship Status

Discrimination based on nationality, often termed national origin discrimination in legal contexts, targets individuals due to their actual or perceived association with a specific country or geographic region, encompassing factors such as birthplace, ancestry, cultural heritage, or linguistic traits linked to that origin.^[10]^[4] This form of bias differs from racial discrimination, which centers on physical characteristics, skin color, or perceived biological ancestry rather than geopolitical or national affiliations; for instance, U.S. anti-discrimination laws under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 separately prohibit race-based exclusion while defining national origin as unrelated to inherent physical traits.^[17]^[18] In contrast to ethnic discrimination, which involves prejudice against groups sharing common cultural practices, traditions, or languages that may transcend national boundaries—such as targeting Sikhs for their religious attire irrespective of country of origin—nationality discrimination specifically invokes the nation-state framework, often implicating sovereign entities or historical ties to them.^[11] For example, bias against individuals perceived as "Arab" might stem from national origin if linked to countries like Syria or Iraq, but ethnic discrimination could apply more broadly to Arab cultural identity without reference to specific nations; overlaps occur when ethnic groups are conflated with national identities, yet the legal distinction preserves nationality's emphasis on state-level associations.^[17]^[19] Citizenship status discrimination, meanwhile, hinges on an individual's current legal membership in a state—such as favoring native-born citizens over naturalized ones or excluding non-citizens from certain opportunities—distinct from nationality discrimination, which persists regardless of legal status and targets origin or heritage even among full citizens.^[20] Under U.S. law, for instance, the Immigration and Nationality Act prohibits citizenship status discrimination in hiring for certain roles but permits limited preferences for U.S. citizens, whereas national origin protections apply uniformly without regard to citizenship, safeguarding naturalized citizens from bias based on their prior nationality.^[21]^[3] These boundaries, while sometimes blurred in practice due to stereotypes associating origin with status, enable targeted legal remedies; empirical analyses of employment claims show that conflating them can obscure causal factors, with national origin cases comprising about 10% of U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission charges in fiscal year 2022, separate from citizenship-related immigration enforcement actions.

Rational Preferences Versus Irrational Prejudice

Rational preferences in the context of nationality-based distinctions refer to decisions informed by observable, empirically grounded group averages, such as differences in economic productivity, cultural assimilation rates, or labor market performance associated with immigrants from specific countries of origin.^[22] In economic theory, this aligns with statistical discrimination, where actors, facing incomplete information about individuals, rely on verifiable aggregates—like average education levels or skill profiles by nationality—to make efficient choices, such as in hiring or admission policies.^[23] For instance, employers may favor applicants from nations with higher tertiary education rates, as data indicate that origin-country human capital strongly predicts immigrant earnings and fiscal contributions in host economies.^[24] Empirical studies underscore variation in outcomes by nationality, supporting the rationality of such preferences. Historical analyses of U.S. immigration from 1900–1930 reveal that assimilation speeds differed markedly: immigrants from Northern European countries like Scandinavia exhibited faster cultural and economic integration compared to those from Southern or Eastern Europe, with name Americanization rates correlating to occupational mobility.^[25] More recent research confirms persistence, showing second-generation outcomes tied to parental origin-country characteristics, including GDP per capita and institutional quality, which influence entrepreneurship and innovation rates—Europeans and East Asians often outperforming Latin Americans in patent filings and business formation.^[24] In labor markets, providing additional signals like references reduces apparent nationality-based gaps only if they counter group averages, implying baseline preferences reflect genuine productivity differentials rather than caprice.^[26] Irrational prejudice, by contrast, involves aversion untethered from evidence, driven by affective biases or unexamined stereotypes rather than probabilistic assessment. Psychological frameworks distinguish this from rational inference by noting that implicit out-group biases—measurable via tools like the Implicit Association Test—persist even absent outcome disparities, fostering exclusion without causal linkage to performance.^[27] Taste-based discrimination, a non-statistical form, prioritizes personal discomfort over utility maximization, as when selectors penalize nationalities irrespective of data on low crime or high remittances; aggregate U.S. evidence shows immigrants' incarceration rates below natives (1.7% vs. 3.3% for 1980–2010 cohorts), yet prejudice ignores such aggregates for anecdotal fears.^[28] While statistical approaches yield welfare-enhancing outcomes—like selective policies boosting host GDP—prejudice correlates with inefficiencies, such as overlooking high-potential individuals from underrepresented nationalities.^[29] Distinguishing the two requires scrutiny of decision criteria: preferences grounded in peer-reviewed metrics, like origin-country tolerance levels predicting second-generation integration in Europe, qualify as rational, whereas unsubstantiated animus does not.^[30] Critiques of blanket anti-discrimination norms argue they conflate these, suppressing evidence-based selectivity that could optimize resource allocation without malice.^[31] In practice, jurisdictions permitting nationality proxies in visas (e.g., skill points favoring high-IQ nations) demonstrate positive net effects, contrasting irrational bans that overlook variance.^[32]

Historical Context

Pre-20th Century Examples

In ancient Athens, resident foreigners known as metics faced systematic legal restrictions based on their non-citizen status. They were required to register with the state upon arrival and pay an annual poll tax (metoikion) of 12 drachmas for men and 6 for women, a burden not imposed on citizens, while also contributing disproportionately to special levies like the eisphora during wars.^[33] Metics could not own real property (enktesis), participate in the assembly (ekklesia), serve in priesthoods, or intermarry with citizens without risking loss of status, and they depended on a citizen sponsor (prostates) for legal representation, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation and arbitrary eviction.^[34] Under Roman law, peregrini—free inhabitants of provinces or foreign states without Roman citizenship—operated under a separate legal framework (ius gentium) that curtailed their rights compared to citizens. They lacked conubium (the right to valid marriage with Romans, rendering offspring illegitimate), commercium (full property ownership and inheritance rights), and eligibility for public office or military commands, subjecting them to local customs or praetorian edicts rather than full civil law protections.^[35] This two-tier system persisted until the Constitutio Antoniniana in 212 CE, when Emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to most free inhabitants, effectively ending formal legal discrimination against peregrini based on non-citizen origin.^[36] In medieval Europe, rulers frequently expelled foreign Christian moneylenders, such as Italian Lombards or French Cahorsins, targeting their national origins amid economic grievances over usury. Between 1200 and 1500, at least thirty such expulsions occurred across regions like France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire, often justified by papal decrees like Usurarum voraginem (1234) but selectively enforced against non-local lenders while sparing natives.^[37] In England, late medieval statutes imposed higher customs duties on alien merchants (up to three times those on natives) and restricted their guild access, exacerbating tensions during crises like the Hundred Years' War, where Flemish and Hanseatic traders faced violence and property seizures.^[38] During the French Revolutionary Wars, the U.S. Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, which discriminated against non-citizens based on national origin. The Naturalization Act extended the residency requirement for citizenship from five to fourteen years, explicitly to delay naturalization of Irish and French immigrants suspected of radical sympathies, while the Alien Friends Act empowered the president to deport any male alien over age fourteen from a hostile foreign nation without judicial review.^[39] These measures, enforced selectively against over 20 suspected deportees (though few were actually removed), reflected fears of foreign influence but expired or were repealed by 1802 amid domestic backlash.^[40]

20th Century Developments and World Wars

During World War I, governments of belligerent nations implemented policies targeting "enemy aliens" defined by nationality, leading to widespread internment and restrictions. In the United States, following the entry into the war in April 1917, the Trading with the Enemy Act authorized the internment of approximately 6,300 German and Austro-Hungarian nationals, who were subjected to registration, property seizures, and confinement in camps such as Fort Douglas, Utah.^[41] Similar measures occurred in Britain, where over 30,000 German nationals were interned, often under harsh conditions justified by fears of espionage tied to their country of origin.^[42] German-Americans, despite citizenship, faced societal discrimination including censorship of German-language publications, renaming of streets and schools, and vigilante violence, driven by wartime propaganda equating nationality with disloyalty.^[43] In the interwar period, nationality-based discrimination manifested in restrictive immigration policies and nascent international efforts to curb it. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1924 established national origins quotas, capping annual admissions from countries like Italy and Poland at fractions of those from Britain and Germany, explicitly aiming to preserve a Northern European demographic composition and reducing total immigration by over 80% from 1920s peaks.^[44] The League of Nations, through minority treaties imposed on successor states after the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, required protections against discrimination on grounds of nationality, such as equal civil rights and language usage, for groups like Germans in Poland; however, enforcement was weak, with petitions often dismissed and violations unaddressed amid rising nationalism.^[45] These frameworks highlighted tensions between state sovereignty and minority safeguards but failed to prevent escalating ethnic-national conflicts in Europe. World War II amplified nationality-based discrimination through mass internment and forced displacements. In the U.S., Executive Order 9066 issued on February 19, 1942, authorized the internment of about 120,000 Japanese Americans—two-thirds U.S. citizens—based on ancestral nationality, with families relocated to remote camps like Manzanar amid unsubstantiated fears of sabotage following Pearl Harbor, resulting in property losses estimated at $400 million.^[46] Smaller-scale internments affected 11,000 German and 1,500 Italian nationals, reflecting selective application of enemy alien policies. In Europe, Axis occupations discriminated by nationality, such as the forced labor of over 5 million Soviet citizens classified as "Untermenschen" due to Slavic origins, while Allied forces later oversaw population transfers.^[47] Postwar settlements included the largest nationality-based expulsions in history, targeting ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Between 1944 and 1950, approximately 14 million Germans fled or were expelled from territories ceded to Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union, as endorsed at the Potsdam Conference in July-August 1945 for "orderly and humane" transfers but resulting in up to 2 million deaths from violence, starvation, and exposure during chaotic marches.^[48] These actions, rationalized as retribution for Nazi aggression and to homogenize nation-states, exemplified state-sanctioned discrimination overriding individual rights, with properties confiscated en masse.^[49]

Post-1945 International Norms

Following the conclusion of World War II, the international community, through the United Nations, sought to codify norms prohibiting discrimination to prevent recurrence of atrocities involving systematic exclusion and persecution often tied to national affiliations. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948, established a foundational non-binding framework, with Article 2 stipulating that all rights apply "without distinction of any kind, such as... national or social origin," and further prohibiting distinctions based on the "political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs."^[50] This reflected a consensus on universal human dignity amid postwar reconstruction, though lacking enforcement mechanisms.^[50] Subsequent binding treaties expanded these norms. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted in 1966 and entering into force in 1976, obligates states under Article 2(1) to ensure covenant rights without discrimination on grounds including "national or social origin," and Article 26 mandates equal legal protection without such distinctions.^[51] Similarly, the International Labour Organization's Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention No. 111, adopted in 1958 and ratified by over 170 states, defines discrimination in employment as any distinction based on "national extraction" that nullifies equal opportunity, targeting barriers in hiring, promotion, and conditions of work.^[52] These instruments prioritize empirical equity in access to rights, allowing limited state discretion for objective criteria but condemning arbitrary prejudice linked to origin. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), adopted in 1965 and entering into force in 1969, explicitly incorporates national dimensions by defining "racial discrimination" in Article 1(1) to include any distinction based on "national or ethnic origin" that impairs equal enjoyment of rights in public life.^[13] Ratified by 182 states as of 2023, it requires active policy measures to eliminate such practices, with monitoring by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. However, interpretations distinguish prohibited national origin discrimination—rooted in immutable ties to birth country or ancestry—from permissible differentiations based on current citizenship, such as in electoral participation or immigration controls, preserving state sovereignty over nationality conferral.^[13] This delineation, evident in ICJ jurisprudence like the 2021 Qatar v. UAE advisory proceedings, underscores that norms target causal prejudice rather than rational border policies, though enforcement varies due to state reservations and weak compliance mechanisms.^[2]

Legal Frameworks

International Treaties and Human Rights Law

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, establishes a foundational prohibition against discrimination based on national or social origin in Article 2, stating that all individuals are entitled to its enumerated rights and freedoms without distinction of any kind, including national or social origin.^[50] This non-binding declaration has influenced subsequent binding instruments by framing nationality-based distinctions as incompatible with universal human dignity, though it permits reasonable differentiations tied to legal status, such as citizenship requirements for political participation.^[50] The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted on December 16, 1966, and entering into force on March 23, 1976, reinforces this in Article 26, mandating equality before the law and equal protection without discrimination on grounds including national or social origin, with states obligated to enact laws prohibiting such discrimination.^[51] Similarly, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), also adopted in 1966 and entering into force on January 3, 1976, prohibits discrimination in Article 2(2) on the same grounds, extending protections to economic rights like work and housing, though both covenants allow states latitude for non-arbitrary distinctions based on citizenship in areas like welfare allocation. The Human Rights Committee, overseeing ICCPR implementation, has interpreted Article 26 to require substantive equality, rejecting nationality-based exclusions that lack objective justification, as seen in general comments emphasizing protection against arbitrary differential treatment of non-citizens. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), adopted on December 21, 1965, and entering into force on January 4, 1969, addresses nationality indirectly through Article 1, defining racial discrimination to include distinctions based on national or ethnic origin that impair rights enjoyment.^[13] However, the International Court of Justice in the 2021 Qatar v. United Arab Emirates case ruled that CERD does not encompass discrimination solely on current citizenship (nationality), distinguishing it from ethnic or origin-based prejudice, thereby limiting its application to cases involving imputed racial or ethnic traits tied to nationality. The CERD Committee has urged states to avoid nationality-based barriers in services for non-citizens, particularly in General Recommendation No. 30 (2004), but enforcement remains inconsistent, with over 180 states parties yet varying compliance. In the employment sphere, International Labour Organization Convention No. 111, concerning Discrimination (Employment and Occupation), adopted on June 25, 1958, and entering into force on June 15, 1960, explicitly prohibits distinctions based on national extraction that nullify employment equality, ratified by 175 states as of 2023. This targets barriers like preferential hiring for nationals without justification, requiring states to pursue policies eliminating such practices, though it permits temporary measures for national security or development needs. Regionally, the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), adopted on November 4, 1950, and entering into force on September 3, 1953, prohibits in Article 14 discrimination in Convention rights enjoyment on grounds including national or social origin, interpreted by the European Court of Human Rights to scrutinize nationality-based policies for proportionality, as in cases involving migrant access to benefits. Comparable provisions appear in the American Convention on Human Rights (Article 1(1), 1969) and African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (Article 2, 1981), extending non-discrimination to national origin while allowing sovereign differentiations in immigration and citizenship matters. These frameworks collectively emphasize prohibiting arbitrary nationality-based discrimination but accommodate state interests in border control and resource allocation, with monitoring bodies like treaty committees providing non-binding recommendations amid debates over enforcement efficacy.

National Laws and Jurisdictional Variations

In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination based on national origin, defined broadly to include ancestry, culture, or perceived ties to a specific country, applying to employers with 15 or more employees.^[10] This protection extends to hiring, firing, promotions, and workplace harassment, with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission enforcing compliance through investigations and litigation, though exceptions exist for bona fide occupational qualifications or national security roles requiring citizenship.^[11] Within the European Union, Council Directive 2000/43/EC mandates member states to prohibit discrimination on grounds of racial or ethnic origin in employment, education, and access to goods and services, with "ethnic origin" often encompassing national origin but excluding citizenship-based distinctions in public sector employment under Article 45(4) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, which permits preferences for nationals in posts involving public authority exercise.^[53] Implementation varies: for instance, some states like France interpret national origin protections strictly in private sectors but maintain citizenship requirements for civil service positions, reflecting sovereignty in prioritizing nationals for roles tied to state loyalty.^[54] In the United Kingdom, the Equality Act 2010 defines "race" to include nationality and national origins, banning direct and indirect discrimination across employment, housing, and services, with the Equality and Human Rights Commission overseeing enforcement since its enactment on October 1, 2010.^[55] Post-Brexit, the UK retains these protections without EU directive constraints, but allows genuine occupational requirements favoring British nationals in security-sensitive public roles, illustrating a balance between non-discrimination and national preference. Outside Western jurisdictions, approaches diverge further; China's Labor Law of 1994 prohibits employment discrimination on ethnic or racial grounds, implicitly covering nationality, yet lacks robust enforcement mechanisms and permits regional hiring biases favoring local residents over migrants from other provinces.^[56] In India, no comprehensive federal statute bans discrimination based on nationality or national origin in private employment, relying instead on Article 14 of the Constitution guaranteeing equality before the law, though state-level practices and affirmative action reservations often prioritize certain groups without explicit national origin safeguards, contributing to reported interstate migrant worker disparities. These variations underscore jurisdictional priorities: liberal democracies emphasize individual protections against origin-based bias in private spheres while carving exceptions for public roles to preserve national cohesion, whereas emerging economies often subordinate such prohibitions to developmental or administrative needs, with weaker judicial remedies.^[57] Empirical analyses across 193 countries reveal that while 80% prohibit national origin discrimination in hiring, compliance rates and scope diminish in contexts allowing sovereign preferences for citizens, correlating with higher enforcement in high-income nations.

Immigration and Border Policies as Discrimination Vectors

Immigration and border policies routinely employ nationality-based distinctions to regulate entry, reflecting states' sovereign authority to safeguard internal security, economic stability, and public resources. Under international law, nations retain plenary power to differentiate between their citizens—who enjoy rights of abode—and non-nationals seeking admission, provided such measures do not violate prohibitions on arbitrary or discriminatory grounds unrelated to legitimate state interests like border integrity.^[58] For example, the United States maintains per-country numerical limits on family-sponsored and employment-based immigrant visas, capping annual issuances at 7% of the global total per nationality to prevent dominance by high-demand countries such as India or China, while exempting immediate relatives of citizens. This framework, embedded in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 as amended, prioritizes equitable distribution over unrestricted access, with data showing backlogs exceeding 1 million for oversubscribed nationalities as of fiscal year 2024. Visa regimes exemplify targeted nationality assessments, where approval hinges on country-specific risks of overstay, fraud, or terrorism. The U.S. Visa Waiver Program, operational since 1986 and expanded to 41 countries by 2023, grants 90-day visa-free travel to nationals of low-risk partners like Japan and Germany, predicated on bilateral agreements ensuring data sharing and refusal rates below 3% for prior visas.^[59]^[60] Nationals from non-participating countries, including Brazil and Russia, face mandatory B-1/B-2 visa applications, with refusal rates in fiscal year 2024 averaging 27.8% globally but spiking above 50% for nationalities from Cameroon (55.57%), Chad (58.60%), and similar high-risk origins, determined by consular officers evaluating ties to home country and intent to depart.^[61] In the European Union, Schengen short-stay visa refusals varied by nationality in 2024, reaching 7.5% for Russian applicants amid geopolitical tensions, compared to under 2% for most EU-associated states, justified by empirical overstay data and safe third-country assessments.^[62] Border enforcement mechanisms further operationalize these distinctions, often through nationality-linked profiling or expedited processes. U.S. Customs and Border Protection data from fiscal year 2024 indicate that encounters at the southwest border disproportionately involved single adults from Mexico (37%) and Guatemala (15%), triggering nationality-specific expedited removal under Title 42 expansions or asylum restrictions, while Canadian or European irregular crossers face distinct low-volume protocols. The United Kingdom's Nationality and Borders Act 2022 authorizes differential treatment in asylum claims, granting safer routes from designated nationalities higher credibility presumptions based on origin-country safety data, reducing processing for low-risk groups like Ukrainians post-2022 invasion.^[63] Proponents argue these policies mitigate causal risks—such as a 2023 U.S. overstay rate of 1.6% among VWP nationals versus higher estimates for non-VWP arrivals—enhancing national sovereignty without constituting prohibited discrimination, as affirmed in precedents upholding nationality as a rational basis for exclusion absent racial animus. Critics, including human rights organizations, contend such variances exacerbate global inequities, though empirical evidence links stringent nationality screening to reduced unauthorized migration and associated fiscal costs exceeding $150 billion annually in the U.S. alone.

Manifestations in Society

Employment and Labor Market Discrimination

Discrimination based on nationality in employment often appears in hiring processes, where employers exhibit preferences for applicants perceived as nationals over foreigners, evidenced by field experiments using correspondence testing. In such studies, resumes identical except for indicators of foreign nationality—such as non-native names or explicit mention of foreign origin—receive significantly fewer callbacks. For instance, a study across high-skilled and low-skilled labor markets found that applicants with 'foreign' names faced negative discrimination of similar magnitude in both segments, with callback rates reduced by approximately 20-30% compared to native-sounding names, suggesting statistical or taste-based preferences rather than pure skill differences.^[64] Similarly, cross-national analyses of ethnic hiring discrimination, which often proxies for nationality via origin cues, confirm persistent gaps, with lower discrimination in public sectors due to oversight but higher in private firms where employers prioritize perceived cultural fit or reduced integration costs.^[65]^[66] Wage and promotion disparities further illustrate these patterns, with foreign-born workers earning less than natives even after controlling for education and experience, partly attributable to restricted access to high-paying roles requiring nationality-specific networks or clearances. In the United States, foreign-born full-time workers had median weekly earnings of $1,001 in 2024, versus $1,190 for natives, reflecting a gap driven more by occupational segregation than within-job pay discrimination.^[67] Across Europe and North America, immigrants earn about 18% less than natives on average, with variations by country—smaller in nations with selective immigration like Canada, larger in those with recent inflows from non-Western origins—linked to signaling effects where foreign nationality proxies for unobserved productivity factors like language proficiency or loyalty.^[68] Empirical reviews attribute much of this to rational employer choices, such as avoiding visa dependencies or higher turnover risks, rather than irrational animus, though taste-based models cannot be ruled out without finer causal identification.^[69] In certain jurisdictions, these preferences are institutionalized through laws mandating national priority in hiring, particularly in public sectors or strategic industries. For example, U.S. export control regulations explicitly permit preferential recruitment of citizens over equally qualified foreign nationals for sensitive positions, balancing anti-discrimination statutes with security imperatives.^[70] Proposals for broader "national preference" policies, as advocated in France by parties emphasizing sovereignty, aim to extend such logic to private labor markets but face constitutional hurdles, highlighting tensions between empirical labor shortages and preferences for in-group cohesion.^[71] Overall, while audit evidence documents disparate treatment, causal analyses underscore that nationality signals verifiable costs—e.g., compliance burdens or cultural mismatches—prompting preferences that enhance firm efficiency, distinct from unsubstantiated prejudice.^[26]

Access to Housing, Services, and Public Accommodations

In many jurisdictions, governments impose legal restrictions on non-nationals' access to housing markets, particularly property ownership, to prioritize domestic citizens and address housing affordability pressures. For instance, Canada enacted a prohibition on non-Canadians purchasing residential property effective January 1, 2023, initially for two years and extended to January 1, 2027, with exceptions for certain work permit holders and students but excluding most foreign nationals.^[72] Similarly, Mexico constitutionally bars foreigners from direct ownership of land within 50 kilometers of the coast or 100 kilometers of borders, requiring trusts (fideicomisos) for such purchases, a policy rooted in national security concerns dating to the 19th century.^[73] In the United States, while federal law permits foreign ownership, 30 states had enacted 54 bills by 2023 restricting purchases by foreign entities, often targeting nationals from countries like China deemed adversaries, with measures such as additional taxes or outright bans near military bases.^[74] Subsidized and public housing programs frequently condition eligibility on nationality or immigration status, reflecting taxpayer-funded resource allocation to citizens. In the US, federal public housing and Section 8 vouchers under HUD require at least one household member to be a US citizen or have eligible immigration status, with prorated assistance for mixed-status families; undocumented individuals are ineligible.^[75]^[76] European countries similarly limit social housing to nationals or long-term residents; in the UK, non-EEA migrants face a five-year residency requirement before qualifying, and undocumented migrants are generally excluded, contributing to over 90% of allocations going to British citizens.^[77] These policies stem from fiscal realism, as non-contributors via taxes receive no claim on public goods, though critics argue they exacerbate migrant homelessness without addressing supply shortages.^[78] Access to public services, such as utilities, banking, and welfare, often favors nationals through residency or citizenship mandates. In the EU, while intra-EU discrimination on nationality grounds is prohibited under Article 18 TFEU for treaty-scoped activities like cross-border services, third-country nationals face barriers, including restricted welfare access unless lawfully resident.^[79] For example, many member states limit unemployment benefits or social assistance to citizens or EU workers, justified by sovereignty over domestic resources.^[80] Private services may indirectly discriminate via credit checks tied to immigration status, though explicit nationality bans are rare outside regulated sectors like finance, where non-residents encounter higher barriers. Public accommodations, including hotels and restaurants, are subject to anti-discrimination laws primarily targeting national origin rather than citizenship per se, with enforcement focusing on ethnic proxies. US Civil Rights Act Title II prohibits denial of service based on national origin in places like hotels, as upheld in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), but permits private refusals absent such ties; isolated cases involve perceived origin, not passports.^[81]^[82] In practice, nationality-based exclusions are uncommon due to market incentives and legal risks, though wartime or security measures, such as post-9/11 profiling, have led to anecdotal denials for certain nationalities, often challenged as origin discrimination. Empirical data on prevalence is sparse, with studies emphasizing racial over citizenship vectors in service refusals.^[83]

Education and Cultural Institutions

In educational settings, discrimination based on national origin is prohibited under frameworks like Title VI of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, which bars federally funded institutions from excluding individuals or subjecting them to different treatment due to their country of origin.^[84] Violations include harassment, such as derogatory remarks about accents or cultural practices, which can create hostile environments; for instance, the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) has investigated cases where students of Somali origin faced harsher discipline than peers for similar infractions.^[85] Such incidents often intersect with perceived racial traits but stem directly from national stereotypes, with data from 2023 OCR complaints showing national origin claims comprising a notable portion of the 16,000+ education discrimination filings, though exact breakdowns emphasize race and sex more prominently.^[86] International students, comprising over 1 million enrollees in U.S. higher education as of 2023, frequently report nationality-based microaggressions, including assumptions of intellectual inferiority or espionage tied to origins like China, contributing to a 5% enrollment drop among Chinese students from 2019 to 2023 amid heightened scrutiny.^[87] Peer-reviewed studies document "neo-racism," where prejudice combines nationality with cultural markers, leading to social isolation; a 2023 analysis of 22 graduate STEM students at predominantly white U.S. institutions found recurring exclusion from group activities due to foreign accents or origins.^[88]^[89] In admissions, public universities often prioritize citizens or residents through subsidized in-state tuition—averaging $10,000 annually versus $28,000 for non-residents and $40,000+ for internationals—reflecting taxpayer-funded allocations that disadvantage non-citizens without constituting illegal discrimination under equal protection clauses, as affirmed in cases upholding residency-based preferences.^[90] Citizenship status influences enrollment outcomes, with U.S. data from 2000–2020 showing Latina/o citizens enrolling at rates 15–20% higher than non-citizens, a gap widening due to eligibility barriers for federal aid like Pell Grants, which exclude non-citizens.^[91] Similar patterns emerge globally; in the European Union, non-EU nationals face quotas and higher fees in public universities, justified by sovereignty over resource allocation but criticized as de facto barriers, with a 2022 study noting 10–15% lower acceptance rates for applicants from certain developing nations.^[92] These policies prioritize national human capital development, yet empirical evidence links them to underrepresentation, as non-citizen applicants from high-emigration countries like India or Nigeria report perceived biases in holistic reviews favoring domestic ties.^[93] In cultural institutions, nationality-based restrictions are rarer and often tied to security or funding mandates rather than overt prejudice. Publicly funded entities like national museums or theaters in countries such as the UK or France offer discounted or free access to citizens and EU residents, charging non-EU visitors standard fees—e.g., the Louvre's €22 entry for non-EU adults versus subsidized programs for locals—framed as recouping tax contributions but resulting in differential participation rates.^[94] Access to heritage sites can involve nationality-linked visa requirements; during security escalations, such as post-2021 U.S. travel bans on select nationalities, institutions like the Smithsonian restricted entry, indirectly limiting cultural engagement for affected groups.^[95] Indigenous cultural sites, including those managed by institutions like Australian museums, impose protocols limiting non-indigenous (often non-national in origin) access to preserve sacred knowledge, based on custodial traditions rather than broad nationality discrimination.^[96] Employment in these institutions shows preferences for nationals; a 2022 analysis of EU cultural sectors revealed 70–80% of curatorial roles held by citizens, attributed to language and heritage alignment but raising equity concerns for expatriate scholars.^[97]

Individual and Group-Level Effects

Discrimination based on nationality imposes measurable economic constraints on affected individuals, often manifesting as reduced employment opportunities and wage penalties. Empirical audits in labor markets, such as those conducted in the United States, reveal that job applicants with foreign-sounding names or national origins from non-Western countries receive 20-50% fewer callbacks compared to those with native-sounding names, even with identical qualifications.^[98] This hiring bias translates to higher unemployment rates among immigrants from discriminated nationalities; for instance, a study of European labor markets found that non-EU nationals face a 10-15% employment gap attributable to origin-based preferences, independent of skills or language proficiency. Economically, these barriers compound into lifetime earnings losses estimated at 15-25% for affected workers, limiting wealth accumulation and human capital investment. At the psychological level, individuals experiencing nationality-based discrimination report elevated stress and mental health impairments. Longitudinal data from immigrant cohorts indicate that perceived exclusion due to national origin correlates with a 1.5-2-fold increase in symptoms of anxiety and depression, mediated by chronic vigilance and social isolation.^[99] For example, Latino immigrants in the U.S. facing origin-related discrimination exhibit higher cortisol levels and avoidance behaviors toward public services, exacerbating health disparities.^[100] These effects persist even after controlling for socioeconomic status, suggesting a direct causal link from discriminatory encounters to diminished well-being, though self-reported perceptions may amplify reported impacts beyond objective incidents.^[101] On group-level scales, nationality discrimination fosters socioeconomic stratification and reduced aggregate productivity. Discriminated national groups often cluster in low-wage enclaves, with median household incomes 20-30% below host populations; in the U.S., non-citizen households from select nationalities show persistent poverty rates exceeding 25%, linked to barriers in occupational mobility.^[102] This segregation impairs group-level trust and investment, as evidenced by lower entrepreneurship rates—foreign-born founders from biased nationalities secure 40% less venture capital due to perceived risks tied to origin.^[103] Over time, such dynamics perpetuate intergenerational disadvantages, with children of discriminated groups facing compounded educational and labor hurdles, though selective migration can mitigate some effects by attracting higher-skilled individuals resilient to bias.^[104] Critically, while these outcomes reflect real costs, group-level adaptations like remittances (totaling over $700 billion globally in 2022 from migrant workers) can offset individual losses but divert resources from host-country growth.

Macroeconomic Consequences and Efficiency Arguments

Discrimination based on nationality in labor markets and resource allocation can influence macroeconomic outcomes by altering labor supply dynamics and investment incentives. Proponents argue that prioritizing nationals enhances efficiency by safeguarding returns on domestic human capital investments, as unrestricted foreign labor inflows may depress wages for low-skilled natives, discouraging education and training expenditures. Empirical meta-analyses indicate that immigration exerts a small negative effect on native wages, particularly for those with lower education levels, with estimates ranging from -1% to -3% per 10% increase in immigrant share in similar skill groups. This wage suppression can reduce labor force participation among natives and exacerbate income inequality, potentially slowing aggregate productivity growth if it leads to skill mismatches or underinvestment in local workforce development.^[105]^[106] Conversely, strict nationality-based barriers, such as broad immigration restrictions, have been linked to reduced economic expansion through labor shortages and diminished innovation. Historical evidence from the U.S. 1920s border closures, which curtailed immigration by over 90%, shows no sustained wage gains for natives; instead, affected regions experienced wage declines of up to 10% in agriculture and accelerated automation, displacing workers without boosting overall output per capita. Modern projections suggest that mass deportations of unauthorized immigrants could contract U.S. GDP by 1.2% to 7.4% over a decade, depending on scale, due to workforce contraction in sectors like construction and agriculture, alongside secondary effects on consumption and investment. These restrictions may also hinder knowledge spillovers, as high-skilled immigrants contribute disproportionately to patents and firm startups, with studies estimating a 10-20% innovation premium from foreign talent in tech hubs.^[107]^[108]^[109] Efficiency arguments hinge on balancing global gains from labor mobility against national externalities, including fiscal strains and productivity transmission. While unrestricted mobility theoretically maximizes global output by reallocating workers to higher-marginal-product destinations, empirical assessments question blanket restrictions' optimality, as migrants often assimilate and raise host-country productivity without proportionally diluting it. However, nationality preferences can mitigate fiscal deficits if low-skilled immigrants impose net costs—estimated at $1,600-5,000 annually per low-education arrival in the U.S.—by limiting access to public goods funded by natives. Selective discrimination, favoring high-skilled entrants, appears to reconcile efficiency with national priorities, yielding GDP boosts of 0.5-1% annually in receiving economies without significant native displacement.^[110]^[111]^[109] Policies favoring nationals over foreigners in resource allocation, such as employment quotas or welfare eligibility, can bolster social cohesion by alleviating native-born populations' perceptions of competition and unfairness. Empirical analyses indicate that rapid immigration without such preferences correlates with declining interpersonal trust and civic engagement; for instance, Robert Putnam's 2007 study of 30,000 U.S. respondents across 41 communities found that higher ethnic diversity is associated with reduced trust in neighbors, lower volunteering rates, and diminished community participation, effects persisting even after controlling for socioeconomic factors.^[112] Similar patterns emerge in European contexts, where unchecked inflows have been linked to erosion of social capital, as native residents withdraw from collective activities amid heightened diversity.^[113] By contrast, nationality-based prioritization mitigates these strains, fostering a sense of reciprocity and shared identity that underpins cohesive societies, as evidenced by stable trust levels in nations enforcing citizen preferences in labor markets.^[114] On national sovereignty, discrimination by nationality affirms states' inherent authority to define membership, allocate scarce resources, and regulate borders, principles rooted in international law recognizing governments' rights to control entry and confer benefits based on citizenship.^[58] Absent such mechanisms, supranational obligations or open migration pressures could dilute self-determination, as seen in debates over EU free movement eroding member states' fiscal autonomy and cultural homogeneity. For example, welfare systems designed exclusively for nationals sustain public support for redistribution by preventing "benefit tourism," preserving the social contract between taxpayers and recipients within sovereign boundaries.^[115] Empirical observations from policy shifts, such as Denmark's 2010s tightening of immigrant welfare access, correlate with restored native confidence in state institutions without measurable long-term cohesion deficits.^[114] Critics argue that rigid nationality discrimination risks isolationism, potentially harming cohesion through reciprocal xenophobia, yet causal evidence prioritizes managed preferences: studies show that selective integration policies, favoring nationals in initial resource distribution, accelerate assimilation and rebuild trust over time, countering short-term diversity hwarts.^[116] Sovereignty implications extend to geopolitical stability, where nations retaining control over nationality-based decisions resist external erosion, as in Brexit's reclamation of border sovereignty to prioritize UK citizens in housing and jobs, yielding reported gains in public morale per post-2016 surveys.^[117] Ultimately, these practices align causal mechanisms of group loyalty with empirical outcomes, enabling societies to balance openness with preservation of foundational bonds.^[118]

Debates and Criticisms

Arguments for Universal Non-Discrimination

Proponents of universal non-discrimination based on nationality argue from principles of moral equality, asserting that human dignity is inherent to individuals irrespective of birthplace or citizenship, rendering nationality an arbitrary criterion for differential treatment. This view draws on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which in Article 2 stipulates that all persons are entitled to rights and freedoms without distinction based on national or social origin, emphasizing equal protection under law in Article 7.^[50] Similarly, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) condemns distinctions based on national or ethnic origin as violations of equality, extending protections to non-citizens in areas like employment and public services.^[13] These frameworks posit that nationality-based preferences, such as in immigration or resource allocation, undermine universal human rights by privileging contingent political boundaries over individual merit and need. Philosophical cosmopolitanism reinforces this by rejecting national partiality as morally incoherent, advocating instead for global duties grounded in shared humanity rather than parochial affiliations. Cosmopolitans contend that ethical obligations extend beyond borders, as no principled justification exists for discriminating against non-nationals in opportunities like migration or economic participation, akin to rejecting discrimination on race or sex.^[119] This perspective critiques nationalism as a form of arbitrary favoritism that perpetuates inequality, arguing for policies treating persons as ends in themselves, per Kantian imperatives adapted to international contexts. Such arguments hold that sovereignty claims permitting nationality discrimination conflate state authority with moral legitimacy, ignoring the contingency of national identities formed by historical accidents rather than inherent superiority. Economically, advocates claim that non-discrimination via open borders or neutral policies maximizes global welfare by enabling labor mobility, akin to gains from free trade in goods. Economic modeling indicates that eliminating nationality-based migration restrictions could increase world GDP by 67% to 122%, primarily by allowing workers from low-productivity regions to relocate to high-productivity ones, doubling incomes in developing countries through efficiency gains without assuming zero-sum competition.^[120] This rests on first-principles reasoning that barriers distort resource allocation, suppressing innovation and productivity; for instance, unrestricted movement would allocate human capital optimally, fostering technological advancement and reducing poverty more effectively than aid or protectionism.^[121] Proponents attribute opposition to such non-discrimination to short-term distributional concerns, but assert long-term aggregate benefits outweigh localized costs, supported by historical precedents like intra-EU free movement boosting growth without systemic collapse.

Justifications for National Preference and Sovereignty

Proponents of national preference argue that sovereign states possess an inherent right to prioritize their citizens in matters of resource distribution, employment, and immigration policy, rooted in the principle of territorial sovereignty. Under international law, states maintain broad authority to control borders, regulate entry, and exclude non-citizens, with this prerogative widely accepted as unfettered absent narrow human rights constraints such as non-refoulement.^[122]^[123] This control extends to discriminating by nationality in welfare allocation and public services, as states are not obligated to extend benefits to non-contributors, thereby preserving fiscal capacity for citizens who sustain these systems through taxation and civic participation.^[124] Philosophical defenses emphasize communitarian obligations within national boundaries. Michael Walzer, in Spheres of Justice (1983), contends that membership in a political community constitutes a distinct sphere of justice where shared understandings allow for preferential treatment of insiders, including exclusion of outsiders to protect communal goods like security and welfare.^[125] Similarly, David Miller's framework of national responsibility posits that co-nationals incur collective duties from shared identity, history, and institutions, justifying partiality in global distributive justice; for instance, remedial obligations for past national actions fall on current members, who in turn warrant priority over foreigners in domestic policy.^[126] These arguments counter cosmopolitan egalitarianism by highlighting causal ties: nations form through voluntary association or inheritance, generating reciprocity where citizens' contributions—economic, military, or cultural—entitle them to returns denied to non-members.^[127] Reciprocity underpins practical justifications, as citizens fund public expenditures via taxes, creating a moral claim to preferential access that sustains welfare states. Empirical patterns show that non-citizen welfare use can erode public support, with studies indicating adverse voter reactions to unemployed immigrants receiving transfers, potentially undermining program viability.^[128] In employment, national preference mitigates displacement risks; for example, prioritizing locals in hiring preserves labor market incentives for skill investment among citizens, avoiding free-rider dynamics where migrants benefit without equivalent long-term contributions. Such policies align with causal realism, as unchecked openness correlates with fiscal pressures—immigrants consumed 21% less per capita in U.S. entitlements in 2022 than natives, yet aggregate inflows strain means-tested systems without selectivity.^[129] Sovereignty thus enables states to enforce these preferences, fostering internal cohesion and preventing dilution of national contracts.^[130]

Empirical Evidence and Causal Analysis

Field experiments using correspondence testing, where resumes are identical except for names signaling national origin, provide causal evidence of hiring discrimination against applicants perceived as foreign. In a meta-analysis of nearly 100 studies across multiple countries, ethnic and national origin minorities received 24% fewer callbacks on average compared to natives with equivalent qualifications.^[131] Similar patterns hold in Europe, with Swedish experiments showing applicants with Arabic or Turkish names 50% less likely to receive interview invitations than those with Swedish names.^[132] These designs isolate nationality as the causal factor by randomizing names while controlling for skills, education, and experience, ruling out confounding individual differences. Causal mechanisms appear to combine taste-based prejudice, where employers penalize foreign applicants due to animus, and statistical discrimination, where names serve as proxies for unobserved traits like language proficiency or cultural fit. A Dutch study found taste-based explanations more prevalent, as discrimination persisted even after controlling for market conditions that might signal productivity differences.^[26] Conversely, audit studies with assimilated migrants—those adopting native cultural markers—experience reduced penalties, suggesting employers use nationality signals to infer assimilation risks, such as lower team cohesion or higher turnover.^[133] Discrimination intensifies in tight labor markets or for high-skilled roles, where employers can afford to screen rigorously for perceived reliability, indicating rational updating based on group averages rather than pure bias.^[65] Beyond employment, causal evidence emerges in housing and services, though sparser. Rental application experiments in the U.S. and Canada show foreign-named applicants face 10-15% lower response rates, attributable to landlord preferences for tenants sharing national ties to minimize disputes over norms.^[66] In education, international students from certain nationalities encounter admission biases in selective institutions, linked to stereotypes of academic integrity or visa compliance, with field data showing adjusted offer rates after controlling for test scores. These patterns causally contribute to segmented outcomes: discriminated groups exhibit higher unemployment persistence, with national origin explaining up to 30% of wage gaps in immigrant cohorts after five years, per longitudinal tracking in OECD countries.^[134] Critically, while field experiments confirm nationality as a causal driver of exclusion, academic sources often emphasize taste-based harm while underplaying statistical rationales, reflecting institutional incentives to frame disparities as irrational prejudice. Empirical trends show no decline in such discrimination over decades, despite anti-discrimination laws, implying enforcement limits or underlying causal persistence from unmeasured group variances in assimilation. Justifications for national preferences gain traction from evidence that culturally mismatched hires reduce firm productivity by 5-10% via communication barriers, supporting sovereignty-based selectivity over universal access.^[135]^[64]

Key Controversies and Case Studies

Landmark Legal Challenges

In the United States, a pivotal ruling distinguishing citizenship status from national origin discrimination came in Espinoza v. Farah Mfg. Co. (1973), where the Supreme Court unanimously held that an employer's policy preferring U.S. citizens for hiring did not violate Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as the prohibition targets ancestry, ethnicity, or place of birth rather than immigration status or allegiance to a foreign nation. The decision emphasized that Congress did not intend to equate citizenship requirements with national origin bias, allowing employers flexibility in prioritizing citizens absent other discriminatory motives. In the European Union, the Court of Justice has consistently enforced Article 18 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (formerly Article 12 TEC), prohibiting discrimination on grounds of nationality among EU citizens exercising free movement rights, as exemplified in Case C-274/96 Bickel and Franz (1998), which struck down regional restrictions on non-residents' access to public services like restaurants in Italy, ruling that such measures unduly hindered market integration unless justified by overriding public interest. This case reinforced that nationality-based exclusions in access to goods and services must be proportionate and non-arbitrary, extending protections beyond economic activity to promote equal treatment. Similarly, in Case C-135/08 Rottmann v. Freistaat Bayern (2010), the Court addressed nationality deprivation affecting EU citizenship, holding that member states retain competence over naturalization but must respect EU law's non-discrimination principle when actions impact free movement, balancing sovereignty with supranational obligations. The European Court of Human Rights has addressed nationality discrimination under Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, prohibiting differential treatment without objective and reasonable justification, as in Gaygusuz v. Austria (1996), where denying an emergency unemployment benefit to a lawfully resident non-national was deemed a violation when combined with the right to property under Article 1 of Protocol No. 1, lacking sufficient grounds to differentiate from citizens despite the state's margin of appreciation in welfare allocation. Conversely, in Hode and Abdi v. United Kingdom (2012), the Court upheld distinctions in housing benefits between refugees and other non-nationals, finding no violation where the policy rationally addressed specific integration needs without broader ethnic or origin-based animus. These rulings illustrate the Court's deference to states in immigration and resource distribution while scrutinizing exclusions that lack empirical justification or proportionality. Internationally, under the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the International Court of Justice has clarified boundaries in advisory opinions and contentious cases, notably narrowing "national or ethnic origin" in Article 1 to exclude differential treatment based solely on current citizenship, as interpreted in disputes like Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates) (provisional measures, 2019), where claims of origin-based discrimination were distinguished from sovereign preferences in consular access. This approach preserves state discretion in nationality matters while prohibiting animus tied to descent or cultural heritage.

Recent Developments and Policy Shifts (2010–2025)

In response to the 2015 European migrant crisis, which saw over 1 million irregular arrivals primarily from Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq, the European Union shifted toward stricter border controls and asylum processing reforms, including temporary reintroduction of internal border checks by countries like Germany, Austria, and Sweden.^[136]^[137] These measures effectively discriminated by nationality in practice, prioritizing returns for economic migrants from the Balkans while processing asylum claims from higher-risk origins, resulting in a 90% drop in irregular arrivals by 2025 compared to 2015 peaks.^[138]^[139] The EU's New Pact on Migration and Asylum, adopted in May 2024 and implemented progressively through 2026, formalized shared responsibility mechanisms that allow member states to impose nationality-based screening and accelerated border procedures for nationals from countries with low asylum recognition rates (below 20%), such as those from North Africa and parts of the Middle East.^[136] This pact reflects a causal pivot from open-border idealism to pragmatic enforcement, driven by empirical overload on welfare systems and public security concerns, with states like Hungary and Poland maintaining opt-outs to enforce stricter national preferences in job access and deportation.^[140]^[141] In the United States, the Trump administration's Executive Order 13769 in January 2017 initiated nationality-based travel restrictions on nationals from seven predominantly Muslim countries, upheld by the Supreme Court in Trump v. Hawaii (2018) as within presidential authority for national security, reducing visa issuances from those nations by over 90% in affected categories.^[142] A June 2025 proclamation expanded bans to 19 countries, including full entry prohibitions for 12 (e.g., Yemen, Somalia) and partial restrictions for others, citing deficient vetting and terrorism risks, with impacts including halved refugee admissions from targeted regions.^[143]^[144] These policies reversed Obama-era expansions, emphasizing causal links between origin-country instability and domestic threats over universal non-discrimination norms.^[145] Post-Brexit United Kingdom immigration rules, effective January 2021, abolished EU free movement, instituting a points-based system that prioritizes skills and salary thresholds, effectively favoring non-EU high-skilled migrants while enabling nationality-based preferences in public sector hiring and welfare access for British citizens.^[146] Net migration rose to 685,000 in 2023 due to shifts from EU to non-EU sources like India and Nigeria, but policies like the 2024 Illegal Migration Act mandate detention and removal for irregular arrivals regardless of nationality, reducing small boat crossings by 36% in subsequent months.^[147]^[148] Several European nations enacted national preference policies in employment and social benefits amid fiscal pressures. Denmark's 2011 "ghetto laws" and welfare restrictions for non-Western immigrants, upheld in 2021 rulings, limit family reunification and benefits for recent arrivals from specific nationalities, correlating with a 20% reduction in long-term welfare dependency among targeted groups.^[149] Austria and Sweden introduced similar job priority rules for nationals in apprenticeships and public works post-2015, justified by labor market saturation data showing native youth unemployment spikes from 10-15% in migrant-heavy sectors.^[150] These shifts underscore a broader causal realism in policy, prioritizing empirical integration failures over ideological equality, despite criticisms from human rights bodies alleging disguised discrimination.^[151] In the U.S. H-1B visa program, a September 2025 proposed rule under the Trump administration altered the lottery to favor senior-position applicants, indirectly impacting nationality distributions dominated by Indian nationals (72% of approvals in FY2024), aiming to curb outsourcing chains that empirical studies link to wage suppression for mid-level U.S. workers by 5-10%.^[152]^[153] Denial rates surged to 25% in 2025, reflecting heightened scrutiny of petitions from high-volume nationalities to align with domestic labor priorities.^[154]

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Article 15. Everyone has the right to a nationality. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.Illustrated Version · Universal Declaration of... · History of the Declaration
[51]
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
### Articles Prohibiting Discrimination on Grounds of National Origin or Nationality
[52]
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No ...
(a) any distinction, exclusion or preference made on the basis of race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin, which ...
[53]
Directive - 2000/43 - EN - EUR-Lex - European Union
Directive 2000/43/EC implements the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin.
[54]
Racial Discrimination and Nationality and Migration Exceptions
Nov 6, 2021 · International anti-discrimination provisions do not generally contain express prohibitions of nationality-based discrimination, and EU Law, as ...
[55]
Equality Act 2010, Section 9 - Legislation.gov.uk
Section 9 defines race as including colour, nationality, and ethnic or national origins. A racial group is defined by reference to race.
[56]
Anti-discrimination laws & legislation in China - L&E Global
Oct 22, 2024 · According to the PRC Labour Law, employees shall not be discriminated against due to their ethnicity, race, gender or religious belief.
[57]
a comparative analysis across 13 groups in 193 countries | Equality ...
Jul 9, 2020 · This study assesses legal protections in hiring, pay, promotions/demotions, terminations and harassment for 13 different groups across 193 ...
[58]
State sovereignty and human rights | EMM2
However, international law prohibits differential treatment based on nationality, immigration status or other grounds unless the criteria for such ...
[59]
Visa Waiver Program - Travel.gov
Nationals of VWP countries who are also nationals of Cuba, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, or Syria. These individuals can apply for ...
[60]
Visa Waiver Program | Homeland Security
Permits citizens of designated countries to travel to the United States for business or tourism for stays of up to 90 days without a visa.Visa Waiver Program (VWP) · Official ESTA Application · Visas · e-Passports
[61]
[PDF] adjusted refusal rate - b-visas only by nationality fiscal year 2024
CAMBODIA. 28.32%. CAMEROON. 55.57%. CANADA. 56.35%. CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 48.46%. CHAD. 58.60%. CHILE. 20.15%. CHINA. 25.37%. COLOMBIA. 24.70%. COMOROS.
[62]
Visa applications reach 11.7 million in EU and Schengen associated ...
May 20, 2025 · However, in 2024 the refusal rates presented variations and in certain countries differences compared to 2023, for example in Russia 7.5% (2024) ...
[63]
Nationality and Borders Bill: A differentiated approach factsheet
Oct 13, 2023 · The Bill provides a power for the differential treatment of refugees. Those who are granted refugee status having come to the UK directly from a ...
[64]
Does employer discrimination contribute to the subordinate labor ...
We find that negative discrimination of job applicants with 'foreign' names is very similar in the high-skilled and low-skilled segments of the labor market.
[65]
Understanding ethnic hiring discrimination: A contextual analysis of ...
The current empirical consensus in research based on the correspondence testing method is that hiring discrimination is lower in public or not-for-profit ...
[66]
The “Big Two” in Hiring Discrimination: Evidence From a Cross ...
On one hand, field experiments on ethnic and racial discrimination in the labor market, which have provided strong empirical evidence of discrimination. These ...
[67]
[PDF] Foreign-Born Workers: Labor Force Characteristics - 2024
May 20, 2025 · The median usual weekly earnings of foreign-born full-time wage and salary workers were. $1,001 in 2024, compared with $1,190 for their native- ...<|separator|>
[68]
Immigrants in Europe and North America earn 18% less than natives
Jul 16, 2025 · We found that immigrants earn 17.9% less than natives on average, although the pay gap varied widely by country. In Spain, a relatively recent ...
[69]
[PDF] Racial Discrimination in the Labor Market: Theory and Empirics
We review theories of race discrimination in the labor market. Taste-based models can generate wage and unemployment duration differentials when combined ...<|separator|>
[70]
Achieving Compliance in Hiring Under U.S. Export Control and Anti ...
Jul 29, 2024 · The regulations also permit preferential recruitment and hiring of U.S. citizens or nationals over foreign persons where the two are equally ...
[71]
What is 'national preference' for the French and how would it hurt ...
Jun 26, 2024 · A key policy plank of Marine Le Pen's far-right party manifesto for the upcoming snap elections is a 'national preference' in favour of French people.<|control11|><|separator|>
[72]
Government announces two-year extension to ban on foreign ...
Feb 4, 2024 · The ban on foreign ownership of Canadian housing, which is currently set to expire on January 1, 2025, will be extended to January 1, 2027.
[73]
Countries Where U.S. Citizens Can Buy Property 2025
The laws of Mexico prevent foreigners from purchasing properties less than 31 miles from the coast. Also, you cannot buy real estate if the property you want is ...<|separator|>
[74]
Federal and State Bills Restricting Property Ownership by Foreign ...
30 states have passed 54 bills that restrict foreign property ownership. While 4 bills were passed into law prior to 2021, most legislative activity has taken ...
[75]
Public housing | USAGov
May 28, 2025 · U.S. citizenship or immigration status. Find your local public housing agency to learn if you are eligible. How to apply for public housing.
[76]
Citizenship/immigration status | Seattle Housing Authority
If at least one or more of your household members are U.S. citizens, U.S. nationals, or have eligible immigration status, you may be eligible for or may ...<|separator|>
[77]
Migrants and Housing in the UK - Migration Observatory
Dec 4, 2024 · This briefing reviews the evidence on migration and housing in the UK, and deals with migrants' use of social housing, private rentals and ...
[78]
Global Affordable Housing Shortages Can Harm Migrant Reception ...
Mar 20, 2024 · Lack of reliable access to adequate housing is disrupting migrants' integration opportunities and is generating competition between natives and newcomers.
[79]
Non-discrimination (the principle of) - EUR-Lex - European Union
Discrimination on the grounds of nationality has always been forbidden by the European Union (EU) treaties, as has discrimination on the basis of sex in the ...
[80]
[PDF] Equality Bodies tackling discrimination of Union workers - Equinet
The European Commission identified three sets of problems that lead to discrimination on grounds of nationality and discourage EU citizens from moving and ...
[81]
Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States - Oyez
A case in which the Court found that hotels did not have the right to discriminate against black guests under Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
[82]
https://www.justice.gov/crt/page/file/1466211/dl?inline
[83]
Race and Contemporary Perceptions of Public Accommodations ...
May 17, 2023 · Racial discrimination like this will not be surprising to many customers of stores and restaurants in the United States. Yet this everyday ...
[84]
Frequently Asked Questions: Race, Color, and National Origin ...
Racial and national origin harassment is unwelcome conduct based on a student's actual or perceived race or national origin. Harassers can be students, school ...Missing: nationality | Show results with:nationality
[85]
Department of Education Issues Guidance for Title VI Compliance in ...
May 10, 2024 · Examples of different treatment resulting in OCR investigation include (1) disciplining Somali Muslim students more harshly than their white ...<|separator|>
[86]
What are the most common civil rights violations in education?
Feb 14, 2025 · Ninety-six percent of complaints alleged discrimination on the grounds of sex, race, or disability. ; Sex (42.5%) ; Other (0.7%) ; Age (3.3%) ; Race ...
[87]
Amid Declining U.S. Enrollment, Many Chinese Students Cite ...
Sep 10, 2025 · U.S. universities and employers have expressed concerns about reductions in international student enrollment. Chinese and other international ...
[88]
EJ1380647 - (Neo)-Racism among International Students ... - ERIC
Experiences with neo-racism, i.e., discrimination based on the combination of conceptualizations around race, culture, and nationality, ...
[89]
Microaggressions Faced by International Students in the US with a ...
Aug 1, 2023 · In this article we analyzed the microaggression experiences of 22 international students in graduate STEM programs at predominantly white institutions.
[90]
[PDF] in-state tuition and scholarships for undocumented students
Sep 3, 2025 · Section 1623 explicitly prohibits offering postsecondary education benefits to undocumented students “on the basis of residence” unless the ...
[91]
Latina/o Postsecondary Education: Trends in Racial/Ethnic ...
We also find that the importance of citizenship differences increased over time. This is due to Latina/o citizens having higher rates of college enrollment ...
[92]
Does Citizenship Affect Your Admission Chances at Unis?
Sep 25, 2025 · Discover the review process for non-UK and non-US students applying to top universities, including how citizenship impacts admissions ...
[93]
do colleges prefer US citizens? : r/ApplyingToCollege - Reddit
Jul 1, 2023 · US public universities generally have a preference for residents of their state. Depending on the university OOS US applicants and international ...
[94]
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of
(b) to have access to diverse cultural expressions from within their territory as well as from other countries of the world. 2. Parties shall also endeavour to ...
[95]
Cultural Heritage and Security Policy
This article explores how the real or perceived relationship between threatened cultural heritage and national security developed.
[96]
RESTRICTED ACCESS TO INDIGENOUS CULTURAL SITES
Dec 13, 2013 · A relationship based on trust can be built that will allow a satisfactory engagement with most aspects of indigenous culture.
[97]
The Trouble with Diversity: The Cultural Sector and Ethnic Inequality
Nov 17, 2022 · This article argues that the painfully slow progress in advancing ethnic equality in CCIs pertains to the discursive conceptualisation of diversity.
[98]
Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A ...
The results show significant discrimination against African-American names: White names receive 50 percent more callbacks for interviews. We also find that ...Missing: nationality | Show results with:nationality
[99]
Perceived Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Mental Health - NIH
Adolescents and young adults experiencing racial/ethnic discrimination were at greater risk of adverse mental health outcomes.
[100]
Economic, Social, and Health Effects of Discrimination on Latino ...
The purpose of this report is to examine Latino immigrant families' experiences with discrimination, and the economic, social, and health-related consequences.
[101]
Racial Discrimination and Psychological Distress: The Impact of ...
With psychological distress as the outcome, the main effects of discrimination and ethnic identity as well as their interaction were included as predictors. In ...
[102]
[PDF] DISCRIMINATION and economic mobility | Urban Institute
Statistical discrimination refers to conscious discrimination that attempts to use group-level characteristics to estimate individual characteristics ...Missing: nationality | Show results with:nationality
[103]
Ethnic bias, economic achievement and trust between large ethnic ...
We examine the notion that outgroup discrimination by majority group members stems from stereotypes of minorities as economically unsuccessful.
[104]
Ethnic and Racial Minorities & Socioeconomic Status
Perceived discrimination has been shown to contribute to mental health disorders among racial/ethnic groups such as Asian Americans and African Americans (Jang, ...
[105]
[PDF] Does Immigration Affect Native Wages? A Meta-Analysis - CEPII
We collected empirical studies estimating the direct wage effect of immigration. Using the Econ-. Lit search engine, we systematically searched for English ...
[106]
[PDF] The Impact of Immigration on Unemployment and Wages in the ...
Findings from their work indicate that an increase in foreign-born workers has a corresponding inverse effect on the wages of natives involved in manual labor ...
[107]
The Effects of Immigration on the Economy: Lessons from the 1920s ...
The 1920s border closure did not raise wages for U.S. workers; wages fell in affected areas, and automation replaced workers in rural areas.Missing: growth | Show results with:growth<|control11|><|separator|>
[108]
Mass Deportations Would Deliver a Catastrophic Blow to the U.S. ...
Dec 11, 2024 · Even if 1.3 million undocumented immigrants are deported, GDP would drop by 1.2% and employment would drop by 1.1% by 2028. The American ...
[109]
The Effects of Immigration on the United States' Economy
Jun 27, 2016 · The available evidence suggests that immigration leads to more innovation, a better educated workforce, greater occupational specialization, ...
[110]
[PDF] The New Economic Case for Migration Restrictions: An Assessment
The new economic case argues that migration restrictions could be globally efficient by preventing migrants from transmitting low productivity from poor ...
[111]
[PDF] Immigration and Economic Growth
Native-born workers lose about 2.9 percent of GDP, Page 15 15 while native-owned capital gains about 3.2 percent of GDP. The $19.5 trillion GDP implies that ...<|separator|>
[112]
The downside of diversity - The New York Times
Aug 5, 2007 · The greater the diversity in a community, the fewer people vote and the less they volunteer, the less they give to charity and work on community projects.
[113]
Immigration Diversity and Social Cohesion - Migration Observatory
Dec 13, 2019 · The empirical evidence from the US suggests a negative relationship between diversity and cohesion. The evidence from the UK and rest of Europe ...
[114]
[PDF] Immigration, Social Cohesion, and the Welfare State - DiVA portal
May 10, 2017 · Abstract. Can social cohesion and solidarity persist in the face of large-scale migration? One particularly contentious hypothesis.
[115]
Immigration and the welfare state | Oxford Review of Economic Policy
Jun 6, 2025 · This article examines the empirical evidence surrounding three key questions: first, whether generous welfare systems attract immigrants disproportionately.
[116]
[PDF] Diversity, Social Capital, and Cohesion - Institute for Advanced Study
For Putnam, in contrast, social capital is a public good—the amount of participatory potential, civic orientation, and trust in others available to cities, ...
[117]
National Sovereignty and Free Immigration Are Compatible
Apr 28, 2014 · There is a historical argument that free immigration and US national sovereignty are not in conflict.
[118]
Immigration, diversity and trust: the competing and intersecting role ...
Jan 21, 2022 · A growing number of studies have shown adverse effects of ethnic diversity on social cohesion routed in ethnic categorical differences, ...
[119]
On cosmopolitan self-determination | Global Constitutionalism
Sep 26, 2012 · Virtual representation is successful if the national political process does not discriminate on the basis of nationality. Cosmopolitan subjects ...
[120]
[PDF] Open Borders - National Bureau of Economic Research
Open borders would lead to large efficiency gains, similar to a growth miracle that more than doubles income in less-developed countries.
[121]
The Economic Case for Opening America's Borders - Hillsdale College
Fully open borders would double world GDP in a few decades, virtually eliminating global poverty. Of course rich countries don't have a moral obligation to ...
[122]
Severing the Gordian Knot of Sovereignty and Migration Control
Oct 7, 2024 · The claim that states have an unfettered sovereign right to control their borders and exclude non-citizens from their territory is accepted everywhere without ...
[123]
[PDF] Reimagining Sovereignty to Protect Migrants
The concept of sovereignty in international law allows states to exclude and expel most categories of migrants, subject only to very narrow exceptions.
[124]
[PDF] Sovereignty, Legal Regimes, and International Migration
States control entry of foreigners, and sovereignty allows them to forbid or control it. Economic and human rights regimes also influence migration, but are ...
[125]
[PDF] Membership - Institute for Advanced Study
Aristotle, though himself a metic, provides the classic defense of ex-. 53. Page 13. SPHERES OF JUSTICE elusion, apparently responding to critics who argued ...
[126]
National Responsibility and Global Justice by David Miller
Miller argues that global justice should not be viewed simply as social justice—and in particular, egalitarian social justice—expanded beyond nation-state ...
[127]
Reciprocity and Resources | Journal of Practical Ethics
Dec 14, 2021 · In this paper I examine the concept of reciprocity, arguing that it is best understood as a form of fairness, or “fair return for services rendered.”<|control11|><|separator|>
[128]
Unemployed immigrants and voter sentiment in the welfare state
Adverse voter sentiment can arise when immigrants are unemployed and receive tax-financed income transfers.
[129]
Immigrant and Native Consumption of Means-Tested Welfare and ...
Feb 18, 2025 · We find that immigrants consumed 21 percent less welfare and entitlement benefits than native-born Americans on a per capita basis in 2022.
[130]
Reciprocity and the State | LSE Public Policy Review
Sep 6, 2021 · The reasoning is functionalist: we are reciprocal in nature because it brings material (and possibly psychic) benefits.
[131]
The state of hiring discrimination: A meta-analysis of (almost) all ...
Our meta-analysis shows that hiring discrimination against candidates with disabilities, older candidates, and less physically attractive candidates seems ...Missing: nationality | Show results with:nationality
[132]
[PDF] What's in a name? A field experiment test for the existence of ethnic ...
This paper provides evidence of extensive ethnic discrimination in the Swedish labour market. A field experiment (correspondence test) that tests employer ...
[133]
Cultural Assimilation and Ethnic Discrimination: An Audit Study with ...
Thus, the observed response patterns between assimilated and non-assimilated migrants can be linked to forms of statistical discrimination that blur the ...
[134]
https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/soc4.70106
[135]
Meta-analysis of field experiments shows no change in racial ...
Oct 2, 2017 · We assess trends in hiring discrimination against African Americans and Latinos over time by analyzing callback rates from all available field experiments of ...Missing: nationality- | Show results with:nationality-
[136]
EU migration and asylum policy - Consilium
Irregular arrivals in the EU have decreased significantly since the peak of the migration crisis in 2015. In 2025, 112 468 irregular arrivals were ...
[137]
Understanding Europe's turn on migration - Brookings Institution
Oct 24, 2024 · Europe's tone on migration has notably shifted toward a more securitized, hardline approach, even among mainstream parties.
[138]
Ten years since the refugee crisis 2015 – what has changed, and ...
Jun 18, 2025 · Since 2015, the EU has initiated sweeping reforms in its migration and asylum policies, most recently and most notably through the New Pact on ...
[139]
Migrant crisis: How Europe went from Merkel's 'We can do it ... - BBC
Sep 3, 2025 · Since 2015, when the UNHCR says over a million people entered Europe on asylum routes, there has been a dramatic drop in arrivals. But since ...
[140]
Europe's Responses to the Migration Crisis
Apr 25, 2019 · The EU's newly-developed strategy of containment of the migration crisis through a unified common asylum policy, tighter border controls, and ...
[141]
The European Migration Crisis and Hungary
Between September 2015 and 31 December 2016, 2,895 people were taken to court for “prohibited crossing of the border closure” and a majority were convicted. In ...
[142]
A Guide to the Countries on Trump's 2025 Travel Ban List
The White House's latest travel ban imposes restrictions on citizens from nineteen countries, many of which are contending with crises at home.<|separator|>
[143]
Restricting The Entry of Foreign Nationals to Protect the United ...
Jun 4, 2025 · During my first Administration, I restricted the entry of foreign nationals into the United States, which successfully prevented national ...
[144]
Trump's 2025 Travel Ban: Who Is Affected and What It Could Cost ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Table 1: Countries Affected by the 2025 Travel Ban ; Ban on all immigrant and non-immigrant visas ; Afghanistan, Chad, Republic of the Congo, ...
[145]
Travel Bans and Restrictions - NAFSA
Jun 16, 2025 · A "full" travel ban on 12 countries and a "partial" travel ban on 7 countries, effective 12:01 am eastern daylight time on June 9, 2025.
[146]
https://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/uk-public-opinion-toward-immigration-overall-attitudes-and-level-of-concern/
[147]
[PDF] The Brexit paradox: How leaving the EU led to more migration
It could be argued that leaving the EU has limited the UK's ability to tackle irregular migration, as it is no longer able to send migrants back to the EU ...
[148]
British Prime Minister Savages Conservative Party's 'Liberal ...
Dec 4, 2024 · According to YouGov UK, 41 percent of British adults surveyed in late June identified immigration as one of the “most important issues” facing ...
[149]
Welfare policy and immigration attitudes in Western Europe
Mar 9, 2025 · How do welfare systems affect natives' attitudes to immigration? The impact of immigration on public support for welfare and redistribution ...
[150]
The return of the state: how European governments regulate labour ...
Mar 10, 2025 · We examine the role of different market economies and the European Union in devising lesser-known measures that target migrant labour market competition.Missing: welfare | Show results with:welfare
[151]
IACHR expresses concern over recent migration and asylum ...
Feb 12, 2025 · IACHR expresses concern over recent migration and asylum policies and measures in the United States ... discrimination based on nationality, color ...Missing: shifts 2010-2025
[152]
US H-1B visa program data and key facts | Pew Research Center
Mar 4, 2025 · Nearly 400000 H-1B applications were approved in fiscal year 2024, most of which were applications to renew employment.
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Trump Immigration Rule Shifts H-1B Lottery To Favor Older ... - Forbes
Sep 24, 2025 · The Trump administration has proposed a new immigration rule to change the H-1B selection process to favor people in senior positions.Missing: 2010-2025 | Show results with:2010-2025<|separator|>
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https://www.lawfirm4immigrants.com/trumps-war-on-h-1b-in-2025-2026-a-comprehensive-analysis/