Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

European plaice

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is a species of right-eyed flatfish in the family Pleuronectidae, characterized by its asymmetrical, oval-shaped body with both eyes positioned on the right (ocular) side, a brownish to greenish-brown upper surface dotted with conspicuous bright orange-red spots, and a smooth white underside.^[1] This demersal marine fish typically reaches a maximum length of 100 cm (standard length) and weight of 7 kg, though it commonly attains 40 cm total length, with females growing larger and faster than males.^[1] It inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms in coastal and shelf waters, from intertidal zones and estuaries to depths of up to 200 m (usually 10–50 m), in both marine and occasionally brackish environments.^[1]^[2] Distributed across the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, the European plaice ranges from the Barents Sea and Iceland in the north to the western Mediterranean Sea in the south (though currently absent from the Mediterranean), with key populations in the North Sea, Irish Sea, and around the British Isles.^[1]^[2] Juveniles settle in shallow nursery areas such as estuaries and sandy bays (e.g., the Wadden Sea), while adults exhibit seasonal migrations to deeper offshore grounds following Heincke's Law, where they bury in sediment during the day and forage actively at night.^[2] Biologically, it is a batch spawner that reproduces in winter (January–February) at water temperatures around 6°C, producing 60,000–100,000 pelagic eggs per average-sized (35 cm) female (1.7–2.2 mm in diameter); larvae feed on plankton like copepods, while adults consume benthic invertebrates including polychaetes, thin-shelled mollusks, and crustaceans.^[2] Sexual maturity is reached at 2–3 years for males and 4–5 years for females (around 25–42 cm length), with a maximum lifespan of up to 50 years.^[1]^[2] As one of Europe's most important commercial flatfishes, the European plaice supports substantial fisheries using beam trawls, Danish seines, and gillnets, with historical North Sea landings peaking at over 170,000 tonnes in the 1980s, falling below 60,000 tonnes since the early 2000s, and reaching around 22,000 tonnes (landings) with total catches of approximately 61,000 tonnes in 2023.^[2]^[3] It is marketed fresh, frozen, or processed and consumed in various cooked forms. Despite past overexploitation, current stock assessments indicate sustainable levels as of 2025, with the 2025 TAC increased to 79,071 tonnes, and the species is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with no major threats beyond fishing pressure and habitat alteration in nursery areas.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

Taxonomy

Classification

The European plaice belongs to the domain Eukaryota, kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Actinopterygii, order Pleuronectiformes, family Pleuronectidae, genus Pleuronectes, and species Pleuronectes platessa.^[6] This placement situates it among the ray-finned fishes, specifically within the flatfishes characterized by their asymmetrical body form and benthic lifestyle.^[6] The binomial name is Pleuronectes platessa Linnaeus, 1758, originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae.^[6] No subspecies are currently recognized, though historical infraspecific taxa such as P. p. baltica have been proposed but not accepted in modern taxonomy.^[6] Synonyms for P. platessa include Platessa vulgaris Cloquet, 1826, and Pleuronectes borealis Faber, 1828, reflecting earlier nomenclatural variations and misidentifications in taxonomic literature.^[7] Historically, the genus Pleuronectes encompassed a broader array of flatfishes, but revisions have reclassified many into other genera, leaving it more narrowly defined today.^[8] Within the genus Pleuronectes, P. platessa is one of two accepted species, the other being the Alaska plaice (P. quadrituberculatus Pallas, 1814), which occurs in the North Pacific and differs in distribution and subtle morphological traits such as tubercle arrangement on the eyed side.^[8] It is distinct from the American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides Fabricius, 1780), a relative in the family Pleuronectidae but in a separate genus, primarily found in the North Atlantic and characterized by a more elongated body and different scale patterns.

Nomenclature

The scientific name Pleuronectes platessa derives from Greek roots, with the genus Pleuronectes combining pleura, meaning "side" or "rib," and nēktēs (from nekton), referring to "swimmer," reflecting the flatfish's asymmetrical body and swimming orientation. The specific epithet platessa originates from Late Latin platessa, denoting a flatfish, which traces back to the Ancient Greek platys, meaning "broad" or "flat," alluding to the species' compressed, flattened form.^[9] This binomial nomenclature was first established by Carl Linnaeus in his seminal work Systema Naturae (10th edition), published in 1758, where he described the species based on European specimens, assigning it to the genus Pleuronectes within the flatfishes.^[6] In English, the species is commonly known as plaice or European plaice, the latter qualifier used to distinguish it from similar flatfishes like the American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides). Regional variations include "schol" in standard Dutch and "pladijs" in some Flemish or historical Dutch contexts, both deriving from the same Late Latin root; other European languages feature equivalents such as "rødspætte" in Danish, "skarkoli" in Icelandic, and "plie" in French, emphasizing its widespread recognition in coastal fisheries.

Description

Morphology

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) exhibits a distinctive body shape typical of flatfishes in the family Pleuronectidae, with a strongly dorsoventrally compressed, oval form that facilitates a benthic lifestyle on the seafloor.^[10] The species has more than 30 vertebrae. During early development, the symmetrical larval stage undergoes metamorphosis, during which the body flattens and the left eye migrates across the top of the head to join the right eye on the ocular (upper) side, resulting in an asymmetrical orientation with both eyes facing upward.^[11] This adaptation, accompanied by skeletal twisting, positions the fish to lie flat on its blind (left) side while scanning the environment above.^[12] The fin structure supports maneuverability and stability in sediment. The dorsal fin originates anterior to the upper eye and extends continuously to the caudal fin, lacking spines and bearing 65–79 soft rays, while the anal fin, also spineless, has 48–59 soft rays and merges seamlessly with the dorsal fin posteriorly.^[10] The pectoral fin on the ocular side is notably larger, with 10–12 rays, while the one on the blind side is smaller.^[13] The mouth is small and terminal, with the maxilla extending just below the lower eye, and the skull displays pronounced asymmetry due to metamorphic remodeling, where the blind-side jaw is reduced and flattened.^[14] Teeth are adapted for a diet of soft-bodied invertebrates, featuring sharp, incisiform anterior dentition for cutting and posterior pharyngeal crushers for processing.^[15] Scales are cycloid and small across the body, providing a smooth texture overall and deeply embedded to aid in retaining sediment for camouflage during burial.^[16] Sensory adaptations enhance detection in low-visibility benthic habitats, where the plaice often buries in sand. The lateral line system runs straight along the flanks, with a slight arch above the pectoral fin base, comprising neuromasts sensitive to water movements and vibrations from nearby prey or predators.^[10] Olfactory capabilities are pronounced, with the epithelium showing higher densities of ciliated sensory cells on the ocular side in juveniles and adults, allowing effective odorant detection in turbid, bottom waters.^[17]

Size and coloration

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) typically reaches a maximum length of 100 cm in standard length, though commonly observed adults measure around 40 cm in total length, with females attaining larger sizes than males due to faster growth rates and later maturation.^[18] Maximum reported weight is 7 kg, though average adults weigh considerably less, often 1-2 kg.^[18] Growth in European plaice is rapid during the first few years, with juveniles adding several centimeters annually before slowing after sexual maturity, which occurs at around 33 cm (range 24-42 cm) and ages 2-4 for males and 3-6 for females.^[18] This deceleration post-maturity aligns with energy allocation toward reproduction rather than somatic growth, allowing individuals to reach maximum ages of up to 50 years, though most are harvested before 15 years.^[18] Average adult sizes of 30-50 cm reflect regional variations, with northern populations often larger than southern ones due to differences in temperature and food availability. The coloration of the European plaice features a brown to greenish-brown upper (eyed) side mottled for blending with substrates, accented by conspicuous orange-red spots that remain visible regardless of background and serve as a key diagnostic trait for species identification.^[18] The blind side is uniformly white, contrasting sharply with the pigmented dorsal surface.^[18] These fish exhibit adaptive camouflage by altering the intensity and pattern of their mottling to match sandy or muddy seabeds, a flexible response involving chromatophore expansion that enhances survival against visual predators, though the orange spots do not change.^[19] This color-matching ability is particularly pronounced in juveniles, who produce disruptive patterns to mimic sediment textures.^[19]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is primarily distributed across the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, ranging from the Barents Sea, White Sea, and Iceland in the north to northern Africa, including Morocco, and the Iberian Peninsula in the south.^[10] This distribution encompasses temperate marine and brackish waters, with occasional records off Greenland, though the species is absent from the Mediterranean Sea in modern times, where past reports likely represent misidentifications of the European flounder (P. flesus).^[10]^[2] Within this broad range, the species is most abundant in key areas such as the North Sea, Irish Sea, English Channel, and Baltic Sea, where populations are particularly concentrated in shallow coastal zones.^[10]^[2] In the North Sea, for instance, juveniles are densely aggregated in nursery areas like the Southern Bight, German Bight, and coastal regions off eastern Britain, while adults are prevalent in offshore spawning grounds from the English Channel to the Moray Firth.^[2] The Baltic Sea supports a distinct subpopulation, though overall abundance peaks in the shallower, inshore waters of these northwestern European seas.^[10] Migration patterns of European plaice are generally limited, with adults exhibiting sedentary behavior and high site fidelity to specific feeding and spawning grounds, often returning to the same areas seasonally.^[20] Juveniles, however, disperse more widely via tidal currents and oceanographic flows from spawning sites to nursery habitats, contributing to local recruitment dynamics.^[2] While adults may undertake directed migrations over tens to hundreds of kilometers between winter spawning areas in the south (e.g., southern North Sea) and summer feeding grounds in the north, these movements are not extensive compared to more pelagic species.^[20] The historical and current range of European plaice has remained largely stable through the early 21st century, with no major contractions or expansions documented prior to 2025.^[10] However, emerging evidence from climate projections indicates potential northward and deeper-water expansions due to warming seas, which could alter distribution patterns by the latter half of the century, though short-term stability persists.^[21]

Habitat preferences

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is a demersal flatfish that inhabits coastal and shelf waters of the northeast Atlantic, preferring soft-bottom environments that facilitate burial and foraging. It occurs from shallow coastal zones to depths of up to 200 m, though adults are most commonly found between 10 and 50 m.^[10] The species avoids rocky substrates, favoring sandy or muddy bottoms where it can camouflage effectively against predators.^[22] Seabed sediment type, particularly fine sand to mud, is the primary environmental factor influencing habitat selection across populations.^[22] Habitat preferences vary significantly with salinity and temperature, reflecting the plaice's euryhaline nature. It tolerates salinities from approximately 5 to 35 ppt, including marine, brackish, and occasionally freshwater conditions, though optimal growth occurs in 20-32 ppt for juveniles in estuarine areas.^[10]^[23] Temperature ranges from 2°C to 22°C overall, with adults thriving in 2-20°C and an optimal range of 8-15°C for most life stages; juveniles tolerate up to 18°C in shallow inshore waters.^[10]^[23] Life stage-specific microhabitats underscore the plaice's complex ecology. Eggs and larvae are pelagic, drifting in offshore waters at 20-50 m depths with salinities above 15 ppt and temperatures of 2-12°C for eggs or 4-6°C for larvae.^[23] Post-larvae settle in shallow coastal nurseries less than 20 m deep, often intertidal or subtidal sandy/muddy areas under 10 m, where juveniles remain for the first 1-2 years to achieve high densities and growth.^[24]^[23] Adults transition to demersal lifestyles on deeper soft sediments (30-80 m), shifting to coarser sands as they age.^[10]^[23]

Ecology

Diet and feeding

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is primarily benthivorous, with its diet consisting mainly of benthic invertebrates such as polychaetes (e.g., Nereis spp., Pectinaria koreni, and Arenicola marina), bivalves (e.g., tellins like Abra spp. and Spisula spp.), and small crustaceans (e.g., amphipods, mysids, and shrimps).^[2]^[25] Brittle stars (Ophiura spp.) and bivalve siphons also form part of the diet, particularly for larger individuals.^[2] Plaice employ a sit-and-wait foraging strategy, lying camouflaged on the sandy or muddy seabed to ambush prey with rapid upward strikes from a stationary position.^[26] They rely on tactile and chemosensory cues rather than vision for detecting infaunal and epibenthic prey buried in or moving across the sediment.^[27] This behavior aligns with their benthic lifestyle in coastal and shelf habitats, where they bury in sediment during the day and forage actively at night.^[1]^[14] Diet undergoes ontogenetic shifts as plaice develop: pelagic larvae primarily consume planktonic prey such as appendicularians (Oikopleura dioica) and copepods, transitioning to benthic items upon settlement.^[2] Juveniles focus on smaller polychaetes and worms, while adults shift toward larger mollusks like bivalves, with the proportion of annelids decreasing and bivalves increasing with body size.^[25]^[28] Feeding activity shows seasonal variation, with increased consumption during summer months when prey abundance is higher, particularly polychaetes rising from about 32% to over 60% of the diet by weight from spring to late summer.^[25] In contrast, feeding declines or ceases in winter (December to March), influenced by lower temperatures and reduced prey availability.^[29] Prey composition adjusts to seasonal availability, maintaining optimal intake despite environmental changes.^[30]

Reproduction and life cycle

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) reaches sexual maturity at 2-4 years of age and lengths of 25-35 cm, with males typically maturing earlier than females.^[2]^[1] Females generally mature later, at 4-5 years and larger sizes of 30-40 cm, reflecting sexual dimorphism in growth rates.^[14] This maturation timeline varies regionally, with northern populations reaching maturity at older ages and greater lengths due to cooler temperatures and slower growth.^[2] Spawning occurs during winter, primarily from January to February, in deeper offshore waters where temperatures reach around 6°C.^[2]^[1] The plaice is a batch spawner, with females releasing eggs in multiple batches every 2-5 days over several weeks, often totaling 50,000 to 1 million eggs per female depending on body size.^[31]^[14] For example, a 35 cm female produces approximately 60,000-100,000 eggs, while larger individuals exceed 280,000.^[2]^[31] Eggs are pelagic, measuring 1.7-2.2 mm in diameter, and hatch after 10-20 days depending on water temperature.^[2]^[31] Upon hatching, plaice larvae remain pelagic, drifting with currents for 1-3 months before undergoing metamorphosis and settling to the bottom.^[2]^[32] During this larval stage, which lasts 8-12 weeks on average, the left eye migrates to the right side of the head, transforming the symmetrical larva into the characteristic flatfish form; larvae initially feed on plankton such as appendicularians and copepods before transitioning to benthic prey upon settlement.^[14]^[32]^[2] Settlement into nursery habitats occurs at sizes of 30-40 mm, marking the transition to a demersal juvenile lifestyle.^[33]^[34] The lifespan of the European plaice extends up to 50 years, though individuals commonly reach 50-70 cm in length with a maximum recorded length of 100 cm.^[2]^[1] Growth is relatively slow after the first few years, with females attaining larger sizes than males due to faster somatic growth rates; juveniles grow rapidly in the first 2-3 years, reaching 20-25 cm, before the rate declines.^[2]^[14] Overall growth varies with environmental factors like temperature and food availability, influencing the species' life history trajectory.^[2]

Human uses

Fisheries

The European plaice is primarily harvested through demersal fishing methods targeting flatfish species in coastal and shelf waters. Bottom trawling, including beam trawls and otter trawls, accounts for the majority of catches, with beam trawls comprising about 42% and otter trawls 44% of the North Sea fishery in 2023.^[35] Directed fisheries also employ Danish seine nets and gillnets, particularly in the central North Sea, while plaice frequently appears as bycatch in mixed flatfish trawls for species like sole.^[2] The largest fishery operates in the North Sea (ICES subarea 4), where total catches reached 61,336 tonnes in 2023, including significant discards of 38,407 tonnes.^[35] Other key areas include the Celtic Sea (divisions 7.h–k) with advised catches around 132 tonnes annually and the Baltic Sea (subdivisions 24–32), where landings were 783 tonnes in 2023.^[36]^[37] Across these regions, EU-wide landings averaged about 25,614 tonnes in 2021, reflecting a focus on the North Sea as the dominant contributor.^[38] Historically, North Sea catches peaked at approximately 170,000 tonnes in the late 1980s before declining sharply to below 60,000 tonnes by the mid-2000s due to increased fishing pressure and environmental factors.^[2] Since then, exploitation has stabilized at lower levels, with total catches around 60,000–75,000 tonnes annually in recent years.^[35] For 2025, ICES advises catches no more than 176,988 tonnes in the North Sea.^[39] The European Union regulates these fisheries through Total Allowable Catches (TACs) established annually based on advice from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), aiming to maintain sustainable fishing mortality rates.^[40] Economically, the plaice fishery generates significant value, with EU landings valued at €66.2 million in 2021 at an average first-sale price of €2.37 per kg.^[38] Plaice is predominantly exported in fresh or frozen forms, with the Netherlands handling major trade flows, including 18,117 tonnes of exports in 2015, primarily as frozen fillets to markets like Italy.^[41] This supports a broader flatfish sector contributing to EU self-sufficiency rates of 62% for the group.^[38]

Culinary aspects

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is prized in culinary applications for its mild, sweet flavor and fine, moist texture, with firm white flesh that remains tender when cooked. Its low fat content, typically ranging from 1.4% to 2.6%, contributes to a delicate mouthfeel without greasiness.^[42]^[43]^[44] Common preparations highlight its subtle taste, often involving simple methods to preserve its qualities. It is frequently pan-fried in butter for a golden crust, baked with herbs and lemon, or poached gently in court-bouillon. In the United Kingdom, plaice is a traditional choice for fish and chips, battered and deep-fried to pair with thick-cut fries. In France, it features in meunière style, dredged in flour, sautéed in butter, and finished with lemon juice and parsley.^[45]^[46]^[47] Nutritionally, European plaice offers high-quality protein at approximately 16-17 g per 100 g serving, making it an excellent source for muscle maintenance. It provides beneficial omega-3 fatty acids, with total EPA and DHA around 0.2-0.5 g per 100 g, supporting heart and brain health. The fish is also rich in vitamins, including B12 (1.2 µg per 100 g) for nerve function and red blood cell formation, and D (6.6 µg per 100 g) for bone health. As a small flatfish low on the food chain, it has minimal mercury levels, typically below 0.1 ppm, rendering it safe for regular consumption, including by pregnant individuals.^[44]^[43]^[48]^[49] European plaice holds cultural significance as a staple in coastal cuisines across Europe, with archaeological evidence indicating its consumption since medieval times in regions like England. It remains integral to traditional dishes in the UK, Netherlands, and Nordic countries, reflecting maritime heritage. As a sustainable seafood option, many North Sea plaice fisheries hold Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification, promoting environmentally responsible sourcing.^[50]^[51]^[52]

Conservation

Population status

The European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, based on an assessment conducted in 2022 that notes stable global populations despite regional differences in abundance and fishing pressure.^[53] Stock assessments conducted by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) indicate that North Sea populations (Subarea 4 and Subdivision 20) are healthy and stable. According to the 2025 ICES assessment, fishing mortality is estimated at 0.040 for ages 2–6 in 2025, below the updated F_MSY threshold of 0.123; spawning stock biomass (SSB) is projected at 1,313,280 tonnes for 2026, well above the MSY B_trigger reference point; recruitment is projected using the geometric mean from 2015–2024 at approximately 4.48 million age-1 individuals. These figures reflect ongoing recovery from overexploitation prior to stricter quotas implemented around 2010, following revisions from the 2025 benchmark assessment. ICES advises catches no greater than 164,129 tonnes for 2026.^[54] In the Baltic Sea (subdivisions 21–32, combined assessment), plaice stocks are stable, with SSB projected at 90,038 tonnes for 2026 (exceeding MSY B_trigger levels), fishing mortality at 0.042 for ages 3–5 in 2025 (below F_MSY of 0.149), driven by strong recruitment (median 391 million age-1 individuals for 2025–2027) from recent year classes and reduced fishing pressure. ICES advises catches no greater than 16,533 tonnes for 2026 to maintain this status.^[55] Monitoring of European plaice populations primarily involves annual beam trawl surveys coordinated by the ICES Working Group on Beam Trawl Surveys (WGBEAM), which target juveniles and adults to generate abundance indices across key habitats like the North Sea and Irish Sea. Complementary methods include egg production surveys, which estimate SSB by sampling planktonic eggs and integrating data on fecundity and mortality to validate trawl-based assessments, particularly in nursery grounds.^[56]^[57]

Threats and management

The primary threats to European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) populations include overfishing, which has historically led to exploitation pressures in key areas like the Kattegat-Skagerrak, reducing stock abundance through sustained high catches.^[58] Habitat loss from bottom trawling further exacerbates this by damaging nursery grounds in coastal shallow waters, where juvenile plaice settle, as demonstrated by the need for targeted closures to mitigate impacts on these sensitive areas.^[59] Bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries, such as those targeting sole, contributes to mortality, with discarded plaice often experiencing high post-release death rates due to handling stress.^[60] Climate change poses additional risks, particularly through ocean warming that alters larval recruitment and juvenile growth; for instance, shifts in temperature regimes have been linked to changes in the growing period and distribution of 0-group plaice in the North Sea.^[61] Ocean acidification poses potential risks to early life stages of flatfish like plaice by disrupting development, as indicated in studies on marine fish vulnerabilities.^[62] These threats are compounded by indirect effects, such as altered prey availability due to warming, underscoring the need for adaptive strategies. Management efforts for European plaice are coordinated under the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), which establishes total allowable catches (TACs) informed by scientific advice to ensure sustainable exploitation.^[63] Quotas are set annually, with 2025 limits for North Sea plaice aligned closely to International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) recommendations to maintain stocks above biomass levels capable of producing maximum sustainable yield (MSY). In October 2025, the EU Council agreed on Baltic plaice TACs for 2026 in line with ICES advice. For the North Sea, trilateral agreements with the UK and Norway continue to align TACs with ICES recommendations to ensure MSY compliance.^[64] A minimum landing size of 27 cm is enforced across EU waters to protect immature individuals, reducing fishing mortality on juveniles.^[65] Marine protected areas, such as the Plaice Box in the Wadden Sea region, restrict beam trawling to safeguard nursery habitats, demonstrating positive effects on juvenile abundance since their establishment.^[66] Recent initiatives emphasize MSY-based frameworks, with ICES providing stock-specific advice for 2025-2026 to cap catches and promote recovery where needed.^[67] Post-2020 research has focused on climate resilience, including models assessing how environmental drivers interact with fishing pressures to inform adaptive management, such as adjusting TACs in response to warming trends.^[68] These efforts aim to address gaps in understanding acidification and bycatch, promoting ecosystem-based approaches within the CFP.

References

[1]
Pleuronectes platessa, European plaice - FishBase
Occurs on mud and sand bottom from a few meters down to about 100 m, at sea, estuaries and rarely entering freshwaters (Ref. 59043). Reported as resident ...
[2]
None
### Key Facts About Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa)
[3]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Insufficient relevant content. The provided URL (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/135690/135111216) does not contain specific information about the European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) based on the accessible text. The page appears to be a template or placeholder with no substantive data on conservation status, population trends, distribution, threats, habitat, or biological details.
[4]
Pleuronectes platessa Linnaeus, 1758 - WoRMS
Pleuronectes platessa Linnaeus, 1758 · Biota · Animalia (Kingdom) · Chordata (Phylum) · Vertebrata (Subphylum) · Gnathostomata (Infraphylum) · Osteichthyes ( ...
[5]
Synonyms of Pleuronectes platessa Linnaeus, 1758 - FishBase
Platessa vulgaris · Cloquet, 1826. synonym. No ; Pleuronectes borealis · Faber, 1828. synonym. No.
[6]
World Register of Marine Species - Pleuronectes Linnaeus, 1758
Pleuronectes Linnaeus, 1758 · Species Pleuronectes platessa Linnaeus, 1758 · Species Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus Pallas, 1814 · Species Pleuronectes achirus ...
[7]
Plaice - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Plaice, a European edible flatfish, originates from late 13th-c. Old French plaise, from Late Latin platessa, linked to Greek platys meaning "broad, flat."
[8]
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=126120
[9]
[PDF] Migration of the Plaice Eye Grenham Ireland
Adult plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) are a benthic (bottom-living) species ... The 'eye migration' is potentially an adaptation for benthic living.
[10]
The cost of metamorphosis in flatfishes - ScienceDirect.com
Flatfish development includes a unique physical metamorphosis with morphological and physiological changes associated with eye migration, a 90° rotation in ...
[11]
Pleuronectes platessa - Monaco Nature Encyclopedia
Jan 15, 2025 · All the fins do not have spines. There are 65-79 rays on the dorsal one, that starts close to the back eye, and 48-59 rays on the anal. The ...
[12]
European Plaice - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) Flatfish are a group of demersal fish adapted for life on the seabed, mostly in sediment areas. Different species form ...
[13]
Plaice - IFCA North West
Plaice have 'cutting' teeth which they use to bite off soft, protruding parts of bivalves, such as siphons; further back in the mouth they have crushing teeth ...<|separator|>
[14]
Key role of scale morphology in flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes) in the ...
May 20, 2016 · ... rough scales in keeping sediment on their surface. Low CSAs on the unstructured cycloid scales on the eye side of P. platessa, observed for ...
[15]
The olfactory epithelium in plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and sole ...
In juveniles and adults of plaice, there were significantly higher densities of ciliated sensory cells in the eyed side of the fish than in the blind side ...Missing: line bottom- dwelling
[16]
Pleuronectes platessa summary page
### Taxonomic Classification Hierarchy for Pleuronectes platessa
[17]
Juvenile plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) produce camouflage by ...
This study investigates the repertoire of patterns used by juvenile plaice, by describing how they respond to shifts between three artificial backgrounds.Missing: European size maximum length weight growth
[18]
European plaice movements show evidence of high residency, site ...
Nov 22, 2023 · Although most plaice moved away from the OWF in winter, likely towards spawning grounds, many exhibited high site fidelity returning to the ...
[19]
Projected impacts of warming seas on commercially fished species ...
Aug 9, 2020 · Projections for European plaice were relatively stable across all climate scenarios up to 2040s, but their projected responses differed by 2080 ...
[20]
What influences European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa ... - Archimer
Seabed sediment type was the main significant predictor of plaice preferential and potential habitats, whereas other factors did not show such a clear influence ...Missing: preferences range substrate
[21]
[PDF] Impacts of climate change on the complex life cycles of fish
Table 4. European plaice in the North Sea. Table documenting how critical different stages are in the life cycle. Habitat requirements are at species level.<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
[PDF] Habitat characteristics promoting high density and condition of ...
May 22, 2012 · Habitat selection by juvenile flatfish is driven by resource requirements promoting fast growth and survival during this vulnerable life stage ( ...
[23]
https://vistikhetmaar.nl/app/uploads/2021/03/Impacts-of-climate-change-on-the-complex-life-cycles-of-fish.pdf
[24]
(PDF) Changeable camouflage: How well can flounder resemble the ...
... In this environment, flounders act as ambush predators where they initiate attacks from a stationary position while hiding against the substrate (Holmes & ...<|separator|>
[25]
Density, growth and annual food consumption of plaice ...
About 56% of the plaice food consisted of polychaetes, mainly consisting of in 1980 Arenicola marina (41%) and in 1981 A. marina (15%), Nereidae (15%) and ...
[26]
What influences European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa ...
Jun 6, 2011 · Water temperature tends to be the main factor explaining seasonal movements of flatfish between onshore and offshore habitats, principally in ...
[27]
Seasonal variation in chemical composition and contaminants in ...
Feb 1, 2023 · According to Dawson et al. (1980), European plaice stops feeding from December to March, which is reflected by a constant decline of proteins ...
[28]
[PDF] The daily food intake of 0-group plaice (Pleuronectes platessa L ...
It is concluded that diet changes to maintain an optimal prey size between 0·5% and 10. % of the predators' weight. This change in diet keeps to a minimum the ...
[29]
[PDF] Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa)
Minimum Conservation References Sizes (MCRS) for plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) enforced ... The IUCN Red List of Threatened. Species 2014: e.T135690A50018800.<|separator|>
[30]
Otolith increments in European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa ...
Feb 12, 2018 · Juvenile growth was positively correlated with bottom temperature, whereas growth of adults was negatively correlated with bottom temperature.
[31]
Size variation of 0-group plaice: Are earlier influences on growth ...
In 2011, juvenile plaice (30–60 mm total length) were collected from Caolisport on 27 June and from Tralee on 29 June using the trawl described above (rearing ...
[32]
[PDF] Growth dynamics of juvenile European plaice (Pleuronectes ...
The metamorphosis and settlement are not necessary fixed events and, therefore, the newly metamorphosed plaice can stay in the water-column even when they have ...
[33]
Plaice | Institute of Marine Research
Apr 20, 2020 · Facts about plaice. Scientific name: Pleuronectes platessa. Family: Pleuronectidae (flounder family) Maximum size: 1 m and 7 kg (Seldom more ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
[PDF] Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in Subarea 4 (North Sea) and ...
Jun 28, 2024 · Total catch (2024). 75 164 STF; tonnes. Projected landings (2024). 31 ... ICES advice, TACs, official landings, and ICES catch estimates ...
[35]
[PDF] Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in Divisions 7.h–k (Celtic Sea South ...
Jun 28, 2024 · Previous catch advice Ay (advised catch for 2024). 132 tonnes. Stock biomass trend. Index A (2022, 2023). 420 tonnes. Index B (2019, 2020, 2021).<|separator|>
[36]
[PDF] Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in subdivisions 24–32 (Baltic Sea ...
May 31, 2024 · As for the plaice stock in subdivisions 21–23 (ICES, 2024a), Table 4 provides an option for calculating TACs by management area, based on the ...
[37]
[PDF] 2023 edition - THE EU FISH MARKET
The EU Fish Market report provides an economic description of the EU fisheries and aquaculture industry, including production, consumption, and trends. The EU ...
[38]
Latest advice - ICES
You will find the latest official ICES advice on this page. You can also search for our advice by species or ecoregion in the library.<|separator|>
[39]
https://ices-library.figshare.com/articles/report/Plaice_i_Pleuronectes_platessa_i_in_Subarea_4_North_Sea_and_Subdivision_20_Skagerrak_/25019441
[40]
Plaice - Eat The Seasons
As with other white fish, plaice is high in protein and low in fat and calories. It is a good source of iodine (vital for effective thyroid function).
[41]
Plaice, raw - Matvaretabellen
Plaice, raw. Energy in 100 g. Per 100 g. 382 kJ (91 kcal). Energy → 382 kJ 91 kcal. Fat → 2.6 g. Protein → 16.8 g. Carbohydrate → 0
[42]
None
### Nutritional Data for European Plaice (per 100g, raw, edible part)
[43]
Plaice - Santa Monica Seafood
Feb 26, 2024 · Its orange-spotted skin and soft texture make it a favorite in European kitchens, particularly in classic British and Nordic dishes.Missing: nutrition recipes cultural
[44]
Tom Aikens: Baked plaice with lemon peel and lemon risotto
50 minCover the shallow tray in tin foil and bake the plaice for in the oven for approx 6-8 mins. Serve with the lemon risotto.Missing: traditional | Show results with:traditional
[45]
Plaice meunière - Full As An Egg
Mar 29, 2013 · This dish has a posh, french name, this recipe really just involves frying the flour coated fillet with butter and some lemon. And that's all it needs.
[46]
[PDF] Omega-3 Fatty Acid Content in Fish - College of Agricultural Sciences |
Plaice, European marine trace. 0.1. 0.1. 0.2. 0.2. 3. Snapper, Red marine trace ... (1995) Omega-3 Fatty Acid and Health. Chapman & Hall, 115 Fifth Ave., New ...Missing: protein vitamins mercury
[47]
Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990-2012) - FDA
Feb 25, 2022 · The table is sorted by MERCURY CONCENTRATION MEAN (PPM) from fish with lowest levels of mercury to highest levels of mercury.
[48]
Plaice may have been most popular flatfish on dinner tables in ...
Jul 16, 2024 · Flatfish, such as plaice, turbot and sole, were regularly consumed as part of a medieval meal, according to analysis of fishbone remains ...Missing: significance cuisine sustainable
[49]
Plaice may have been most popular flatfish on dinner tables in ...
Jul 15, 2024 · Flatfish, such as plaice, turbot and sole, were regularly consumed as part of a medieval meal, according to analysis of fishbone remains found ...
[50]
Osprey Trawlers North Sea twin-rigged plaice - MSC Fisheries
The Osprey Trawlers North Sea twin-rigged plaice fishery has been certified as sustainable to the MSC Fisheries Standard.
[51]
https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2024/research/plaice-popular-fish-medieval-times/
[52]
https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/osprey-trawlers-north-sea-twin-rigged-plaice/
[53]
https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/135690/50018800
[54]
ICES Survey Protocols – Offshore beam trawl surveys, coordinated ...
Oct 28, 2025 · The ICES survey protocol for offshore beam trawl surveys describes the current methodologies, stratification, and sample processing used in the ...
[55]
A reanalysis of North Sea plaice spawning-stock biomass using the ...
Plaice in the North Sea and the English Channel are managed as different stocks, and it is assumed that there is no mixing (ICES, 2003a) between the stocks. ...
[56]
Fishing through time: population dynamics of plaice (Pleuronectes ...
Sep 17, 2009 · This led to partial overfishing in the area, and the fishery started to exploit more distant fishing grounds such as those along the Norwegian ...Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[57]
Evaluating the effect of fishery closures - ScienceDirect
To reduce discarding of plaice Pleuronectes platessa in the North Sea flatfish fisheries, the major nursery areas were closed to large trawlers in 1995. The ...
[58]
An end to discards? - World Ocean Review
In the North Sea sole fishery, for example, large quantities of plaice, another flatfish species, are caught as bycatch. This causes problems because ...
[59]
Effects of climate change on growth of 0-group sole and plaice (MEPS)
Apr 21, 2008 · Increasing winter temperatures significantly increased the growing period of sole, a warm-water species that spawns in spring, but not of plaice ...
[60]
Impacts of climate change on the complex life cycles of fish
... overfishing threats, tropical reef fishes that form spawning aggregations are threatened by climate change, which can reduce management effectiveness. While ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Fishing quotas - Oceans and fisheries - European Commission
EU countries can exchange quotas but must use transparent and objective criteria when distributing national quotas among their fishers. They are responsible for ...
[62]
Fishing opportunities in the EU - Consilium
The fishing opportunities, or total annual catches, represent the total amount of fish which can be caught for each fish stock per year.
[63]
Minimum Conservation Reference Sizes (MCRSs)
The minimum conservation reference size (MCRS) is the size of a living marine aquatic species, taking into account maturity, as established by Union law.
[64]
[PDF] The Plaice Box: A summary of four evaluations - WUR eDepot
The Plaice Box (PB) is a spatial closure of coastal areas in Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands, created to protect undersized juvenile plaice.
[65]
Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in Division 7.d (eastern English ...
Jun 27, 2025 · ICES advises that when the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) approach is applied, catches in 2026 should be no more than 1 151 tonnes.
[66]
Fishing impacts on age structure may conceal environmental drivers ...
Various studies have also suggested that plaice distributions are shifting as conditions change, to optimize their experienced environmental conditions (van ...