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Exaggerated masculinity

Exaggerated masculinity, also known as hypermasculinity, refers to the intensified endorsement and display of traits stereotypically linked to male gender roles, including aggression as a marker of manhood, callous attitudes toward sex, excitement from danger, and dominance over others.^[1] Empirical profiles of hypermasculinity reveal it as a multidimensional construct varying in degree among men, rather than a binary trait, with higher endorsement correlating to elevated risks of physical and sexual aggression, particularly against women, alongside patterns of emotional suppression and risk-seeking behavior.^[2]^[3] From an evolutionary perspective, such exaggerated masculine traits parallel sexually selected features in males across species, where male-male competition drives the amplification of armaments, physical prowess, and dominance signals to secure mating advantages and resources, though human manifestations are modulated by culture and environment.^[4] Studies indicate that while extreme expressions can yield maladaptive outcomes like interpersonal violence, moderate masculine traits—rooted in biological sex differences—often confer adaptive benefits, such as enhanced status attainment and resilience in competitive settings, challenging narratives that frame masculinity inherently as pathological.^[5]^[6] Culturally, exaggerated masculinity manifests in phenomena like machismo, emphasizing virility and self-reliance, which has been critiqued in academic and media contexts for fostering gender-based harm, yet empirical data underscore that anti-masculine ideologies correlate with poorer male mental health outcomes, including higher depression, suggesting a need for causal realism over ideologically driven pathologization.^[7]^[6] Despite systemic biases in social science institutions toward viewing traditional male behaviors negatively, research highlights diverse trajectories, where hypermasculine profiles may enhance survival in high-threat environments, such as incarceration, while broader masculinity supports lower baseline depression rates.^[8]^[9]

Definition and Conceptual Foundations

Core Characteristics and Traits

Exaggerated masculinity manifests in psychological constructs as hypermasculinity, defined by extreme adherence to macho attitudes that prioritize dominance, aggression, and emotional restraint over relational or introspective qualities. Central to this profile are calloused attitudes toward sex, viewing women primarily as conquests or objects for male gratification rather than partners deserving empathy or equality.^[10] Such attitudes correlate with higher rates of sexual aggression and reduced interpersonal sensitivity in empirical studies of male samples.^[10] A second core trait is the glorification of violence as an essential marker of manhood, where physical confrontations and assertive dominance are not merely tolerated but celebrated as proof of virility. This component, measured in inventories like the Hypermasculinity Index, shows strong positive associations with self-reported aggressive behaviors (r = .65, p < .001) and delinquent histories among young men.^[10] Individuals endorsing this trait often interpret backing down from conflicts as emasculating, reinforcing a cycle of escalatory responses to perceived threats.^[11] Risk-taking and thrill-seeking form the third foundational element, framing danger and recklessness—such as hazardous driving or substance experimentation—as exhilarating affirmations of masculine fortitude. Validation studies link this dimension to elevated drug use (r = .26, p < .01) and impaired decision-making under influence, distinguishing it from adaptive caution.^[10] Complementary scales, including subscales from the Auburn Differential Masculinity Index, extend these traits to include devaluation of emotional expression (e.g., viewing vulnerability as weakness) and anti-feminine rigidity, where gender inequities are rigidly upheld to preserve male superiority.^[1] These characteristics cluster empirically, with factor analyses yielding profiles of dominance-aggression, sexual callousness, and emotional suppression that predict real-world outcomes like interpersonal violence and relational instability.^[1] While self-report measures like the Hypermasculinity Inventory demonstrate internal reliability (Cronbach's α = .89), their focus on extreme endorsements highlights a constellation rather than isolated behaviors, often emerging in contexts of perceived masculine threat.^[10]

Psychological Measurement and Scales

The Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI), developed by Mosher and Sirkin in 1984, represents an early standardized measure of exaggerated masculinity, conceptualized as a "macho" personality constellation involving extreme endorsement of calloused sexual attitudes toward women, violence as a marker of manhood, and thrill-seeking in danger.^[10] This 30-item forced-choice instrument yields scores across three subscales, with internal reliability evidenced by a Cronbach's alpha of 0.89 in a sample of 135 college males.^[10] Convergent validity was supported by positive correlations with self-reported aggression (r = 0.65, p < 0.001), delinquent behavior (r = 0.38, p < 0.01), and risk-taking such as dangerous driving after alcohol consumption (r = 0.47, p < 0.001).^[10] However, the forced-choice format has been criticized for restricting response variance and psychometric flexibility in subsequent validations.^[12] To address such limitations, Archer derived the Hypermasculine Values Questionnaire (HVQ) in 2009 through factor analysis of 122 initial items rated on a 7-point Likert scale by 600 men across diverse occupational and sports groups.^[13] The resulting 26-item HVQ (with a 16-item short form) assesses unidimensional hypermasculine values emphasizing toughness, dominance, and rejection of vulnerability, such as "Real men don't back away from barroom confrontations" and "A sensitive man is a weak man."^[11] ^[13] It exhibits high internal consistency and concurrent validity, correlating with trait physical aggression and hostile sexism while discriminating from general male role norms.^[13] Scores typically range from 1 (strong disagreement) to 7 (strong agreement), with means varying by group—e.g., 4.01 for men in uniformed services versus 2.55 for male psychology students.^[11] Related instruments like the Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI), introduced by Levant et al. in 1992, capture aspects of exaggerated masculinity through subscales on aggression, self-reliance, and restrictive emotionality within broader traditional norms.^[14] This 58-item self-report measure, using a 7-point Likert scale, has been revised to 49 items (MRNI-R) and shorter forms for efficiency, with subscales including avoidance of femininity and achievement/status orientation that align with hyperbolic masculine ideals.^[14] Reliability data indicate adequate internal consistency across subscales, though the inventory's focus on normative beliefs rather than extreme traits distinguishes it from dedicated hypermasculinity tools.^[14] The Auburn Differential Masculinity Inventory further refines hypermasculinity assessment within a 60-item framework, incorporating scales for dominance and risk-taking validated against behavioral outcomes.^[15] These scales collectively enable empirical quantification but require cautious interpretation given samples often limited to Western, predominantly young males and potential cultural variances in masculine expression.

Historical and Theoretical Development

Origins in Psychological Research

The psychological construct of exaggerated masculinity, formalized as hypermasculinity, originated in empirical studies of male aggression and personality traits linked to violence. In 1984, Donald L. Mosher and Mark R. Sirkin introduced the term in their research on the "macho personality constellation," defining it as an extreme endorsement of traditional masculine norms comprising three components: calloused attitudes toward women and sex (e.g., viewing conquest as essential to manhood), excitement derived from violence and danger (e.g., belief in thrill-seeking as proof of toughness), and a glorification of risk-taking without regard for consequences.^[10] This conceptualization stemmed from qualitative interviews with groups exhibiting high levels of interpersonal violence, such as prison inmates and motorcycle gang members, where patterns of exaggerated dominance and emotional suppression were observed to correlate with antisocial behaviors.^[16] To quantify hypermasculinity, Mosher and Sirkin developed the Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI), a 30-item true/false scale with subscales for each component, achieving high internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha of 0.89 overall).^[17] The inventory's items, such as "It's a man's job to take care of his woman no matter what," were derived from thematic analysis of self-reports, marking a shift from anecdotal psychoanalytic ideas— like overcompensation for inferiority in early theories—to psychometric assessment grounded in personality research.^[10] Early validation linked higher HMI scores to real-world outcomes, including elevated rates of sexual aggression and combativeness in laboratory settings, though subsequent critiques have noted potential cultural biases in labeling adaptive risk tolerance as pathological.^[1] This work laid the foundation for later studies in clinical psychology, influencing research on male violence despite debates over whether hypermasculinity reflects innate traits or socialization pressures amplified by institutional emphases on gender pathology.^[18]

Evolution of the Concept in Sociological Contexts

The sociological conceptualization of exaggerated masculinity emerged prominently in the early 1980s amid the growth of gender studies, drawing on Antonio Gramsci's notion of cultural hegemony to analyze how dominant masculine ideals perpetuate social hierarchies. Australian sociologist R. W. Connell, in collaboration with researchers, first articulated hegemonic masculinity in a 1982 report on Australian education systems, framing it as the configuration of gender practices that legitimizes men's dominance over women and subordinate masculinities through idealized traits such as physical toughness, emotional stoicism, and heterosexual prowess.^[19] This approach shifted focus from individualistic psychology to structural power dynamics, positing that exaggerated masculine expressions served to stabilize patriarchal relations rather than merely reflecting innate behaviors.^[20] By the late 1980s and 1990s, the concept evolved through Connell's broader theorization in works like Masculinities (1995), where hegemonic masculinity was depicted as dynamic and context-specific, varying by class, race, and culture, yet consistently involving amplified traits like risk-taking and aggression to marginalize alternatives such as gay or effeminate masculinities. Sociologists applied this to empirical studies of institutions, including prisons and workplaces, revealing how exaggerated masculinity manifested in rituals of dominance and violence as adaptive strategies within hierarchical social fields. Concurrently, hypermasculinity—a term denoting extreme endorsement of stereotypes like callousness toward women and glorification of violence—gained sociological traction, often overlapping with hegemonic frameworks in analyses of subcultures such as fraternities and military units, where such traits were linked to peer enforcement and status competition.^[21]^[22] Critiques in the 2000s highlighted limitations, including the concept's vagueness in operationalizing "hegemony" empirically and its tendency to conflate description with moral judgment, potentially underemphasizing biological sex differences in trait expression amid ideological commitments to social constructionism. Connell and co-author James W. Messerschmidt revised the framework in 2005, emphasizing hybridity and global influences, yet empirical validations remained uneven, with cross-cultural studies showing hegemonic ideals less universal than theorized, particularly in non-Western contexts where communal masculine roles predominate over individualistic exaggeration. This evolution reflects sociology's tension between structural analysis and evidence from diverse datasets, informing ongoing debates on whether exaggerated masculinity primarily arises from socialization or interacts with evolutionary pressures.^[21]^[23]

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives

Adaptive Roots of Masculine Traits

Masculine traits such as greater physical strength, aggression, and risk-taking propensity evolved primarily through sexual selection mechanisms, where intrasexual competition among males for access to mates favored individuals exhibiting competitive advantages in ancestral environments. In humans, sexual dimorphism manifests notably in upper body musculature and strength, with males possessing approximately twice the upper body strength and 66% more leg strength compared to females, adaptations linked to enhanced fighting ability and mate guarding rather than solely foraging or endurance activities.^[24]^[25] This dimorphism likely arose from selection pressures in Pleistocene-like settings, where male-male contests over resources and females determined reproductive variance, as males invest less in parental care and thus compete more intensely for mating opportunities.^[26] Empirical meta-analyses confirm that muscularity and strength correlate positively with mating success (r = 0.133) and reproductive outcomes (r = 0.143), particularly in non-contracepting populations, supporting the role of these traits in male competitive fitness without evidence for direct offspring viability benefits.^[27] Aggression, often coalitional in form, provided adaptive advantages by enabling groups of males to secure territories, resources, and mates against rival coalitions, as evidenced by cross-cultural data showing males as primary perpetrators (e.g., 77% of U.S. homicide victims male from 1980–2008) and victims in intergroup violence, with hunter-gatherer societies engaging in warfare roughly every two years in 64% of cases.^[28]^[29] Testosterone modulates these behaviors, promoting in-group cooperation and out-group aggression under threat, with muscular males exhibiting heightened prosociality toward allies (e.g., contributing $328 more in experimental public goods games) to amplify collective efficacy in conflicts.^[29] Risk-taking behaviors in males, peaking in young adulthood, similarly conferred evolutionary edges by signaling status, competence, and genetic quality to potential mates, correlating more strongly with lifetime reproductive success in men than women.^[30] Experimental studies demonstrate males escalate risks (e.g., jaywalking in traffic) to display prowess, particularly in mate-relevant contexts, aligning with sexual selection theory where such displays differentiate high-quality competitors.^[31] While modern environments may amplify or maladapt these traits, their roots lie in environments where variance in male reproductive success—driven by polygynous tendencies and resource defense—selected for exaggerated expressions of dominance and vigilance to maximize fitness.^[28]^[27]

Hormonal and Genetic Influences

Prenatal exposure to androgens, particularly testosterone, organizes brain development toward male-typical behavioral patterns, including rough-and-tumble play and spatial abilities, with evidence from clinical conditions like congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) showing that elevated levels in genetic females result in heightened male-typical interests and reduced female-typical play by ages 3-10 years.^[32] This organizational effect persists into adulthood, correlating with increased masculinity in gender role behavior, as observed in women with CAH who exhibit more assertive and dominant traits compared to unaffected peers.^[33] Within sexes, higher prenatal androgen exposure positively predicts male-typical behaviors while negatively predicting female-typical ones, suggesting a dose-response relationship that could amplify traits toward exaggeration in cases of excess.^[34] Circulating testosterone in adulthood modulates status-seeking and competitive behaviors, with meta-analytic evidence indicating a weak but positive association with aggression (r ≈ 0.08-0.14 across studies), particularly in competitive or challenged contexts rather than baseline states.^[35] ^[36] Exogenous testosterone administration has been linked to modest increases in aggression-related measures, such as self-reported irritability or dominance, in four of seven controlled trials involving hypogonadal or healthy men, though effects vary by dosage and individual factors like cortisol levels.^[37] ^[38] These findings align with the challenge hypothesis, where testosterone fluctuations in response to social competition drive heightened dominance or risk-taking, potentially manifesting as exaggerated masculinity in high-stakes environments.^[39] Genetic influences on exaggerated masculinity operate through heritability of aggression and androgen-related traits, with twin and adoption studies meta-analyses estimating that genetic factors account for about 50% of variance in aggressive behavior across the lifespan.^[40] Polymorphisms in the androgen receptor gene (AR), such as CAG repeat length variations, modulate testosterone sensitivity and are associated with enhanced confidence, competitiveness, and muscle mass in men—traits that can intensify masculine expressions.^[41] ^[42] Genome-wide analyses further reveal that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) linked to circulating testosterone levels influence sexually dimorphic features, including facial masculinity markers like jaw width, which may predispose individuals to more pronounced masculine phenotypes.^[43] These genetic effects interact with hormonal pathways, amplifying traits in polygenic risk profiles for high androgen activity, though environmental moderators like upbringing attenuate direct causality.^[44]

Representations in Media and Entertainment

In film, exaggerated masculinity has been prominently depicted through hypermasculine archetypes emphasizing physical dominance, aggression, and stoicism, particularly in 1980s science fiction and action genres. Films such as The Terminator (1984) and RoboCop (1987) foregrounded muscular, indestructible male protagonists as ideals of resilience amid technological dystopias, reflecting cultural anxieties over emasculation in postmodern society.^[45] These portrayals aligned with broader "hard body" cinema trends, exemplified by Sylvester Stallone in Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985) and Arnold Schwarzenegger in Predator (1987), where exaggerated muscularity and heroic violence symbolized nationalistic vigor during the Reagan era.^[46] Television representations historically reinforced similar traits, with experimental studies linking exposure to violent programming featuring hypermasculine characters to heightened aggression in viewers scoring high on hypermasculinity scales.^[47] Boys' programming often amplified aggression and risk-taking as core masculine virtues, though analyses from 2020 noted a gradual softening in U.S. series post-2010, incorporating emotional vulnerability alongside traditional stoicism.^[48]^[49] In professional wrestling entertainment, such as WWE productions, exaggerated masculinity manifests through scripted displays of physical prowess, dominance, and bravado, promoting hegemonic ideals of male aggression and territoriality since the 1980s Hulk Hogan era.^[50] Content analyses confirm wrestling narratives consistently highlight violence and invincibility as aspirational traits, influencing audience perceptions of male hierarchies.^[51] Video games frequently exaggerate masculine traits via hyper-realistic male avatars with extreme muscular builds, aggressive combat mechanics, and minimal emotional expression, as seen in titles like Grand Theft Auto series (1997–present) and first-person shooters.^[52] Studies of popular games reveal male protagonists overwhelmingly embodying traits of physical strength and violence, with female counterparts less central, potentially reinforcing player identification with dominance-oriented behaviors.^[53]^[54] Social media platforms, particularly TikTok and Instagram, have amplified the visibility of content portraying exaggerated masculine traits, including unyielding dominance, physical intimidation, and rejection of vulnerability, through algorithmic recommendations that favor high-engagement videos from influencers promoting "alpha male" lifestyles.^[55] These platforms' algorithms often direct young male users toward such material after initial exposure, creating echo chambers that reinforce ideals of stoic self-reliance and competitive hierarchy as markers of authentic manhood.^[56] For instance, sigma masculinity trends on TikTok depict men as aloof, self-sufficient outsiders who disdain social norms, fostering digital practices that exaggerate emotional detachment and superiority to attract followers and views.^[55] Modern subcultures like the manosphere—encompassing online forums, red pill communities, and incel groups—explicitly advocate for heightened masculine expression as a counter to perceived societal emasculation, emphasizing traits such as aggressive self-assertion and dismissal of egalitarian gender norms.^[57] Influencers within these networks, often labeled manfluencers, disseminate strategies for achieving dominance in personal and professional spheres, drawing millions of young male subscribers who report deriving a sense of empowerment from the content.^[58] Peer-reviewed analyses trace this promotion to platforms' short-form video formats, which prioritize performative displays of strength and conquest, correlating with heightened misogynistic attitudes among frequent consumers aged 18-24.^[57]^[59] Empirical studies link prolonged engagement with these subcultures to measurable shifts in behavior, such as increased risk-taking and relational antagonism, though causal direction remains debated due to self-selection biases in online samples.^[60] A 2025 survey found that nearly 50% of young men exposed to manosphere content endorsed anti-feminist or pro-violence perspectives as viable masculine strategies, attributing appeal to the subcultures' framing of economic and romantic disenfranchisement as products of cultural decay rather than individual failings.^[61] However, academic sources critiquing these dynamics often originate from gender studies fields with documented ideological skews toward progressive interpretations, potentially underemphasizing adaptive elements like motivation for self-improvement in gym-centric or entrepreneurial subcultures.^[62] Exposure metrics from platform analytics indicate that alpha male content garners billions of views annually, outpacing traditional media in shaping adolescent male identity formation.^[63]

Individual and Interpersonal Effects

Impacts on Men’s Behavior and Mental Health

Conformity to exaggerated masculine norms, such as extreme self-reliance, emotional stoicism, and dominance, has been linked to heightened aggressive behaviors in men. A study of hypermasculinity found it significantly predicts verbal, physical, and sexual aggression toward intimate partners among male participants.^[64] Similarly, hypermasculine traits correlate with increased aggression toward women and men who violate gender norms, particularly in emerging adult samples.^[1] These patterns extend to risk-taking, where threats to masculine identity prompt compensatory behaviors like endorsing hypermasculine advertisements or perceiving physical aggression more favorably.^[65]^[66] Such behavioral tendencies contribute to broader outcomes, including elevated rates of violence and injury. Research indicates that men endorsing hypermasculine ideologies exhibit greater readiness to use violence for dominance, often in response to perceived status threats.^[67] Masculine honor ideology, overlapping with hypermasculinity, functions as a risk factor for male-perpetrated violence, mirroring patterns in aggression and retaliation.^[67] On mental health, meta-analytic evidence shows conformity to masculine norms is modestly but unfavorably associated with overall psychological well-being (effect size r ≈ -0.11) and strongly linked to reduced help-seeking behaviors.^[68] Specific norms like self-reliance and power over women robustly correlate with adverse outcomes, including depression and anxiety.^[69] Pressure to embody exaggerated masculinity elevates odds of reporting poor mental health, with adherence to traditional norms predicting lower willingness to seek therapy.^[70]^[71] Emotional restriction under these norms exacerbates distress, as men avoid vulnerability, leading to internalized symptoms like substance use and suicidal ideation. Strict norm adherence is tied to deleterious mental health effects, including higher depression scores.^[72] While some norms show complex or null relations, the extremes—prejudice, dominance, and emotional control—consistently predict poorer outcomes in longitudinal and cross-sectional data.^[73] This pattern aligns with men's elevated suicide rates, partly attributable to barriers in expressing distress or accessing support.^[74]

Effects on Relationships and Perceptions of Women

Men with hypermasculine traits, including exaggerated dominance, emotional restraint, and endorsement of violence as manly, tend to report lower intimacy and higher conflict in romantic partnerships. A 2012 dissertation analyzing multiple masculinity measures found that hypermasculinity, alongside hostile masculinity and acceptance of interpersonal violence, positively predicted intimate partner aggression, undermining relational stability.^[75] Similarly, conformity to traditional masculine norms has been linked to diminished relationship satisfaction, with a 2009 study of 144 couples revealing that men's adherence to these norms more strongly predicted women's dissatisfaction than men's own, due to reduced emotional expressiveness and perceived rigidity.^[76] In contexts of sexual communication, hypermasculine men often misread or dismiss women's signals of reluctance, interpreting token resistance—verbal protests amid physical compliance—as a test of persistence rather than authentic boundaries, which escalates risks of coercive encounters.^[77] Exaggerated masculinity also correlates with distorted perceptions of women, frequently manifesting as hostility or antifeminine bias rooted in compensatory mechanisms for perceived personal inadequacies. Research from 2011 demonstrated that men's hostile attitudes toward women arise from efforts to mitigate feelings of weakness or uncertainty, with hypermasculine endorsement amplifying views of women as threats to male status.^[78] A 2014 profile analysis of emerging adults identified hypermasculinity as a predictor of aggression toward women, alongside devaluation of emotional vulnerability, framing women in relational contexts as subordinates or obstacles to masculine self-validation.^[1] Adherence to antifeminine norms, a core facet of hypermasculinity, further entrenches negative evaluations, as a 2018 study showed it sequentially links to prejudice against women through heightened discomfort with gender nonconformity.^[79] While some masculine traits like assertiveness may initially attract partners seeking protection, exaggerated forms erode long-term relational equity by prioritizing power imbalances over mutual respect. Peer-reviewed examinations, such as a 2020 analysis of gender role conflicts, indicate that rigid masculine orientations yield lower marital satisfaction compared to flexible or androgynous approaches, with participants endorsing hypermasculine ideals reporting heightened dissatisfaction from mismatched expectations of female deference.^[80] These patterns persist across samples, though cultural variations and self-reported data limitations warrant caution in generalizing causality, as underlying factors like attachment styles may confound associations.^[81]

Broader Societal Implications

Links to Aggression, Risk-Taking, and Violence

Hypermasculine attitudes, which emphasize callous sexual attitudes, violence as manly, and danger as exciting, have been empirically linked to heightened aggression, particularly in response to perceived threats to masculine status. Research using the Hypermasculinity Inventory demonstrates that men scoring high on this scale exhibit greater physical aggression toward women following provocation, positioning hypermasculinity as a potential risk factor for such behavior.^[3] Similarly, profile analyses of emerging adults reveal moderate to high endorsement of hypermasculine dimensions correlates with elevated risks of sexual and physical aggression against women.^[1] These associations persist even after controlling for other variables, though effect sizes remain moderate, indicating hypermasculinity amplifies but does not solely determine aggressive responses.^[82] Exaggerated masculine traits also correlate with increased risk-taking behaviors, often rooted in hormonal influences like elevated testosterone levels. Meta-analytic examinations confirm a weak but significant positive association between baseline testosterone and aggression or risk propensity, with stronger effects observed in males; dynamic changes in testosterone further predict escalations in aggressive or risky actions during competitive contexts.^[36]^[83] For instance, individuals with higher testosterone exhibit greater impulsivity in decision-making scenarios involving potential harm, such as financial gambles or physical challenges, aligning with evolutionary pressures favoring bold male strategies for status and mating.^[84] However, these links are not strictly causal, as environmental cues like peer presence or status threats moderate the expression of risk-taking, with hypermasculine men showing amplified responses under social evaluation.^[85] In terms of violence, exaggerated masculinity contributes to patterns observed in criminal statistics, where males perpetrate the vast majority of violent offenses. In the United States, men account for approximately 73-83% of arrests for violent crimes, with traits like dominance-seeking and low empathy—hallmarks of hypermasculinity—predicting involvement in impulsive and violent acts.^[86]^[87] Testosterone elevations are notably higher among violent offenders, including prisoners convicted of assault, and correlate with both intimate partner violence and broader criminal aggression, independent of socioeconomic factors in some analyses.^[84]^[88] Perpetrators of intimate partner violence often display higher basal testosterone-to-cortisol ratios, facilitating aggressive responses to relational stressors.^[89] Despite these correlations, individual variability and contextual moderators, such as upbringing and opportunity, temper direct attribution, underscoring that while exaggerated masculinity heightens vulnerability to violence, it interacts with broader causal pathways.^[83]

Intersections with Race, Class, and Economics

In lower socioeconomic classes, exaggerated masculine traits such as physical toughness and risk-taking are often more pronounced, serving as adaptive responses to economic insecurity and limited access to institutional power, though they can perpetuate cycles of disadvantage. Studies indicate that working-class men may engage in self-destructive expressions of masculinity, including higher involvement in hazardous occupations or confrontational behaviors, to affirm status in environments where economic provision is challenging.^[90] For instance, in manual labor sectors like construction, norms emphasizing stoic endurance and dominance over vulnerability contribute to elevated injury rates, as men prioritize proving resilience over safety protocols.^[91] Empirical data from longitudinal tracking of adolescents shows that males exhibiting highly masculine behaviors—such as frequent fighting or disinterest in academics—achieve lower educational attainment and occupational status in adulthood, with effects amplified in peer groups enforcing such norms, based on a sample of over 14,000 U.S. youth followed from 1994 to 2009.^[92] Perceptions of masculinity also intersect with economic inequality, where greater income disparities correlate with societal views ascribing masculine traits like assertiveness to higher classes and feminine traits like submissiveness to lower classes. In experimental scenarios simulating high inequality (30:1 income ratios), participants rated average societal members as significantly more masculine than feminine, an effect absent in low-inequality contexts (5:1 ratios), drawing from surveys of 106 Spanish university students in 2019.^[93] Conversely, lower-class individuals are stereotyped as less masculine, prompting compensatory exaggeration of traits like aggression to reclaim status, though this hinders upward mobility.^[94] Racial dynamics compound these patterns, with non-white men, particularly Black men, often excluded from hegemonic ideals centered on white, middle-class restraint, leading to overcompensation through intensified displays of dominance or violence. Theoretical frameworks rooted in empirical observations note that economic and political marginalization drives some Black men toward alternative validations of manhood via physical prowess or street credibility, as seen in qualitative analyses of urban communities where disempowerment correlates with higher rates of confrontational behaviors.^[95] Surveys reveal stereotypes positioning Black men as hypermasculine—emphasizing aggression and sexuality—compared to Asian men viewed as less so, influencing self-perceptions and behaviors in racialized contexts.^[96] Among Black male adolescents, exposure to violence and racial pride shapes hybrid masculinities blending traditional toughness with resilience, yet systemic barriers exacerbate risks of maladaptive exaggeration.^[97] At the nexus of race, class, and economics, exaggerated masculinity manifests most acutely among lower-class racial minorities, where poverty amplifies the need for visible toughness amid absent economic opportunities and familial role models. For example, in single-parent households disproportionately affecting Black communities (with rates exceeding 50% in some U.S. datasets), young men may hyperbolize provider roles through illicit economies, linking to elevated violence statistics in economically distressed areas.^[98] This intersection sustains disparities, as masculine norms discouraging help-seeking or education further entrench low SES, though some studies highlight adaptive shifts toward non-aggressive expressions in supportive environments.^[99] Overall, while these traits may offer short-term status in marginalized settings, empirical outcomes reveal long-term costs in health, incarceration, and economic stagnation.

Criticisms, Controversies, and Alternative Views

Challenges to the Hypermasculinity Framework

Critics contend that the hypermasculinity framework oversimplifies male behavioral variance by treating the construct as a unitary pathological trait, whereas profile analyses of self-report measures reveal it manifests in varied dimensions—such as dominance, anti-femininity, and emotional devaluation—with differing endorsement levels yielding diverse, not invariably negative, outcomes among emerging adults.^[2] Empirical tests using established inventories, like the Hypermasculinity Index, have shown no direct associations between hypermasculine attitudes and specific interpersonal deficits, including interpretations of sexual consent or communication intentions.^[77] Evolutionary psychology challenges the framework's implicit pathologization by positing that traits like aggression, risk-taking, and competitiveness—often labeled hypermasculine—arose as adaptive responses to ancestral pressures, including intergroup conflict, resource defense, and mate competition, which enhanced reproductive success and group survival in high-mortality environments.^[5] For instance, heightened male intrasexual competition and physical dimorphism correlate with greater fertility and offspring production, suggesting these traits confer fitness advantages rather than mere cultural distortions.^[100] The framework faces scrutiny for cultural parochialism, as it presumes uniform causality for male-linked issues like violence across societies, disregarding contextual factors such as economic instability or institutional incentives that amplify behaviors independently of exaggerated masculinity.^[101] Methodological limitations in supporting research, including reliance on outdated self-report scales prone to social desirability bias and small, non-representative samples, undermine claims of robust causality, with newer multidimensional assessments highlighting the need for ecologically valid, longitudinal studies.^[1] Alternative perspectives emphasize adaptive equilibria, where masculine traits align with life-history strategies favoring short-term mating and status-seeking in unpredictable settings, potentially buffering against modern societal mismatches like sedentary lifestyles that exacerbate rather than stem from hypermasculine expressions.^[102] Such views caution against interventions that suppress these traits wholesale, arguing they overlook evidence of positive correlations with leadership efficacy and resilience in high-stakes domains.^[103]

Benefits and Adaptive Advantages of Exaggerated Traits

Exaggerated masculine traits, including pronounced muscularity, facial dimorphism, and assertive dominance displays, confer adaptive advantages primarily through sexual selection and intrasexual competition, enabling males to secure greater reproductive success in ancestral environments. A meta-analysis of 59 studies involving over 19,000 participants found that higher male facial and bodily dimorphism correlates positively with mating success metrics, such as number of sexual partners and perceived attractiveness to females, suggesting these traits signal genetic quality and competitive ability that historically translated to more offspring.^[100] Similarly, research on testosterone-driven traits indicates they facilitate resource acquisition and protection of kin, reducing predation risks and enhancing offspring survival in high-threat contexts.^[27] In mate choice dynamics, female preferences for exaggerated masculinity amplify these benefits, particularly during fertile phases or in pathogen-prevalent environments where robust traits indicate immunocompetence. Cross-cultural data from 30 nations reveal stronger preferences for masculine features in regions with poorer health indices, implying an evolved strategy to select mates capable of providing direct benefits like physical defense and provisioning, thereby boosting female and offspring fitness.^[104] Experimental evidence further supports that dominant, muscular male phenotypes predict higher short-term mating opportunities, as women associate such traits with superior genetic benefits for "sexy sons" who themselves attract partners.^[105] Beyond reproduction, these traits yield interpersonal advantages in hierarchical social structures, where male-male competition favors individuals exhibiting risk tolerance and physical prowess for attaining status and resources. Studies quantify that dominance-linked behaviors, often exaggerated in hypermasculine displays, account for variance in leadership emergence and alliance formation, providing indirect fitness gains through elevated social capital and alliance defense.^[106] In resource-scarce settings, such adaptations historically mitigated environmental pressures, as evidenced by correlations between masculine dimorphism and socioeconomic outcomes in modern proxies of ancestral competition.^[100] These advantages underscore why exaggerated traits persist despite potential viability costs, as net reproductive gains outweigh drawbacks under selection pressures.

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Aug 7, 2025 · The most commonly used measure of hypermasculinity, the Hypermasculinity Index (HMI), uses a forced-choice format that impairs its psychometric ...
[13]
Derivation and assessment of a hypermasculine values questionnaire
Factor analysis and item reduction produced 26- and 16- item scales (Hypermasculine Values Questionnaire, HVQ and Short Hypermasculine Values Questionnaire) ...
[14]
Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI) - EMERGE
The Male Role Norms Inventory (MNRI) is a 58-item self-reported measure of individual beliefs about male gender norms, comprising of seven subscales.
[15]
[PDF] Construction and Preliminary Validation of the Auburn Differential ...
Hypermasculinity has been defined as exaggerated masculinity, including callous attitudes toward women and sex, and the perception of violence as manly and ...
[16]
Measuring a macho personality constellation. - APA PsycNet
The hypermasculinity inventory has 3 components: calloused sex attitudes toward women, violence as manly, and danger as exciting.
[17]
Hypermasculinity Inventory - APA PsycNet
The Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI) (Mosher & Sirkin, 1984) was developed to measure a macho personality constellation consisting of three components: (a) ...
[18]
(PDF) Hypermasculinity - Academia.edu
Hypermasculinity is a socio-psychological concept that refers to the exaggerated performance of male behaviors commonly associated with stereotypical ...
[19]
Hegemonic masculinity: combining theory and practice in gender ...
The concept of hegemonic masculinity has been used in gender studies since the early-1980s to explain men's power over women.<|separator|>
[20]
Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept - Sage Journals
The authors trace the origin of the concept in a convergence of ideas in the early 1980s and map the ways it was applied when research on men and masculinities ...
[21]
[PDF] Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept
The concept of hegemonic masculinity has influenced gender studies across many academic fields but has also attracted serious criticism.
[22]
[PDF] Constructs of Hegemonic Masculinity and Hypermasculinity in ...
This article explores the correlation between membership in a fraternal organization and masculinity identity development. Masculinity is embedded into the ...
[23]
[PDF] What's Hegemonic about Hegemonic Masculinity? Legitimation and ...
Raewyn Connell's theoretical concept of hegemonic masculinity has been profoundly influential in feminist sociology. Despite the rich literature inspired by her ...
[24]
Substantial but Misunderstood Human Sexual Dimorphism Results ...
Representative studies from these meta-analyses show that males have twice as much upper body strength as females and 66% more leg strength. When present in ...Abstract · Introduction · Results · Discussion
[25]
Sexual dimorphism in human arm power and force
Jan 23, 2020 · Sexual dimorphism often arises from selection on specific musculoskeletal traits that improve male fighting performance. In humans ...ABSTRACT · INTRODUCTION · MATERIALS AND METHODS · DISCUSSION
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Sexual Selection | Learn Science at Scitable - Nature
Darwin noted that sexual selection depends on the struggle between males to access females. He recognized two mechanisms of sexual selection: intrasexual ...<|separator|>
[27]
A meta-analysis of the association between male dimorphism ... - eLife
Feb 18, 2022 · Dimorphic traits that are exaggerated in males are typically referred to as masculine. In humans, masculine faces are characterized by features ...
[28]
Evolution and the psychology of intergroup conflict: the male warrior ...
Given a reduced threshold for intergroup aggression, it is not surprising that men are more likely to engage in actual instances of aggressive intergroup ...
[29]
The Male Warrior Hypothesis: Testosterone-related Cooperation ...
Jan 15, 2020 · Competitiveness, risk taking, and violence: The young male syndrome. ... The relation between physical aggression, size and strength, among a ...
[30]
Men's but not women's risk proneness in early adulthood is ...
Jan 31, 2025 · The correlation between risk proneness in early adulthood and reproductive success is stronger for men than for women.
[31]
Study suggests evolutionary basis for male risk-taking behaviors
Jun 7, 2024 · Study author Hannah Goodman, from UWA's School of Human Sciences, said researchers found men engaged in riskier behaviors when crossing a busy ...
[32]
Early androgen exposure and human gender development - PMC
The strongest evidence that prenatal androgen exposure contributes to human gender development comes from studies of children's gender-typed play. Girls exposed ...
[33]
Prenatal androgen exposure and gender behavior in disorders of ...
More masculinizied personality behavioral traits in females with CAH most likely result from exposure of the fetal brain to high levels of androgens.
[34]
Prenatal androgen exposure and sex-typical play behaviour
Within each sex, there is a positive relationship between early androgen exposure and male-typical behaviour and a negative relationship between early androgen ...
[35]
Is testosterone linked to human aggression? A meta-analytic ...
Baseline testosterone is positively (but weakly) correlated with human aggression. The relationship between baseline testosterone and aggression is ...
[36]
Is testosterone linked to human aggression? A meta-analytic ...
Testosterone is often considered a critical regulator of aggressive behaviour. There is castration/replacement evidence that testosterone indeed drives ...
[37]
Effects of testosterone therapy on constructs related to aggression in ...
Four out of seven studies reported an increase in aggression-related constructs, while one study reported a decrease.
[38]
A meta-analytical evaluation of the dual-hormone hypothesis
According to the dual-hormone hypothesis, the relationship between testosterone and status-relevant behavior is moderated by cortisol.
[39]
Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge ...
The consensus is that there is a weak and inconsistent association between testosterone levels and aggression in adults.
[40]
Human Aggression Across the Lifespan: Genetic Propensities and ...
In one early meta-analysis of 24 twin and adoption studies, heritable influences explained about half of the total variance in aggressive behavior and the ...Missing: masculine | Show results with:masculine
[41]
Testosterone and androgen receptor gene polymorphism are ...
Testosterone and androgen receptor gene polymorphism are associated with confidence and competitiveness in men. Horm Behav. 2017 Jun:92:93-102.Missing: masculinity | Show results with:masculinity
[42]
Genetic Variations in the Androgen Receptor Are Associated with ...
We hypothesized that genetic variations in the AR, causing differences in androgen sensitivity, contribute to the variation in muscle mass in young healthy men.
[43]
SNPs Associated With Testosterone Levels Influence Human Facial ...
Testosterone-related genetic variants affect normal-range facial morphology, and in particular, facial features known to exhibit strong sexual dimorphism in ...
[44]
Genetic analyses implicate complex links between adult ... - Nature
Jan 18, 2023 · Genetic, i.e. inherited, differences in testosterone levels contribute to many traits specific to men or women, such as women's reproductive ...
[45]
Losing Visibility? The Rise and Fall of Hypermasculinity in Science...
Science fiction films of the 1980s, including The Terminator and RoboCop, seem to foreground hypermasculinity as a new ideal of masculinity.
[46]
I'll be back? The Deconstruction of the 1980s and the 1990s Hard ...
Jul 14, 2021 · The following essay discusses the cultural factors that inspired the “hard body” movies of the 1980's and 1990's, but it also describes the ...
[47]
Hypermasculinity, Aggression, and Television Violence
Aug 10, 2025 · This experiment tests the role of hypermasculinity (HM) and trait aggression in predicting aggressive responses following exposure to violent television ...
[48]
[PDF] REPRESENTATIONS of masculinity in boys' television
Hypermasculinity, aggression, and television violence: An experiment. Media Psychology, 7(4), 353–376. doi:10.207/S1532785XMEP0704_3. 31. Giaccardi, S ...
[49]
[PDF] The Shifting Image of Hegemonic Masculinity in Contemporary U.S. ...
Jun 20, 2020 · In the context of these important cultural events, we see televisual hypermasculinity softening: A narrowly defined stoic, emotionless, and ...
[50]
Masculinity, explained by WWE - Vox
May 25, 2022 · An expert tells us how professional wrestling endlessly evolves to reflect changing masculine gender norms.
[51]
[PDF] masculinities of drag and wrestling from TV to video games - Netlibrary
Feb 12, 2024 · In his study, Soulliere states that television wrestling promotes hegemonic masculinity. It highlights traits such as aggression, violence, and ...
[52]
Players object to extreme physique of video game characters
Oct 3, 2015 · "In these particular games, the characters--male and female--have very extreme, exaggerated physiques," Hutchinson said. "These are very ...Missing: traits wrestling
[53]
The Double-Edged Sword of Online Gaming - Geena Davis Institute
In contrast, male characters predominantly exhibit traditional masculine traits and are more frequently involved in violent actions.
[54]
[PDF] The representation of hegemonic masculinity in main male ...
This analysis reveals that main male characters reflect traits of hegemonic masculinity through their appearance, the role they play in the video game, their ...
[55]
Toxic Communication on TikTok: Sigma Masculinities and Gendered ...
Jan 22, 2025 · Our article focuses on the construction of masculinity and gender dynamics with sigma videos on TikTok, emphasizing the digital practices that foster toxic ...
[56]
As hyper-masculine content floods social media, a 'healthier' men's ...
May 8, 2024 · As social media algorithms push misogynistic content to teenage boys, other men are trying to model a healthier version of masculinity.
[57]
Manfluencers and Young Men's Misogynistic Attitudes: The Role of ...
Oct 30, 2024 · The online milieu that promotes toxic masculinity, misogyny, and resistance to feminism has been labelled the manosphere (Jane, 2017) and is an ...
[58]
discourses of contemporary masculinity among Estonian manfluencers
May 2, 2025 · This article addresses a new troubling trend, the mainstreaming of the manosphere by targeting wide audiences via TikTok.
[59]
From 'villains' to 'idols': exploring teenage boys' conflicting ...
Oct 16, 2025 · Andrew Tate is emblematic of a new iteration of male supremacist influencers, often referred to as 'manfluencers' or 'misogyny influencers' ...
[60]
Social Media Behavior, Toxic Masculinity, and Depression - PMC - NIH
Men who endorse toxic masculinity may seek out negative interactions online, driven by affect-biased attention. Such exposure to negative online interactions ...
[61]
TikTok Masculinity - The Revealer
Sep 4, 2025 · Nearly 50% of young men in one survey reported that they trust voices in the manosphere that promote “anti-feminist” or “pro-violence” ideas.<|separator|>
[62]
[PDF] The Association Between Social Media, Toxic Masculinity, and ...
Aug 8, 2024 · Thus, this research study was designed to examine how toxic masculinity, social media use, and depression are related in a sample of young men.
[63]
[PDF] Representations of Masculinity on TikTok
Feb 7, 2025 · Parkins and Parkins (2021) also identified stereotypical displays of masculinity among male influencers on Instagram, who often pose alone,.
[64]
Hypermasculinity, Intimate Partner Violence, Sexual Aggression ...
Hypermasculinity scores were found to be significant predictors of study participants' reported verbal, physical, and sexual aggression toward their intimate ...<|separator|>
[65]
Masculinity threats influence evaluation of hypermasculine ...
The present study applied the precarious manhood paradigm to a hypermasculine advertisement. A sample of 208 men was collected online.
[66]
[PDF] The Effects of Masculinity Threats on Perceptions of Physical ...
However, empirical evidence suggests that painting one's nails is a violation of male gender norms (Edwards, 2010) that prohibit vanity and deemphasize.
[67]
[PDF] Masculine Honor Ideology: An Unrecognized Risk Factor For ...
Jun 8, 2020 · It is clear hypermasculinity and MHI resemble one another and lead to similar negative consequences (e.g., increased aggression and violence).
[68]
Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine ...
Conformity to masculine norms was modestly and unfavorably associated with mental health as well as moderately and unfavorably related to psychological help ...
[69]
[PDF] Meta-Analyses of the Relationship Between Conformity to Masculine ...
Jun 17, 2016 · Conformity to the specific masculine norms of self-reliance, power over women, and playboy were unfavorably, robustly, and consistently related.
[70]
Conformity to Masculinity Norms and Mental Health Outcomes ... - NIH
Oct 27, 2023 · Pressure to be masculine was associated with increased odds of depression, anxiety, and reporting poor or fair mental health.
[71]
Traditional Masculinity and Men's Psychological Help‐Seeking: A ...
Mar 4, 2025 · A meta-analytical study on the relationship between the conformity to masculinity norms inventory (Mahalik et al. 2003) and men's psychological ...
[72]
Associations between conformity to masculine norms and depression
Feb 19, 2021 · Strict adherence to masculine norms has been associated with deleterious consequences for the physical and mental health of men.
[73]
(PDF) Complex Relationships Among Masculine Norms and Health ...
Conformity to masculine norms has been inversely related to help-seeking and positively correlated with concerning health variables, such as substance use.
[74]
Gender norms and the mental health of boys and young men
Traditional gender norms commonly drive young men to present as strong, competitive, in control, and unburdened by vulnerability.
[75]
[PDF] The Relationships Among Different Traits of Masculinity and Intimate ...
Hyper-masculinity, hostile masculinity, dominance/power measures, hostility towards women, and acceptance of interpersonal violence were found to have the ...
[76]
(PDF) Men's Conformity to Traditional Masculinity and Relationship ...
Oct 9, 2025 · Men's conformity to masculine norms was more strongly associated with women's relationship satisfaction than with men's relationship satisfaction.
[77]
The Role of Hypermasculinity, Token Resistance, Rape Myth, and ...
Hypermasculine men may then misinterpret or ignore sexual communication signals from their female partners, especially when their female partners' wants and ...
[78]
WHAT ACCOUNTS FOR MEN'S HOSTILE ATTITUDES TOWARD ...
Similarly, men may develop hostile attitudes toward women and aggress against them as a way to attenuate feelings of personal weakness and uncertainty and, ...
[79]
Deconstructing Hegemonic Masculinity: The Roles of Antifemininity ...
The aim of this investigation was to examine a theoretically based mechanism by which men's adherence to antifeminine norms is associated with their ...
[80]
Gender role conflict: Is it a predictor of marital dissatisfaction ... - NIH
Participants with androgynous gender role had higher marital satisfaction compared to those with masculine and undifferentiated gender roles.
[81]
"The Influence of Conformity to Masculine Norms on Relationship ...
The results indicated that higher degrees of masculine norms significantly predicted lower relationship satisfaction among the male and female participants.Missing: traits peer
[82]
A Common Psychology of Male Violence? Assessing the Effects of ...
Such attitudes indicate that aggression and violence are not only expected but are desirable as they are means to express strength and assertiveness among men.
[83]
Is testosterone linked to human aggression? A meta-analytic ...
Baseline and context-dependent testosterone changes show a weak, positive correlation with aggression, especially in men, but no strong causal link.
[84]
Testosterone and Aggressive Behavior in Man - PMC - NIH
There is evidence that testosterone levels are higher in individuals with aggressive behavior, such as prisoners who have committed violent crimes.
[85]
Adolescent and adult risk-taking in virtual social contexts - Frontiers
Dec 17, 2014 · We examined peer effects on risky decision-making in adults and adolescents using a virtual social context that enabled experimental control over the peer “ ...
[86]
The role of gender in crime statistics. - Gendercide
Feb 15, 2025 · In the United States, statistical reports indicate that approximately 73% of all arrests involve men, in contrast to women, who account for ...
[87]
I Don't Like the Cut of your Jib: Perceived Facial Masculinity as a ...
It is well known that the majority of criminal offenders in the United States are men. In 2013, approximately 83% of the correctional population was male (Glaze ...
[88]
Testosterone, cortisol, and criminal behavior in men and women
Testosterone has positive association with impulsive and violent criminal behavior. Testosterone has a positive association with income generating crime at low ...
[89]
Hormonal differences in perpetrators of intimate partner violence
Perpetrators had higher basal testosterone and post stressor cortisol levels than non- violent controls as well as a higher T/C ratio.
[90]
Men's Issues, Social Class, and Counseling |
One theme that emerges is that lower social class men may perform more self-destructive and less socially acceptable performances of masculinity, whereas more ...
[91]
"Real Men Are Tough Guys": Hegemonic Masculinity and Safety in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This article explores the link between masculinity and occupational health and safety (OH&S) in the Australian (state of Victoria) construction industry.
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https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01590
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Economic Inequality and Masculinity–Femininity: The Prevailing ...
Jul 30, 2019 · We showed that individuals belonging to a society characterized by a higher level of economic inequality are perceived as more masculine than feminine.
[95]
The Intersection of Race and Gender
Hegemonic masculinity excludes non-white men, especially black men, who often try to validate their masculinity by overcompensating, sometimes with aggression, ...
[96]
[PDF] Masculine Characteristics Across Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Income
Apr 27, 2022 · Masculine characteristics are traits, appearances, interests, and behaviors. Asian men are seen as less masculine, while Black men are seen as ...
[97]
Racial identity, masculinities, and violence exposure - PubMed Central
Sep 15, 2020 · Male adolescents' manhood is influenced by family, community, racism, and racial pride, and includes traditional and non-traditional aspects, ...
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http://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/107-children-in-single-parent-families
[99]
[PDF] Black Masculinity in the Civil Rights Era: Non-Violent Protest Versus ...
Oct 28, 2022 · 40) By connecting Black boys to their heritage exclusively through the mother line, their own femininity was exaggerated, and any masculine ...
[100]
A meta-analysis of the association between male dimorphism ... - NIH
Many species show sexual dimorphism: traits that are different or more exaggerated in either females or males. These traits are often thought to have evolved ...
[101]
The Problem With a Fight Against Toxic Masculinity - The Atlantic
Feb 27, 2019 · The concept of toxic masculinity encourages an assumption that the causes of male violence and other social problems are the same everywhere ...
[102]
The socialization of boys and men in the modern era - PubMed Central
This paper examines the misalignment between modern human society and certain male phenotypes, a misalignment that has been highlighted and explored in great ...
[103]
Evolutionary Basis of Gender Dynamics: Understanding Patriarchy ...
Mar 27, 2025 · Ironically, traits often labeled as “toxic masculinity” (e.g., aggression, competitiveness, risky behavior) by proponents of the patriarchy ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[104]
The health of a nation predicts their mate preferences: cross-cultural ...
Across 30 countries, masculinity preference increased as health decreased. This relationship was independent of cross-cultural differences in wealth or women's ...
[105]
Quantifying the strength and form of sexual selection on men's traits
Results indicate that dominance and the traits associated with it predict men's mating success, but attractiveness and the traits associated with it do not.
[106]
[PDF] Quantifying the strength and form of sexual selection on men's traits
Despite evidence of selection on men's traits through female choice, linear sexual selection acting on the four male traits differed significantly between ...