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Exon junction complex

The exon junction complex (EJC) is a highly conserved, multi-protein ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles on messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts during pre-mRNA splicing, positioning itself approximately 20–24 nucleotides upstream of exon–exon junctions in a sequence-independent manner.^[1] This deposition marks newly spliced mRNAs and serves as a molecular platform for coordinating post-transcriptional gene regulation, influencing key processes such as mRNA nuclear export, cytoplasmic translation enhancement, and quality control via nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD).^[2] Discovered in the early 2000s through studies linking splicing to NMD, the EJC acts as a "lifelong guardian" of mRNA fate, ensuring the fidelity of gene expression from transcription to degradation.^[3] The core of the EJC consists of four stable protein subunits: the RNA helicase eIF4A3 (also known as EIF4A3), which binds the mRNA in a clamp-like fashion; the MAGOH–RBM8A (Y14) heterodimer, which locks eIF4A3 onto the RNA; and CASC3 (also called MLN51 or BTZ), which further stabilizes the complex.^[2] Assembly occurs co-transcriptionally within the spliceosome, where the DEAH-box helicase CWC22 recruits eIF4A3 to the splice site, followed by the sequential addition of the other core components upon exon ligation.^[3] Peripheral factors, such as RNPS1, UPF3B, and PYM, dynamically associate with the core depending on the cellular context and mRNA processing stage, enabling the EJC's multifunctional roles.^[1] Beyond its foundational roles, the EJC contributes to splicing fidelity by suppressing cryptic splice sites and promoting the inclusion of microexons (3–27 nucleotides), particularly in neuronal transcripts where it interacts with factors like SRRM4.^[1] In the cytoplasm, it facilitates mRNA localization to specific subcellular compartments and boosts pioneering round translation by recruiting ribosome-associated proteins like SKAR.^[2] Dysregulation of the EJC has been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders, underscoring its physiological importance in the central nervous system and beyond.^[3]

Overview

Definition and role in mRNA metabolism

The exon junction complex (EJC) is an evolutionarily conserved ribonucleoprotein complex deposited on spliced mRNAs approximately 20-24 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions in a sequence-independent manner during pre-mRNA splicing.^[3] This positioning marks the site of intron removal, serving as a molecular memory of splicing events that persists through subsequent stages of mRNA processing.^[4] The core of the EJC consists of four stable subunits—eIF4A3, MAGOH, Y14 (also known as RBM8A), and MLN51 (CASC3)—which form a dynamic platform for recruiting additional factors depending on the cellular context. The primary roles of the EJC revolve around its function as a surveillance mark that coordinates multiple steps in post-transcriptional mRNA metabolism, including nuclear export, cytoplasmic localization, translation efficiency, and degradation.^[4] By binding to mature mRNAs, the EJC facilitates their export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it influences ribosome recruitment and scanning during translation initiation; upon the first round of translation, the EJC is typically displaced by the ribosome.^[3] In cases of premature termination codons, the EJC triggers nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) to degrade faulty transcripts, thereby preventing the production of truncated proteins.^[4] Throughout the mRNA life cycle, the EJC exerts a broad impact by linking splicing outcomes to downstream fates, ensuring quality control and preventing the aberrant processing or export of unspliced or improperly spliced transcripts.^[3] This regulatory oversight helps maintain gene expression fidelity from nuclear processing to cytoplasmic utilization and decay. The EJC is present across eukaryotes, from yeast to humans, underscoring its fundamental role in eukaryotic gene expression.^[3]

Historical discovery and key milestones

The discovery of the exon junction complex (EJC) emerged in the late 1990s from investigations into mRNA export factors in metazoans, where researchers identified a protein complex deposited on spliced mRNAs approximately 20-24 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions. Foundational experiments employed UV crosslinking and immunoprecipitation to map this complex's precise positioning on mRNA, revealing its splicing-dependent assembly and protection of specific RNA sequences from RNase digestion. In 2001, further studies described the EJC as a binding platform for factors involved in mRNA export and nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), marking its initial link to post-transcriptional regulation.^[5] Key milestones in EJC research include the identification of core components through yeast two-hybrid screens, such as the interaction between Y14 and Magoh in 2001, establishing a conserved heterodimer within the complex.^[6] By 2004, the core was recognized as a heterotetramer including eIF4AIII, which binds RNA in an ATP-dependent manner essential for NMD, shifting focus to its mechanistic role in mRNA surveillance.^[7] Concurrently, in 2004, studies showed the EJC associates with the pioneer translation initiation complex (involving CBP80) but is remodeled during subsequent translations, linking it to enhanced translation efficiency of spliced mRNAs.^[8] The crystal structure of the EJC core, resolved in 2006, revealed how it clamps onto RNA, providing structural insights into its stability and function.^[9] In the 2010s, research expanded the EJC's roles beyond export and NMD to include splicing regulation, with a 2014 study demonstrating that the core EJC, along with accessory factors like RnpS1 and Acinus, promotes efficient excision of neighboring introns in multi-exon genes.^[10] Recent advances from 2023-2025 have highlighted cotranscriptional functions, such as the EJC's coordination of exon block inclusion during nascent RNA processing, ensuring splicing fidelity across gene architectures.^[11] Additionally, studies on viral hijacking revealed that flaviviruses exploit PYM1, an EJC recycling factor, to disrupt complex occupancy and evade host defenses like NMD, as shown in 2019 and expanded in 2025 analyses of non-canonical EJC binding.^[12] These developments reflect a paradigm shift from viewing the EJC primarily as an NMD trigger to recognizing it as a multifaceted regulator of mRNA metabolism, exemplified by 2024 findings that EJC depletion impairs splicing fidelity of the DMD gene, disrupting dystrophin production and myogenic differentiation.^[13]

Composition and structure

Core protein components

The core of the exon junction complex (EJC) is composed of four invariant proteins—eIF4A3, MAGOH, Y14 (also known as RBM8A), and MLN51 (also known as CASC3 or Barentsz/BTZ)—that assemble into a stable heterotetrameric structure essential for anchoring the complex to mRNA.^[14] This 1:1:1:1 stoichiometry is maintained through specific protein-protein interactions, with the complex binding approximately 20–24 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions during pre-mRNA splicing.^[14]^[15] eIF4A3, a DEAD-box ATPase and RNA helicase belonging to the eukaryotic initiation factor 4A family, serves as the central RNA-binding platform that anchors the EJC to mRNA.^[15] It functions via an ATP-dependent clamping mechanism, where its two RecA-like domains enclose and grip approximately six nucleotides of RNA in a bent conformation, locking the complex in place and preventing dissociation without ATP hydrolysis.^[14] This anchoring is specific to spliced mRNAs and distinguishes eIF4A3 from related helicases like eIF4A1 and eIF4A2, which lack this stable RNA-binding mode.^[15] MAGOH and Y14 form a tight heterodimer that stabilizes the EJC core by binding to eIF4A3 and inhibiting its ATPase activity, thereby maintaining the RNA clamp in an ADP-AlF4-mimicking locked state.^[14] Y14, an RNA-binding protein with an RNA recognition motif, contributes to direct mRNA interaction and serves as a platform for recruiting peripheral factors involved in mRNA export and quality control.^[6] MAGOH, the human homolog of Drosophila mago nashi, enhances this stability through hydrophobic interactions within the heterodimer and supports Y14's role in peripheral protein recruitment, such as TAP for nuclear export.^[6] The MAGOH-Y14 interface docks into a cleft between eIF4A3's domains, interlocking the core assembly.^[14] MLN51 acts as a C-terminal extension that interacts directly with eIF4A3, wrapping around its domains to bridge the core subunits and contribute to RNA binding via its speckle localizer and RNA-binding module. This positioning aids in the initial stabilization and deposition of the EJC during splicing, with MLN51's SELOR domain interlocking the complex for enhanced specificity.^[14] Although less tightly bound than the other core proteins, MLN51 is integral to the heterotetramer's architecture.^[14] The core proteins exhibit high sequence conservation across metazoan species, reflecting their fundamental roles in mRNA metabolism, with eIF4A3, Y14, and MAGOH sharing over 80% identity between humans and invertebrates.^[4] MLN51 is the least conserved, with approximately 52% identity between human and zebrafish orthologs.^[4] In humans, recent genomic analyses have identified isoforms for MAGOH (including a paralog, MAGOHB) and minor variants in eIF4A3 and RBM8A, potentially influencing tissue-specific EJC functions.^[16]

Molecular architecture and binding properties

The exon junction complex (EJC) exhibits a modular architecture centered on the DEAD-box helicase eIF4A3, which serves as the primary scaffold for RNA binding in an ATP-dependent manner. The core consists of eIF4A3 in a closed, L-shaped conformation formed by its two RecA-like domains, cradling a segment of mRNA and an ATP molecule at the interdomain interface. The MAGOH-Y14 heterodimer docks onto the second domain of eIF4A3 via extensive hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, forming a stable pocket that further rigidates the complex and positions Y14's RNA recognition motif away from the RNA-binding site. MLN51 (also known as CASC3 or Barentsz) extends from this core, wrapping around both domains of eIF4A3 with its N- and C-terminal regions, thereby enhancing overall stability and contributing to the platform-like organization that accommodates peripheral factors. This foundational crystal structure, resolved at 2.2 Å resolution, reveals a compact assembly approximately 100 Å in diameter, with the RNA threaded through a composite binding groove. Recent structural refinements, integrated into cryo-EM models of human spliceosomal C complexes at near-atomic resolution (3.4 Å core), confirm and extend this modular design by visualizing the EJC in its native splicing context. These models highlight the precise positioning of eIF4A3's RNA-binding residues and the allosteric constraints imposed by MAGOH-Y14, which prevent domain opening without external disruption. The architecture positions the EJC 20-24 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions in a sequence-independent fashion, where eIF4A3 directly contacts six nucleotides in a bent conformation, protecting an additional 2-3 nucleotides via backbone interactions. This clamping mechanism, locked in the ATP-bound state, renders the EJC resistant to displacement by the advancing ribosome during the pioneer round of translation, ensuring persistence until the junction is traversed.^[17] Dynamically, the EJC undergoes limited allosteric rearrangements upon ATP hydrolysis, with the MAGOH-Y14 heterodimer inhibiting product release (ADP and inorganic phosphate) to maintain the closed conformation and RNA grip post-hydrolysis. This results in a stable, post-catalytic state where subtle shifts (e.g., ~0.7 Å in the catalytic site) occur without dissociating the complex, allowing flexibility in peripheral regions for docking of factors like UPF proteins. The inherent rigidity of the core contrasts with this adaptability, enabling the EJC to function as a versatile signaling platform while remaining anchored to spliced mRNA. Comprehensive mapping studies indicate that EJCs occupy approximately 80% of canonical sites upstream of exon junctions in mammalian cells, with deposition strictly limited to spliced (not intronic) boundaries due to spliceosomal commitment during exon ligation.^[18]

Assembly and deposition

Mechanism during pre-mRNA splicing

The exon junction complex (EJC) assembles on pre-mRNA during splicing, specifically linked to the second catalytic step where the exons are ligated and the intron is released. This deposition occurs approximately 20–24 nucleotides upstream of the exon-exon junction in a sequence-independent manner. The core EJC component eIF4A3, an RNA-dependent ATPase, is recruited to the spliceosome via direct interaction with the splicing factor CWC22, which is part of the post-spliceosomal C complex, facilitating the initial docking to the exon definition complex during spliceosome maturation. Although UAP56 (also known as DDX39B), a DEAD-box helicase in the TREX complex, associates with the spliceosome and supports mRNP remodeling, its role in eIF4A3 recruitment is indirect, contributing to the overall commitment of splicing factors to exon junctions.00257-4)^[19]^[20] Assembly proceeds stepwise: eIF4A3 first binds to the RNA in an ATP-bound state, forming an open conformation that allows docking to the spliceosome-bound exon. Subsequently, the MAGOH-Y14 heterodimer is recruited, stabilizing eIF4A3 and transitioning it to a closed, clamped conformation on the RNA. This is followed by the binding of MLN51 (also known as CASC3), completing the stable tetrameric core. ATP hydrolysis by eIF4A3, which is inhibited by MAGOH-Y14 binding, occurs later during post-assembly remodeling rather than sealing the initial clamp; instead, the structural locking by MAGOH-Y14 ensures tight RNA binding without immediate release. This ordered assembly is mediated by the spliceosome, ensuring EJC formation coincides with exon ligation.^[21]01027-0)^[22] EJC assembly is inherently cotranscriptional, occurring as RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcribes nascent pre-mRNA, with recent studies highlighting its influence on splicing of neighboring exons through Pol II pausing. Specifically, pre-EJC factors promote promoter-proximal pausing of Pol II, which facilitates the timely recognition and inclusion of upstream exons by slowing transcription elongation and allowing spliceosome assembly. A 2025 study further demonstrates that EJC-marked junctions coordinate the cotranscriptional inclusion of blocks of neighboring exons, where initial EJC deposition on one exon promotes efficient splicing of adjacent ones via localized Pol II dynamics. This cotranscriptional linkage underscores the EJC's role in coupling transcription and splicing fidelity.^[22]^[23] To maintain fidelity, the splicing machinery ensures deposition of only one stable EJC per exon-exon junction, with any prematurely bound or redundant complexes displaced by advancing spliceosomal components during the catalytic steps. This displacement mechanism, observed in spliceosome dynamics, prevents multiple or aberrant EJC placements, thereby safeguarding mRNA integrity from the outset of splicing. The core structure, as detailed elsewhere, supports this precise positioning through eIF4A3's RNA clamping.^[21]

Regulation of EJC positioning and stability

The positioning of the exon junction complex (EJC) on mRNA is primarily determined during splicing, with the core component eIF4A3 binding approximately 20–24 nucleotides upstream of each exon-exon junction in a sequence-independent manner.^[24] This canonical placement ensures the EJC's role in downstream processes, but post-deposition factors further modulate its location relative to the mRNA cap structure. During the pioneer round of translation, which occurs on newly exported mRNAs bound by the nuclear cap-binding complex, ribosomes displace EJCs as they traverse the transcript, particularly affecting distal EJCs located more than about 50 nucleotides upstream of the stop codon.^[25] This displacement mechanism clears EJCs from upstream positions, preventing interference with subsequent steady-state translation rounds.^[26] Non-canonical EJC binding sites, which occur outside the standard 20–24 nucleotide offset, are tightly regulated to maintain specificity. The EJC recycling factor PYM1 acts as a specificity enforcer by destabilizing EJCs at non-canonical positions in a translation-independent manner, thereby limiting their accumulation on longer exons, transcripts with fewer introns, or even unspliced pre-mRNAs.^[12] Loss of PYM1 function, such as through MAGOH mutation, increases non-canonical EJC footprints, particularly in 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs), which can trigger aberrant nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) on otherwise stable transcripts.^[12] In pathological contexts like flavivirus infection (e.g., West Nile, Zika, and dengue viruses), viral capsid proteins sequester PYM1, hijacking this regulation to expand non-canonical EJC occupancy.^[12] This alteration reduces EJC specificity, upregulates endoplasmic reticulum-associated mRNAs, and mildly inhibits NMD, favoring viral replication by reshaping host mRNA stability.^[12] EJC stability is bolstered by an ATP-independent clamping mechanism within its core, where eIF4A3 is locked in an ADP-bound conformation by MAGOH and Y14 (RBM8A), inhibiting its helicase activity and enabling persistent RNA binding resistant to premature dissociation.^[27] This clamped state allows the EJC to withstand cellular stresses until physical collision with a translating ribosome, which triggers disassembly without requiring ATP hydrolysis.^[28] Post-function, EJC components are subject to ubiquitin-mediated degradation to recycle proteins and prevent accumulation; for instance, the peripheral factor CASC3 undergoes ubiquitination by the E3 ligase Smurf2, promoting its proteasomal breakdown and fine-tuning EJC dynamics after mRNA export or translation.^[29] In mammalian cells, EJC density is typically maintained at approximately one complex per exon junction to support efficient mRNA surveillance without overload.^[30] However, this density varies under cellular stress or during development; energetic stressors like glucose deprivation enhance EJC association with specific mRNAs to repress translation of non-essential transcripts, altering binding profiles.^[31] Developmental contexts, such as neural differentiation, show modulated EJC occupancy influenced by factor availability, with reduced density on certain transcripts linked to alternative splicing shifts. Recent advances highlight pharmacological tools for probing EJC regulation. The small-molecule inhibitor EJC-i, developed in 2025, targets the ATPase activity of eIF4A3 to block de novo EJC assembly without affecting pre-existing complexes, leading to disrupted mRNA localization and impaired ciliogenesis in neural stem cells.^[33] This tool underscores the EJC's vulnerability at the assembly step and offers potential for dissecting positioning dynamics in vivo.

Functions in post-transcriptional regulation

Role in mRNA export and localization

The exon junction complex (EJC) plays a pivotal role in facilitating the nuclear export of mature mRNAs by serving as a molecular platform that recruits key export factors. Specifically, the EJC binds the RNA export factor REF (also known as ALYREF), which in turn interacts with the heterodimeric export receptor NXF1 (TAP) and its cofactor NXT1 (p15), enabling the translocation of spliced mRNAs through nuclear pore complexes.^[34] The EJC core component MLN51 (also called CASC3 or Barentsz) contributes to this process by stabilizing the complex and enhancing interactions with export machinery, particularly for transcripts requiring efficient bulk poly(A)+ mRNA export. This mechanism is especially critical for intronless mRNAs, which lack natural EJC deposition during splicing; tethering EJC components, such as RNPS1, to these transcripts artificially restores robust export and boosts their cytoplasmic accumulation. In the cytoplasm, the EJC directs mRNA localization to specific subcellular compartments, ensuring targeted protein synthesis. For instance, in neuronal cells, the EJC component MAGOH facilitates the transport of localized mRNAs to dendrites, where it promotes ribonucleoprotein (RNP) assembly and stability for synaptic delivery.^[35] This localization is coordinated with microtubule-based transport mechanisms, allowing EJCs to guide mRNPs along cytoskeletal tracks to distal sites like dendritic spines, thereby supporting localized translation in response to synaptic activity.^[35] The efficiency of mRNA export is markedly enhanced by the presence of multiple EJCs along a single transcript, as each complex reinforces mRNP compaction and recruitment of export factors, leading to faster nuclear egress. Comprehensive mapping studies in 2023 revealed that nearly all internal exons in Drosophila harbor an EJC approximately 25-27 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions.^[36] Notably, this export function operates independently of nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathways, as EJCs promote nuclear-to-cytoplasmic transit even on NMD-incompetent transcripts, underscoring their distinct role in productive mRNA trafficking.

Involvement in translation initiation and efficiency

The exon junction complex (EJC) plays a pivotal role in the pioneer round of translation, which represents the initial translation event on newly exported mRNAs bound by the nuclear cap-binding complex (CBC) rather than eIF4E. During this pioneer round, ribosomes displace EJCs deposited approximately 20-24 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions as they traverse the coding sequence, thereby marking the transition to steady-state translation. If an EJC remains within about 50 nucleotides upstream of a termination codon, it signals a premature termination codon and conditionally triggers nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), though this is primarily a quality control mechanism rather than a direct translational event.^[37]^[37]^[37] Proximal EJCs enhance translation initiation by recruiting eukaryotic initiation factors, particularly through the core component Y14 (also known as RBM8A), which boosts cap-dependent translation efficiency. Tethering Y14 to an mRNA increases protein yield by 3- to 4-fold, independent of mRNA stability or export, by promoting association with polysomes. Additionally, the EJC component MLN51 (CASC3) directly interacts with eIF3 subunits (eIF3a and eIF3d), facilitating the recruitment of the 40S ribosomal subunit and activating translation initiation, with overexpression enhancing spliced mRNA translation by over 5-fold in mammalian cells.^[38]^[38]^[28] The presence of multiple EJCs along an mRNA correlates with higher overall translation rates, as each EJC contributes additively to ribosomal recruitment and polysome loading during the pioneer and subsequent rounds. Core EJC proteins like Y14 and eIF4AIII act at distinct steps—Y14 prior to 80S ribosome formation via interaction with PYM to bridge mRNAs to ribosomes, and eIF4AIII post-formation—resulting in enhanced translational output for multi-exon transcripts compared to intronless ones. Recent studies further link EJCs to translation modulation under stress, where the component MLN51 recruits to stress granules, cytoplasmic assemblies of stalled translation complexes, thereby influencing mRNA sorting and translational repression during cellular stress responses like arsenite treatment.^[39]^[39]^[40] EJCs indirectly support mRNA circularization for efficient re-initiation by facilitating EJC disassembly via PYM, which bridges the complex to ribosomes and poly(A)-binding protein, promoting the closed-loop configuration that enhances ribosome recycling after the pioneer round.^[41]

Contribution to mRNA quality control via nonsense-mediated decay

The exon junction complex (EJC) serves as a critical marker in nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), a post-transcriptional surveillance mechanism that selectively degrades mRNAs harboring premature termination codons (PTCs) to avert the synthesis of potentially harmful truncated proteins. During pre-mRNA splicing, the EJC is deposited approximately 20–24 nucleotides upstream of each exon–exon junction, creating a persistent indicator of exon boundaries that survives until displaced by the translating ribosome. In the canonical EJC-dependent NMD pathway, prevalent in mammals, degradation is initiated when a PTC lies more than 50–55 nucleotides upstream of the 3'-most exon junction, ensuring that at least one intact EJC remains downstream of the termination site after ribosomal passage. This positional rule, known as the "50–55 nucleotide rule," distinguishes PTCs from normal stop codons, which are typically located in the final exon without downstream EJCs.^[42]^[43]^[44] Upon encountering a PTC during the pioneer round of translation, the terminating ribosome exposes the downstream EJC, which recruits the UPF3 factor (primarily UPF3B) via direct binding to the EJC core proteins eIF4A3, MAGOH, and Y14. UPF3 then bridges to UPF2, forming a platform that interacts with the RNA helicase UPF1, which is already associated with the ribosome via its interaction with eukaryotic release factors. This trimeric UPF complex triggers SMG1-mediated phosphorylation of UPF1, recruiting decay effectors such as the SMG5–SMG7 heterodimer, which promotes deadenylation and decapping, or the endonuclease SMG6, which cleaves the mRNA internally. Subsequent exonucleolytic degradation from both ends ensues, efficiently eliminating the aberrant transcript. The EJC core is indispensable for this UPF2/UPF3 bridging step, as depletion of core components abolishes recruitment and NMD activation. Additionally, the peripheral EJC component MLN51 (also known as CASC3) enhances NMD sensitivity by stabilizing UPF3B binding to the EJC and facilitating UPF1 engagement, thereby increasing decay efficiency for borderline substrates.^[45]^[46]^[47] NMD not only safeguards against mutations but also regulates approximately 5–10% of wild-type human transcripts, fine-tuning gene expression by targeting isoforms with upstream open reading frames or alternative splicing events that introduce PTCs. This pathway is particularly vital in protecting against truncating mutations in essential genes, where unchecked translation could yield dominant-negative proteins. While the core EJC-dependent mechanism relies on UPF2/UPF3, variant pathways exist that are independent of these factors but still require UPF1; for instance, SMG6 can directly bind phosphorylated UPF1 to enact endonucleolytic cleavage without EJC mediation, accommodating EJC-independent NMD in certain transcripts. Recent 2024 refinements highlight nuances in multi-exon genes like the DMD gene underlying Duchenne muscular dystrophy, where PTC-induced NMD triggers transcriptional adaptation that upregulates compensatory utrophin expression; inhibiting NMD reduces this upregulation, while inducing DMD mRNA decay can enhance utrophin A expression in muscle cells for potential therapeutic benefit.^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]

Additional roles in splicing fidelity and exon inclusion

The exon junction complex (EJC) plays a critical role in maintaining splicing fidelity by ensuring accurate exon joining and suppressing the activation of cryptic splice sites. Deposition of the EJC approximately 20-24 nucleotides upstream of exon-exon junctions serves as a marker of correct splicing events, thereby preventing the use of spurious splice sites that could lead to aberrant transcripts. For instance, in the human DMD gene, which spans 2.2 megabases and encodes dystrophin, depletion of EJC core components such as eIF4A3 and Y14 activates cryptic 5' splice sites in exons 9 and 70, resulting in altered exon inclusion such as increased skipping of exon 78, and intron retention (e.g., intron 70), which disrupts the C-terminal protein interaction domain essential for myogenic differentiation.^[52] This protective mechanism underscores the EJC's function in safeguarding splicing accuracy, particularly in genes with complex intron-exon architecture prone to mis-splicing errors.^[53] Beyond basic fidelity, the EJC influences exon inclusion patterns through cotranscriptional mechanisms, where its deposition at upstream exon junctions promotes the splicing and inclusion of downstream exons. In a process coordinated with RNA polymerase II transcription, EJC assembly facilitates the efficient recognition of weak splice sites in exon blocks—clusters of neighboring exons—by first enabling the splicing of internal introns to form larger, EJC-marked units that enhance subsequent spliceosome recruitment. Depletion of the EJC core protein eIF4A3, analyzed via long-read sequencing of nascent transcripts, reveals widespread skipping of over 1,000 exon blocks across 1,016 genes, with 75% involving pairs of cassette exons, confirming the EJC's role in stabilizing inclusion during ongoing transcription.^[11] This cotranscriptional coupling ensures that EJC positioning modulates polymerase II progression kinetics indirectly by prioritizing splicing order, thereby favoring productive exon assembly over premature termination. The EJC further modulates alternative splicing outcomes, particularly for cassette exons, by interacting with splicing regulatory factors such as SR proteins to fine-tune exon selection. Transcriptome-wide analyses demonstrate that EJC depletion alters hundreds of cassette exon events (e.g., 715 identified in one study), predominantly increasing skipping in genes with longer flanking introns, indicating that EJC binding upstream enhances exon definition and inclusion.^[54] These effects arise from EJC multimerization with SR proteins like SRSF1 and SRSF2, forming higher-order mRNP complexes that stabilize splice site recognition without direct dependency on SR levels for EJC-specific splicing changes. For example, in genes such as HERC4 and KPNA1, EJC-SR interactions promote alternative patterns that balance isoform diversity.^[55] As part of a broader quality control loop, the EJC links splicing errors to downstream surveillance, where aberrant splicing introduces premature termination codons (PTCs) more than 50 nucleotides upstream of an EJC, triggering nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) to degrade faulty transcripts. This feedback mechanism ensures that mis-spliced mRNAs, such as those from cryptic site activation, are rapidly eliminated, preventing the accumulation of truncated proteins.^[56] In this way, EJC deposition not only promotes accurate splicing but also integrates nuclear processing fidelity with cytoplasmic mRNA quality control.

Interactions and clinical relevance

Peripheral factors and dynamic associations

The exon junction complex (EJC) expands its functionality through transient interactions with peripheral factors that dock onto its core components, enabling context-specific roles in mRNA metabolism. Key peripheral factors include UPF2 and UPF3, which bridge the EJC to the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) machinery; UPF3B, in particular, binds via an EJC-binding motif (EBM) to UPF2, facilitating the recruitment of UPF1 for mRNA surveillance. RNPS1 serves as a versatile adapter for phase separation and splicing regulation, while PYM promotes EJC disassembly during translation by binding to the RBM8A-MAGOH heterodimer, thereby releasing the complex from mRNA untranslated regions. SKI7 contributes to mRNA decay pathways by linking the EJC-associated surveillance mechanisms to the cytoplasmic exosome, particularly in nonstop decay contexts. Dynamic binding of these peripherals occurs through modular docking sites on the EJC core, allowing context-dependent recruitment tailored to the mRNA's lifecycle stage. For instance, the core protein Y14 provides a binding platform for export factors such as REF and TAP/p15 in the nucleus, promoting efficient nucleocytoplasmic transport of spliced mRNAs before their dissociation post-export.^[34] This modularity enables the EJC to adapt its composition—such as switching from nuclear ASAP complexes containing RNPS1 to cytoplasmic configurations—based on subcellular localization and mRNA processing needs. RNPS1 exemplifies multi-adapter roles within the EJC network, nucleating biomolecular condensates that organize splicing regulatory complexes and maintain transcriptome surveillance, as demonstrated in 2022 studies showing its ability to promote efficient splicing of vulnerable events independently of core components like Barentsz (MAGOH). These functions extend beyond canonical EJC assembly, allowing RNPS1 to suppress cryptic splice sites and enhance NMD efficiency through phase-separated domains. The EJC interactome, often termed EJCome, encompasses over 70 known protein interactors identified through comprehensive proteomic analyses, forming a dynamic network that integrates splicing, export, translation, and decay processes.^[57] Recent advancements in mapping, including CLIP-seq approaches from 2023, have refined this network by revealing universal EJC deposition patterns and peripheral associations across species, highlighting sub-stoichiometric bindings that fine-tune mRNA fate without altering core stability. In 2025 studies, PYM1's role in limiting non-canonical EJC occupancy further illustrates this network's adaptability, modulating expression in a gene architecture-dependent manner.

Implications in disease and therapeutic targeting

Dysregulation of the exon junction complex (EJC) has been implicated in various human diseases, particularly those involving defects in RNA processing. Mutations or expansions in the core EJC component EIF4A3 lead to Richieri-Costa-Pereira syndrome (RCPS), a rare craniofacial disorder characterized by microcephaly, limb malformations, and intellectual disability due to reduced EIF4A3 expression and impaired EJC assembly.^[58] In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), disruptions in EJC function contribute to splicing defects in the DMD gene, compromising myogenic differentiation and muscle integrity, as demonstrated by studies showing that EJC depletion causes aberrant exon inclusion and reduced splicing fidelity.^[59] Furthermore, in cancer, evasion of nonsense-mediated decay (NMD)—a process reliant on EJC deposition—allows oncogenic transcripts with premature termination codons to persist, promoting tumor progression and resistance to therapy in various malignancies.^[60] Viruses exploit EJC components to manipulate host gene expression. Flaviviruses, such as dengue and Zika, hijack the peripheral EJC factor PYM1 to promote non-canonical EJC deposition on host mRNAs, altering global mRNA regulation and enhancing viral replication while suppressing host translation efficiency.^[12] This interference disrupts normal EJC-mediated quality control, contributing to viral pathogenesis and immune evasion. Therapeutic strategies targeting the EJC are emerging, with potential applications in both viral infections and genetic splicing disorders. Small-molecule inhibitors like EJC-i, which block the ATPase activity of EIF4A3, prevent EJC assembly and have shown promise in impairing viral replication. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) can restore proper EJC positioning by modulating splicing in genetic diseases; for instance, in DMD, exon-skipping ASOs promote frame-restoring isoforms that enable correct EJC deposition and improve dystrophin production.^[61] In neurodegeneration, EJC components such as RBM8A serve as potential biomarkers for disease progression, reflecting altered RNA surveillance in conditions like Alzheimer's and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.^[62]

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Here we identify eIF4A3, a DEAD-box RNA helicase and a member of the eIF4A family of translation initiation factors, as a novel component of the EJC. We show ...
[13]
Two mammalian MAGOH genes contribute to exon junction complex ...
Components of the EJC (eIF4A3, MLN51, Y14, and MAGOH) are involved in splicing, mRNA export, nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD), and translation initiation.- ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
[14]
https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(06)01027-0
[15]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1370532/
[16]
independent recruitment of exon junction complex components | PNAS
Jul 10, 2007 · eIF4A3 directly contacts the bound RNA in the crystal structure, but Phe-188 of SELOR stacks with an RNA base, suggesting that MLN51 enhances ...Results · Eif4a3 Is Not Required For... · Discussion
[17]
Critical Cellular Functions and Mechanisms of Action of the RNA ...
U2AF65-associated protein 56 (UAP56; also known as DDX39B) has emerged as a key RNA helicase involved in facilitating processing steps, such as pre-mRNA ...Missing: second | Show results with:second
[18]
The Hierarchy of Exon-Junction Complex Assembly by the ...
May 26, 2009 · Here we show that EJCs are assembled in a strictly splicing-dependent manner through an unexpected, coordinated, and hierarchical assembly pathway.Missing: heterotetramer | Show results with:heterotetramer
[19]
Promoter-proximal pausing mediated by the exon junction complex ...
Jan 31, 2019 · Here we find that the nuclear exon junction complex (pre-EJC) is a critical and conserved regulator of this process.
[20]
The exon junction complex coordinates the cotranscriptional ...
Oct 18, 2025 · In our working model, block exons are first spliced together to form a larger EJC-marked exon that promotes surrounding splicing events.
[21]
A nuclear translation-like factor eIF4AIII is recruited to the mRNA ...
During pre-mRNA splicing, the exon–exon junction complex (EJC) is recruited to a region 20–24 nt upstream of the exon junction on the mature mRNA. The presence ...<|separator|>
[22]
Pioneer round of translation mediated by nuclear cap-binding ...
Oct 30, 2007 · During the pioneer round of translation, translating ribosomes along the mRNAs displace exon junction complexes (EJCs) deposited onto mRNA ...
[23]
The Pioneer Round of Translation: Features and Functions - PMC
Aug 6, 2010 · In contrast, the pioneer round of translation promotes the removal of EJCs and of associated RNA-binding proteins such as SF2/ASF (which also ...
[24]
Pharmacological systems analysis defines EIF4A3 functions in cell ...
May 3, 2019 · ... spliceosome deposits multiple proteins 20–24 nucleotides upstream of mRNA exon-exon junctions. EMBO J. 19, 6860–6869 (2000). Article Google ...
[25]
EJC core component MLN51 interacts with eIF3 and activates ...
In this intricate network, the exon junction complex (EJC) plays a central role in coordinating posttranscriptional events in metazoans (2). This multiprotein ...
[26]
Smurf2 enhances ubiquitin-mediated degradation of CASC3 and ...
Aug 21, 2025 · Our findings demonstrate that upregulation of Smurf2 reduces viability of leukemia cells and induces apoptosis. Moreover, we identified CASC3 as ...
[27]
Exon Junction Complexes Show a Distributional Bias toward ... - NIH
Jul 28, 2016 · Exon junction complexes (EJCs) are deposited in a splicing-dependent and essentially sequence-independent fashion approximately 20–24 nt ...
[28]
The exon junction complex senses energetic stress and regulates ...
The exon junction complex (EJC) is the main mechanism by which cells select specific mRNAs for translation into protein. We hypothesized that the EJC is ...
[29]
Exon Junction Complex - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Mutation of EJC components are causally linked to defective brain development. Copy number variations (CNVs) of human EJC components are associated with ...
[30]
Chemical inhibition of Exon Junction Complex assembly impairs ...
Mar 1, 2025 · Here we show that EJC-i, a compound known to block the ATPase activity of eIF4A3, inhibits de novo EJC assembly. EJC-i and targeted knockdown of ...
[31]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6434082/
[32]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/%5Bneuroscience
[33]
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.02.25.640098v1
[34]
Splicing enhances translation in mammalian cells
One such alteration is the exon junction complex (EJC), found exclusively on spliced mRNAs. The EJC consists of several proteins that, upon the completion of ...
[35]
Exon junction complex enhances translation of spliced mRNAs at ...
Increased translational efficiency of spliced mRNAs is mediated by exon junction complex (EJC), which is deposited 20–24 nucleotides upstream of each exon–exon ...
[36]
The exon-junction-complex-component metastatic lymph node 51 ...
Aug 15, 2007 · In the present study, we show that MLN51 is recruited into cytoplasmic aggregates known as stress granules (SGs) together with the SG-resident ...
[37]
PYM binds the cytoplasmic exon-junction complex and ribosomes to ...
We suggest that PYM functions as a bridge between EJC-bearing spliced mRNAs and the translation machinery to enhance translation of the mRNAs.Missing: circularization | Show results with:circularization
[38]
Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay at the crossroads of many cellular ...
In mammals, NMD is activated on an mRNA when the first stop codon of the open reading frame is located more than 50–55 nucleotides upstream of an exon-exon ...
[39]
Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay: Mechanisms and Recent ... - MDPI
The exon junction complex (EJC) deposited 20–24 nucleotides upstream of exon/exon junctions during splicing, plays a critical role in this process [10].
[40]
Quality and quantity control of gene expression by nonsense ...
This distinction forms the basis of the '50–55 nucleotide rule': NMD occurs if a PTC is located ≥50–55 nucleotides upstream of an exon–exon junction (FIG. 1a).Ejc-Independent Nmd · Fig. 2 |. Upf1 Binding To... · Nmd Modulates Inherited...
[41]
NMD factors UPF2 and UPF3 bridge UPF1 to the exon ... - PubMed
The EJC proteins MAGOH, Y14 and eIF4AIII provide a composite binding site for UPF3b that serves as a bridge to UPF2 and UPF1. In the UPF trimeric complex, UPF2 ...
[42]
Insights into the recruitment of the NMD machinery from the ... - PNAS
The current models of mammalian NMD envisage that the EJC associates in the nucleus with UPF3, which in turn recruits UPF2 at the cytoplasmic side of the ...
[43]
SMG5-SMG7 authorize nonsense-mediated mRNA decay ... - Nature
Jun 25, 2021 · ... spliceosome deposits multiple proteins 20-24 nucleotides upstream of mRNA exon-exon junctions. EMBO J. 19, 6860–6869 (2000). Article PubMed ...
[44]
Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay, a simplified view of a complex ...
ABSTRACT: Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is both a quality control mechanism and a gene regulation pathway. It has been studied for more than 30 years, ...
[45]
Comparison of EJC-enhanced and EJC-independent NMD in ... - NIH
An exon-junction complex (EJC) located downstream from a TC acts as an NMD-enhancing signal, but is not generally required for NMD. Here, we compared these “EJC ...
[46]
novel phosphorylation-independent interaction between SMG6 and ...
Jul 22, 2014 · Our results show that this interaction is required for NMD and for the capability of tethered SMG6 to degrade its bound RNA.
[47]
Transcriptional adaptation upregulates utrophin in Duchenne ...
Feb 12, 2025 · Inclusion of the PTC-containing exon triggers DMD mutant mRNA decay and UTRN upregulation. Notably, blocking nonsense-mediated mRNA decay ...<|separator|>
[48]
The exon junction complex is required for DMD gene splicing fidelity ...
Mar 21, 2024 · Here we investigate the importance of EJC for the correct splicing of the 2.2-megabase-long human DMD pre-mRNA, which encodes dystrophin.
[49]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3854533/
[50]
The exon junction complex coordinates the cotranscriptional ...
The exon junction complex (EJC) has roles in mRNA export and cytoplasmic quality control. However, the EJC is recruited to pre-mRNA by the spliceosome prior ...
[51]
Transcriptome-wide modulation of splicing by the exon junction ...
Dec 5, 2014 · The EJC is a multi-protein complex which consists of four core proteins (eIF4A3, Magoh, Y14 and MLN51), serving as a binding platform for other ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10957711/
[53]
Exon Junction Complexes Suppress Spurious Splice Sites to ...
Nov 1, 2018 · These splicing regulators commonly bind to specific sequence motifs on the transcript and act as enhancers (e.g., SR proteins) or silencers ( ...
[54]
https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-014-0551-7
[55]
A Noncoding Expansion in EIF4A3 Causes Richieri-Costa-Pereira ...
A noncoding expansion in EIF4A3 causes Richieri-Costa-Pereira syndrome, a craniofacial disorder associated with limb defects.
[56]
The exon junction complex is required for DMD gene splicing fidelity ...
The exon junction complex is required for DMD gene splicing fidelity and myogenic differentiation. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2024 Mar 21;81(1):150.
[57]
Escape from nonsense-mediated decay associates with anti-tumor ...
Jul 30, 2020 · The canonical NMD model dictates that a mutation triggering a PTC, will escape degradation if located downstream of the last exon junction ...
[58]
Golodirsen restores DMD transcript imbalance in Duchenne ...
Nov 29, 2024 · Golodirsen, approved by FDA to induce skipping of DMD gene exon 53 in eligible patients, we demonstrated increase in DMD expression and protein production.
[59]
The Exon Junction Complex Factor RBM8A in Glial Fibrillary Acid ...
Mar 13, 2024 · It has been shown that RBM8A and other genes located in the 1q21.1 copy number variant are associated with neurodevelopmental and ...