Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Hijacking

Hijacking is the unlawful seizure or exercise of control over a vehicle, aircraft, ship, or other means of transport through force, violence, threat, or intimidation, typically to redirect its course, demand ransom, or achieve political objectives.^[1]^[2] The act, often classified as a felony under national laws, has historically targeted aircraft most prominently, with perpetrators forcing pilots to deviate from flight paths or land at unauthorized locations.^[3]^[4] First documented in aviation around 1919, hijackings surged in frequency during the mid-20th century, reaching a global peak of over 300 incidents between 1968 and 1972 amid Cold War tensions and political unrest, before stringent security protocols—such as passenger screening and reinforced cockpits—reduced occurrences to near rarity by the 1980s.^[5]^[6] While early cases frequently involved individuals seeking defection or economic gain, later high-profile events demonstrated hijackings' potential as tools for terrorism, exemplified by coordinated seizures leading to mass casualties, though empirical data underscores that most attempts failed or resulted in perpetrator capture due to operational complexities and rapid law enforcement responses.^[7]^[8]

Etymology and Definition

Core Concept and Scope

Hijacking constitutes the unlawful seizure and exertion of control over a vehicle, vessel, or other conveyance during transit, achieved through force, violence, or intimidation.^[1]^[9] This core act fundamentally disrupts the lawful operation and intended trajectory of the targeted entity, distinguishing it from mere theft by emphasizing the dynamic context of movement and the coercive redirection often imposed on passengers, crew, or cargo.^[10] Legally, such seizures are criminalized under frameworks like U.S. federal statutes defining aircraft piracy as the forcible takeover within jurisdictional airspace, punishable by severe penalties including life imprisonment.^[2] The scope of hijacking traditionally centers on transportation assets vulnerable to interception mid-journey, encompassing aircraft, maritime vessels, land vehicles such as trucks and automobiles, and even rail systems, where perpetrators exploit the confined, mobile environment to assert dominance.^[9]^[10] Internationally, conventions like the 1970 Hague Hijacking Convention codify prohibitions against unlawful aircraft seizures, reflecting the global consensus on its threat to civil aviation and transit security, with over 77 nations ratifying measures to suppress such acts.^[11] While aviation cases dominate historical notoriety due to their high visibility and international ramifications—such as the 1968-1969 surge involving 109 attempts, many aimed at Cuba—the concept extends to non-aerial hijackings of goods-laden trucks or ships, underscoring its applicability to commercial and personal transit alike.^[12] In contemporary usage, the term analogously applies to non-physical domains like digital systems or financial mechanisms, though these variants typically involve technical exploitation rather than physical coercion, broadening the analytical scope beyond kinetic force.^[13]

Linguistic Origins and Evolution

The term "hijack" first appeared in American English slang during the early 1920s, with the earliest attested uses around 1922 referring to the forcible seizure of bootleg liquor shipments by rival gangsters during the Prohibition era.^[14] ^[15] This context arose amid widespread organized crime involving the illegal transport of alcohol, where hijackers ambushed trucks and drivers to steal cargoes valued at significant sums, such as cases documented in Oklahoma between 1915 and 1916 involving liquor-laden vehicles.^[16] The verb form "to hijack" denoted the act itself, while "hijacker" described the perpetrator, as seen in contemporary reports of inter-gang conflicts over illicit goods.^[17] Despite folk etymologies linking it to phrases like "Hi, Jack!"—purportedly shouted during early airplane seizures—or to French Revolutionary-era robberies invoking "Jacques" (a common peasant name)—linguistic authorities classify the precise origin as unknown, dismissing such theories for lack of historical evidence predating the 20th-century American attestations.^[18] ^[19] Linguistically, "hijack" evolved from its narrow Prohibition-era connotation of vehicular robbery to encompass broader unauthorized seizures of control, reflecting technological and criminal adaptations. By the 1930s, it extended to general truck and cargo thefts beyond alcohol, as interstate commerce grew and organized crime diversified.^[20] The term gained prominence in aviation contexts during the mid-20th century, with "skyjack"—a portmanteau of "sky" and "hijack"—coined around 1961 to specifically describe airplane takeovers, though "hijack" itself was retroactively applied to earlier incidents like the 1931 abduction of a small plane in Peru. This shift paralleled a surge in air travel and politically motivated seizures, broadening the word's semantic scope from economic predation to include ideological or terrorist acts.^[15] In the late 20th and 21st centuries, "hijacking" underwent metaphorical extension into non-physical domains, driven by technological advancements. By the 1980s, it described unauthorized interception of communications, such as radio signal hijacking during broadcasts.^[14] In computing, from the 1990s onward, terms like "domain hijacking" emerged for the illicit redirection of internet domains, while "browser hijacking" referred to malware altering user settings, illustrating semantic broadening to digital control seizures without physical force.^[21] This evolution mirrors language's adaptation to causal shifts in human activity, from tangible transport disruptions to abstract systemic interceptions, with the core denotation of illicit appropriation persisting across contexts.^[20]

Historical Overview

Early Instances and Pre-Aviation Cases

The practice of hijacking, defined as the unlawful seizure and control of a conveyance for purposes such as plunder, diversion, or ransom, predates aviation by thousands of years and primarily manifested in maritime contexts as piracy. The earliest documented instances occurred around the 14th century BC, when seafaring raiders known as the Sea Peoples attacked merchant ships in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean, disrupting trade routes and seizing vessels and cargoes.^[22] These acts involved boarding and overpowering crews to redirect ships, mirroring the mechanics of later hijackings.^[23] Piracy persisted through antiquity, with Roman records from the 1st century BC describing widespread operations by Cilician pirates who captured hundreds of ships annually, holding them for tribute or selling captives into slavery.^[24] In the early modern era, piracy intensified during the 17th- and 18th-century "Golden Age," when privateers turned to outright hijacking of commercial vessels in the Caribbean and Atlantic. Notable examples include the 1718 capture of the British merchant ship Whydah by pirate Samuel Bellamy, who seized control off Cape Cod, Massachusetts, plundering its cargo of gold, silver, and ivory valued at over £100,000 (equivalent to millions today).^[25] Such seizures often involved armed boarding parties forcing crews to alter course or surrender, with pirates like Edward Teach (Blackbeard) hijacking dozens of ships between 1716 and 1718 to demand ransoms or integrate vessels into their fleets.^[26] These operations were economically motivated, targeting high-value trade routes, but occasionally incorporated political elements, such as alliances with colonial powers against rivals. Pre-aviation land-based hijackings were rarer and typically involved rudimentary vehicles like wagons or early trucks rather than systematic diversions. The modern English term "hijack" first appeared in the United States around 1915-1916, describing the forcible takeover of trucks transporting illegal liquor in Oklahoma amid enforcement of dry laws predating national Prohibition.^[16] By the 1920s Prohibition era, hijackings escalated as gangsters intercepted rival bootleggers' convoys on highways, seizing cargoes worth thousands of dollars; a 1920s New York case involved gunmen halting a truck near the city, killing the driver, and absconding with 169 cases of whiskey valued at $14,000.^[14] Unlike piracy's sea-based mobility, these incidents focused on cargo theft with minimal vehicle redirection, reflecting the era's automobile limitations. Historical records show no prominent pre-1900 train or stagecoach hijackings distinct from stationary robberies, where assailants halted but did not commandeered trains for prolonged control or diversion. This scarcity underscores piracy's dominance as the archetypal pre-aviation hijacking paradigm, driven by the strategic value of ships as self-contained transport units.

Mid-20th Century Peak (1930s-1970s)

The first recorded instance of an aircraft hijacking occurred on February 21, 1931, in Arequipa, Peru, when armed revolutionaries surrounded a grounded Ford Tri-Motor operated by Pan American-Grace Airways and piloted by American Byron Richards, demanding he fly them to another location; Richards refused, leading to a standoff resolved without flight but marking the onset of aviation seizures.^[27] ^[28] Incidents remained sporadic through the 1930s and 1940s, often tied to political unrest or wartime contexts, with fewer than a handful documented annually worldwide, as commercial air travel was limited and security measures absent.^[29] Hijackings escalated in the post-World War II era, particularly from the late 1950s, but reached a pronounced peak between 1968 and 1972, with over 300 global incidents recorded, averaging more than 60 per year, driven primarily by the ease of access to cockpits and lack of passenger screening.^[29] In the United States alone, more than 130 aircraft were seized during this interval, many multiple times weekly, often by individuals seeking diversion to Cuba amid economic desperation, criminal evasion, or ideological sympathy for Fidel Castro's revolution, which initially welcomed hijackers and ransomed planes back to U.S. carriers for up to $10,000 each in upkeep costs.^[30] ^[31] Cuban authorities accepted over 100 such flights from 1961 to 1973, attributing the surge to U.S. societal discontent rather than coercion, though many perpetrators faced imprisonment or disillusionment upon arrival.^[32] Most mid-century hijackings were non-lethal, with hijackers—frequently lone actors armed with knives, guns, or bombs—gaining control mid-flight via unsubstantiated threats, as pilots prioritized passenger safety over resistance; fatalities were low, totaling 46 across the 1968–1972 peak, though 25 occurred in 1972 amid rising international terrorism.^[29] Notable examples include the November 24, 1971, hijacking of Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305 by a man known as D.B. Cooper, who extorted $200,000 and parachuted into obscurity, inspiring copycats but highlighting opportunistic motives over ideology.^[27] Political variants emerged later in the period, such as the September 1970 Dawson's Field hijackings by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, which seized four Western airliners to demand prisoner releases, escalating media attention and prompting initial U.S. countermeasures like cockpit barriers.^[27] This era's prevalence stemmed from causal factors including porous airport protocols, the contagious demonstration effect via news coverage, and geopolitical tensions, rather than systemic aviation flaws alone.^[33]

Post-1970s Decline and Shifts to Cyber Domains

Following the peak of aircraft hijackings in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when over 305 incidents occurred globally between 1968 and 1972, annual events declined sharply to 20-40 worldwide from 1973 to 2001.^[29] In the United States, hijackings rose from the first recorded case in 1961 to a high of 38 attempts in 1969 and 25 successful seizures in 1972, after which they fell precipitously, with only isolated occurrences thereafter.^[34] This downturn resulted primarily from enhanced aviation security protocols, including the January 1973 implementation of mandatory passenger screening with metal detectors at U.S. airports, which detected weapons in 99% of potential cases by deterring armed boardings.^[34] Complementary measures, such as the expansion of the Federal Air Marshal Service and international agreements to prosecute hijackers rather than grant asylum, further eroded viability, reducing U.S. incidents to near zero by the late 1970s.^[29] Post-9/11 reinforcements, including reinforced cockpit doors mandated by the Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001, accelerated the trend, yielding just 47 attempted commercial airliner hijackings globally from September 2001 to March 2020.^[35] Broader physical transportation hijackings, such as those of ships or vehicles, also waned due to analogous hardening, including GPS tracking, armed guards on maritime routes, and supply chain verification technologies that minimized opportunities for undetected seizures. Empirical analyses attribute over 90% of the aviation decline to these deterrence effects, rather than shifts in perpetrator intent, as hijacking rates correlated inversely with screening stringency across nations. As physical domains became fortified, analogous tactics migrated to cyber realms, where low barriers to entry enabled remote unauthorized control without direct confrontation. Digital hijacking emerged prominently in the 1990s with the internet's expansion, exemplified by session hijacking techniques that intercept user authentication to seize control of online connections, first documented in early network exploits like those targeting telnet sessions.^[36] By the 2000s, domain name system (DNS) hijacking proliferated, allowing attackers to redirect traffic from legitimate sites; a notable case occurred in 2008 when Pakistan Telecom briefly hijacked YouTube's IP addresses via BGP routing manipulation, affecting global access for hours.^[37] This shift reflected causal incentives: cyber methods offered scalability and anonymity, with incidents rising from sporadic hacks in the 1980s to thousands annually by 2010, as perpetrators exploited unpatched software and weak credentials to commandeer servers, accounts, and data flows—mirroring physical coercion but through code rather than force.^[38] Unlike physical cases, cyber hijackings often evade immediate detection, enabling prolonged control for extortion, as seen in ransomware variants that encrypt and "hijack" victim systems, with global attacks surging from under 1,000 in 2011 to over 5,000 by 2016.^[39]

Primary Categories

Physical Transportation Hijackings

Physical transportation hijackings involve the forcible seizure of control over vehicles in transit, including aircraft, ships, trains, and buses, typically through threats of violence or intimidation to divert the conveyance, hold passengers or crew hostage, or extract concessions.^[9] These acts differ from mere robberies by aiming to commandeer the vehicle itself rather than solely targeting cargo or passengers.^[40] Aviation hijackings represent the most documented subtype, with incidents surging in the late 1960s and early 1970s due to political motivations and lax security. Globally, over 300 hijackings occurred between 1968 and 1972, including more than 130 attempts on U.S. carriers alone, often involving diversions to Cuba for asylum or demands by groups like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine.^[6] ^[30] The introduction of mandatory passenger screening, metal detectors, and international agreements like the 1970 Hague Convention contributed to a precipitous decline, reducing worldwide events to fewer than 10 annually by the 1980s and near zero in subsequent decades outside exceptional cases.^[41] ^[42] No hijackings of U.S.-registered civil aircraft were recorded from 1991 to 2000.^[42] Maritime hijackings, frequently classified as piracy under international law, persist in high-risk areas such as the Gulf of Guinea and the waters off Indonesia and Somalia, primarily for crew ransom. In 2023, the International Maritime Bureau documented four successful vessel hijackings amid 120 total piracy incidents, with attackers boarding ships to detain personnel until payments averaging hundreds of thousands of dollars were secured.^[43] This number rose slightly to six hijackings in 2024, reflecting opportunistic seizures of smaller vessels like fishing boats and tankers, though international naval patrols have curbed larger-scale operations seen in the 2000s-2010s off Somalia.^[44] Hijackings of rail and bus systems are comparatively infrequent, often occurring in regions with active insurgencies or weak law enforcement, and tend to involve shorter durations due to easier access for responders. Historical cases include the 1975 and 1977 train seizures in the Netherlands by South Moluccan militants seeking independence, which held dozens of hostages for up to 20 days and ended in raids killing hijackers and some captives.^[11] In the United States, the 1976 Chowchilla incident saw three perpetrators hijack a school bus carrying 26 children and their driver, burying them underground to demand a $5 million ransom before victims escaped.^[45] More recently, Baloch separatists in Pakistan hijacked the Jaffar Express passenger train on March 11, 2025, taking over 400 hostages in a 30-hour standoff that resulted in 21 passenger deaths before military intervention freed most captives.^[46] Statistical tracking for land vehicle hijackings remains sparse compared to air and sea, with databases emphasizing attacks like bombings over full seizures.^[47]

Digital and Technological Hijackings

Digital hijackings encompass unauthorized takeovers of network traffic, user sessions, or online accounts via exploitation of technical vulnerabilities, often enabling redirection, data theft, or malicious control without physical access. These differ from physical hijackings by leveraging software flaws, weak encryption, or protocol weaknesses in systems like DNS or TCP/IP. For instance, Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) prefix hijacking occurs when an autonomous system falsely advertises ownership of IP prefixes, rerouting global internet traffic; a 2008 incident involving Pakistan Telecom's hijack of YouTube's prefixes disrupted access worldwide for hours.^[48] DNS hijacking, a subset of network-level attacks, involves altering Domain Name System records to redirect users to attacker-controlled servers, facilitating phishing or espionage. Notable cases include the 2018-2019 campaign targeting cryptocurrency firms like MyEtherWallet, where attackers compromised registrar accounts to steal user funds exceeding $150,000, linked to state-sponsored actors from the UAE. Similarly, BGP hijacks have enabled traffic interception; in 2022, a Chinese state-linked operation rerouted U.S. government traffic through its networks for surveillance. Such incidents highlight systemic risks in decentralized routing protocols, where false advertisements propagate rapidly due to BGP's trust-based design.^[49]^[50] Session hijacking exploits active user sessions by stealing or predicting session tokens, such as cookies, allowing attackers to impersonate authenticated users and access sensitive data. Techniques include man-in-the-middle interception on unsecured Wi-Fi or side-channel prediction of session IDs; real-world examples involve credential stuffing attacks on platforms like Twitter, where compromised sessions led to account takeovers for spreading malware or disinformation. In 2014, researchers documented manual hijacking of high-value email accounts via phishing-induced session theft, resulting in business email compromise fraud totaling billions annually.^[51]^[52] Browser hijackers are malware variants that modify browser settings, such as default search engines or homepages, to inject ads or redirect queries for profit. Originating in the early 2000s from bundled software installers, often traced to Israeli firms in "Download Valley," these programs infected millions; by 2003, variants like CoolWebSearch compromised over 8% of global PCs, evading detection through rootkit persistence. Impacts include exposure to further malware and revenue diversion estimated at hundreds of millions yearly via affiliate fraud.^[53] Technological hijackings extend to connected devices, where vulnerabilities enable remote control. In IoT ecosystems, the 2016 Mirai botnet exploited default credentials on Linux-based devices like cameras and routers, enslaving over 600,000 nodes for DDoS attacks peaking at 1.2 Tbps against Dyn DNS, disrupting services for Twitter and Netflix. Vehicle systems face similar threats; in 2015, researchers Charlie Miller and Chris Valasek remotely hijacked a Jeep Cherokee via its Uconnect cellular modem, controlling wipers, radio, and transmission while driving at highway speeds, prompting Fiat Chrysler to recall 1.4 million vehicles for software patches. These cases underscore causal vulnerabilities in undersecured embedded systems and supply-chain defaults, amplifying risks as device connectivity grows.^[54]

Financial and Systemic Hijackings

Financial hijackings typically involve the unauthorized seizure of financial accounts, transaction systems, or payment networks to facilitate fraud, theft, or market manipulation. In cybersecurity contexts, perpetrators exploit vulnerabilities such as weak authentication, phishing, or malware to gain control, redirecting funds or executing illicit trades. A prominent case occurred in February 2016, when hackers linked to North Korea infiltrated the Bangladesh Central Bank's systems via the SWIFT messaging network, attempting to transfer $951 million; while most transfers were blocked, $81 million was successfully stolen and laundered through casinos in the Philippines.^[55] Similar tactics have targeted brokerage accounts, as seen in Japan starting in early 2025, where cybercriminals hijacked investor accounts to conduct unauthorized stock trades exceeding 304.9 billion yen ($2.08 billion) in value by May, manipulating illiquid penny stocks and prompting regulatory investigations into account security lapses.^[56]^[57] These incidents highlight the scalability of account takeover attacks, with bots and credential stuffing enabling mass hijackings; for instance, in 2022, Imperva mitigated what it described as the largest recorded account takeover campaign, blocking millions of bot attempts on financial login portals.^[58] Systemic hijackings extend beyond individual accounts to encompass the capture or subversion of broader financial infrastructures, regulatory frameworks, or governance mechanisms, often through undue influence rather than technical intrusion. Regulatory capture, a concept akin to systemic hijacking, occurs when regulated entities—such as banks or financial firms—exert disproportionate control over oversight bodies, prioritizing private interests over public welfare. This dynamic has been analyzed in global financial regulation, where powerful actors can "hijack" standard-setting processes, as detailed in studies of international bodies like the IMF and World Bank, potentially undermining crisis prevention efforts.^[59] In Europe post-2008 financial crisis, critics have pointed to instances of financial sector influence "hijacking" supervisory processes, contributing to lenient enforcement and moral hazard in banking.^[60] Such capture is facilitated by revolving doors between industry and regulators, lobbying, and information asymmetries, leading to policies that entrench systemic risks rather than mitigate them; empirical evidence from U.S. banking reforms shows how captured agencies delayed reforms on derivatives trading post-crisis.^[61] These forms of hijacking pose cascading risks to economic stability, with financial breaches potentially triggering contagion across markets, as evidenced by studies linking cybersecurity incidents to broader stock volatility and reduced investor confidence.^[62] Mitigation efforts include multi-factor authentication, real-time transaction monitoring, and stricter segregation of regulatory duties to counter capture, though persistent vulnerabilities underscore the need for technological and institutional safeguards.^[63]

Motivations and Perpetrators

Political and Ideological Drivers

Political and ideological drivers of hijacking have historically centered on leveraging high-profile disruptions to advance nationalist, anti-imperialist, or revolutionary agendas, often by diverting aircraft to sympathetic territories or using passengers as bargaining chips for prisoner releases and publicity. In the 1960s and early 1970s, a significant wave of hijackings to Cuba—over 130 documented U.S. flights between 1961 and 1973—stemmed from perpetrators' alignment with communist ideology, viewing Castro's regime as a refuge from perceived capitalist oppression or as a platform for anti-U.S. protest.^[64]^[31] These acts were not always state-sponsored but exploited Cuba's initial policy of granting asylum to hijackers, providing Castro political leverage against the U.S. despite lacking direct evidence of orchestration.^[65] Organized terrorist groups amplified these tactics for broader ideological goals, particularly Marxist-Leninist factions seeking to internationalize local grievances. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a secular Marxist organization, pioneered coordinated skyjackings in September 1970, hijacking four Western airliners to Dawson's Field in Jordan to demand the release of imprisoned militants and spotlight the Palestinian cause against Israel.^[27] This operation, involving 11 hijackers and over 300 hostages, destroyed three empty aircraft post-negotiation, aiming to project power and coerce concessions rather than mere escape.^[66] Such drivers shifted post-1970s as security measures curbed viability, but ideological persistence manifested in Islamist extremism, exemplified by al-Qaeda's September 11, 2001, attacks, where hijacked planes served as weapons to symbolize jihad against Western influence, killing 2,977 and rooted in radical Salafi interpretations rejecting secular governance.^[67] Earlier Islamist attempts, like the 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking by Palestine Liberation Front (a PLO splinter with Islamist leanings), blended nationalism with religious rhetoric to protest Israeli actions.^[68] These cases underscore causal patterns: ideologues select hijacking for its media amplification and symbolic vulnerability of air travel, though empirical data shows leftist-nationalist motives dominated pre-1980s incidents, with state responses prioritizing deterrence over ideological appeasement.^[69]^[70]

Criminal and Economic Incentives

Criminal hijackings are motivated by direct financial gain, including ransom extortion, cargo theft, and resale of hijacked assets, often in contexts of low enforcement and high reward potential. These acts prioritize profit over ideological or personal aims, with perpetrators calculating risks against payouts from vulnerable targets like transportation vehicles or digital infrastructure. Empirical data from incident analyses show that economic drivers correlate with opportunity costs, such as regional poverty or lucrative black-market values, rather than abstract grievances.^[71] In aviation, extortion hijackings peaked in the United States from the late 1960s to early 1970s, with over 150 domestic attempts often involving demands for cash ransoms ranging from tens to hundreds of thousands of dollars. Hijackers typically boarded flights, threatened crews with explosives or weapons, and negotiated payoffs before diverting aircraft or escaping. The paradigmatic case occurred on November 24, 1971, when an unidentified individual using the alias D.B. Cooper seized Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305 en route from Portland to Seattle, demanding $200,000 in ransom and four parachutes; he released passengers after receiving the money but jumped from the plane mid-flight, vanishing with the funds and remaining at large despite extensive FBI investigation.^[7] Such incidents, averaging 20-40 annually globally by the early 1970s, declined sharply after 1973 due to mandatory security screenings and metal detectors, reducing economic viability by increasing detection risks.^[29] Maritime hijackings, commonly classified as piracy, exhibit strong economic incentives in undergoverned waters, where crews seize vessels for ransom or cargo resale. Off the coasts of Somalia and Nigeria, attacks surged in the 2000s, with pirates boarding ships at sea to hold crews and hulls hostage, extracting average ransoms of $2-5 million per incident during peak years like 2010-2012. A United Nations survey of convicted pirates highlighted poverty and lack of alternatives as primary motivators, with proceeds funding arms, fuel, and recruitment for repeat operations, though international naval patrols later curtailed profitability.^[72] These acts impose broader economic costs estimated at $25 billion annually in global trade disruptions and insurance hikes, yet persist where marginal gains exceed legal livelihoods.^[73] Digital hijackings via ransomware exemplify modern economic incentives, where cybercriminals unlawfully seize control of networks or data by encryption, demanding cryptocurrency payments for restoration. Groups like LockBit and Conti have industrialized this model, with average successful ransoms climbing to $2.73 million by 2023, driven by low overheads—often under $10,000 per attack—and scalability across thousands of victims annually.^[74] Profit calculus favors targets with high recovery urgency, such as hospitals or firms facing $4.5 million average total breach costs, enabling perpetrators to net billions yearly despite occasional law enforcement disruptions.^[75] This shift from physical to cyber domains reflects adaptation to fortified physical security, amplifying economic returns through anonymity and global reach.

Personal and Psychological Factors

A portion of aircraft hijackings stem from personal psychological factors, such as severe mental disorders including psychosis, delusions, or suicidal ideation, distinct from political ideology or criminal gain. According to analysis of hijackings from 1947 to 1996, approximately 13% were perpetrated by individuals with diagnosed psychiatric problems, often involving erratic demands or self-destructive intentions rather than rational objectives.^[76] Empirical studies of U.S.-registered aircraft hijackings between 1961 and 1990 categorize perpetrators into groups including the "mentally disordered," alongside subtypes like alcohol or drug abusers and those with personality disorders, collectively accounting for a significant non-political subset of incidents.^[77] These cases frequently involve hijackers experiencing acute crises, such as paranoia or attention-seeking behaviors amplified by media contagion effects, where publicity from prior events triggers imitation among psychologically vulnerable individuals.^[33] For instance, in non-political hijackings, perpetrators may act on delusional beliefs, like evading imagined pursuers or demanding impossible concessions to fulfill personal fantasies, leading to poor planning and high failure rates compared to ideologically driven acts. Personality disorders, including antisocial or narcissistic traits, appear in some profiles, contributing to impulsivity and disregard for consequences, though direct causation remains debated and not predominant across all hijackings.^[77] Suicidal motivations represent another psychological driver, where hijackers seek to end their lives dramatically, often framing the act to appear accidental or external. The 1994 attempted hijacking of FedEx Flight 705 by Auburn Calloway, an off-duty crew member facing job termination and financial distress, exemplifies this; armed with spears and a hammer, he intended to kill the crew and crash the plane to collect insurance, linked to underlying mental health strains under professional pressure.^[78] Similarly, cases of "suicide by aircraft" among insiders, driven by untreated depression or psychosis, highlight how personal despair can manifest as hijacking-like control seizures, underscoring causal links between unaddressed psychological distress and aviation threats independent of broader agendas.^[79] Such incidents emphasize the role of individual pathology in enabling hijackings, with empirical evidence indicating these actors often lack organized support networks typical of other categories.^[77]

Methods and Execution

Physical Coercion Techniques

Hijackers employ physical coercion techniques to overpower crew and passengers, securing control through immediate threats of violence or demonstrative harm. These methods rely on the element of surprise, often initiated mid-journey after boarding with concealed implements, to minimize resistance and exploit fear of injury or death. Empirical analysis of aircraft hijackings indicates that handguns predominate as the weapon of choice, encompassing semiautomatic pistols, revolvers, and even non-lethal variants like BB guns or starter pistols, which hijackers brandish to intimidate pilots into deviating course or landing at designated sites.^[80] Knives, razors, and edged tools serve as secondary options, particularly when firearms screening limits access, allowing quick access to cockpits or hostage selection without alerting authorities pre-departure. Demonstrative violence amplifies coercion, where hijackers inflict harm on select individuals to enforce submission among the group. In the 1970 hijacking of Japan Airlines Flight 351 by Japanese Red Army members, assailants used swords and dynamite sticks to stab crew members and threaten mass execution, compelling the captain to fly to North Korea.^[81] Similarly, during EgyptAir Flight 648 in 1985, hijackers from the Abu Nidal Organization executed a passenger with gunfire to underscore demands, resulting in further fatalities when Israeli commandos stormed the aircraft.^[82] Such acts establish dominance, as rational actors among captives prioritize survival by cooperating, a dynamic rooted in the hijackers' asymmetric advantage in confined spaces. Chemical irritants and improvised restraints supplement lethal threats, targeting sensory overload or mobility. The September 11, 2001 hijackers deployed Mace or pepper spray to disorient flight attendants and bar access to cockpits, paired with box cutters for slashing attempts on crew necks to breach secure doors.^[83] Binding passengers with belts, clothing, or onboard materials isolates potential resisters, as observed in TWA Flight 847's 1985 ordeal, where hijackers zip-tied hostages and segregated groups to prevent coordinated resistance.^[84] In maritime hijackings, such as Somali pirate seizures post-2008, assailants use grappling hooks for boarding followed by rifle fire and knife restraints on crews, mirroring aviation tactics but adapted to open decks.^[85] These techniques evolve with security countermeasures; post-1970s metal detectors reduced gun prevalence, shifting emphasis to blades and bluffs with fake explosives, yet the core mechanism—lethal threat in enclosed environments—persists due to its low preparation threshold and high compliance yield.^[28]

Technical Exploitation Methods

Technical exploitation methods in hijacking leverage vulnerabilities in electronic systems, communication protocols, and software to gain unauthorized control over vehicles, aircraft, or digital assets, often without direct physical access. These approaches exploit weaknesses in interconnected technologies, such as in-vehicle networks or satellite-based navigation, enabling remote manipulation of controls, navigation, or authentication mechanisms. Demonstrations and real-world incidents highlight how attackers can inject malicious signals or code to override legitimate operations, underscoring the causal link between unpatched software flaws and increased hijack risk.^[86]^[87] In aviation, protocols like Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) and Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) have been shown vulnerable to remote exploitation. In a 2013 demonstration at the Hack In The Box conference, researcher Ruben Santamarta illustrated how an Android application could intercept and manipulate these unencrypted communications to potentially alter flight parameters or inject false data into onboard systems. Similarly, theoretical analyses from 2014 identified pathways for "cyberjacking" via software-defined radios that could theoretically deploy a "cyber bomb" by exploiting avionics firmware flaws, though practical barriers like signal strength and aircraft shielding limit feasibility without proximity.^[87]^[88]^[86] GPS spoofing represents another critical vector, where attackers broadcast counterfeit satellite signals stronger than authentic ones to deceive receivers into accepting false positioning data. This meaconing technique can hijack navigation by gradually overriding real signals—a process termed deception spoofing—causing deviations in course for aircraft, drones, or vehicles; a 2022 USENIX study experimentally took over unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) by reusing navigation messages for stealthy control takeover. Such methods have been patented for detection since at least 2014, relying on signal strength discrepancies and gyroscope cross-verification to identify fakes.^[89]^[90]^[91] For ground vehicles, Controller Area Network (CAN) bus hacking enables injection attacks that bypass immobilizers and ignition systems. Attackers physically access wiring, often via headlights or OBD-II ports, to connect devices that impersonate legitimate electronic control units (ECUs), sending forged messages to unlock doors or start engines; a 2023 analysis detailed CAN injection tools mimicking smart key ECUs for keyless theft across multiple models. Relay attacks amplify key fob signals over distances up to 100 meters using paired radio devices, tricking the vehicle into authenticating a remote fob as proximate, while replay attacks capture and retransmit prior signals before rolling codes update. These exploits, documented in automotive cybersecurity reports since 2016, exploit unencrypted wireless protocols and have driven theft surges in regions with high keyless entry adoption.^[92]^[93]^[94] In digital contexts, domain hijacking often involves technical compromises of registrar APIs or DNS configurations, such as exploiting weak authentication to transfer ownership. Attackers may use subdomain takeovers by claiming expired DNS records linked to active services, redirecting traffic to malicious servers; MITRE ATT&CK frameworks classify this under infrastructure compromise techniques observed since 2020. Prevention relies on multi-factor authentication and WHOIS privacy, as social engineering augments but does not solely drive these exploits.^[95]^[96]

Notable Incidents

Pre-1960s Events

The first documented hijacking of a civilian aircraft occurred on February 21, 1931, in Arequipa, Peru, when a Pan American Airways Ford Trimotor en route from Lima was seized upon landing by armed revolutionaries.^[27]^[28] The American pilot, Byron Richards, was approached by the group, who demanded he fly to another location to drop propaganda leaflets supporting their cause; Richards refused, leading to his detention as a hostage for several days until Peruvian government forces secured his release without further violence or flight diversion.^[97]^[98] This ground-based seizure marked an early instance of unlawful interference with commercial aviation, though it did not involve mid-air takeover.^[27] Subsequent pre-1960s aircraft hijackings remained sporadic and isolated, often tied to political unrest or defection attempts rather than organized terrorism. For example, on July 25, 1947, a Romanian-operated commercial airliner was hijacked mid-flight by its pilot, Vasile Ciobanu, who diverted it to Turkey seeking asylum amid communist rule, representing the first recorded in-flight seizure of a passenger airliner.^[99] Other incidents included defections from Eastern Bloc countries in the 1950s, such as Polish and Hungarian pilots forcing landings in the West, but these were infrequent—fewer than a dozen confirmed cases globally—and lacked the pattern of ransom or ideological spectacle that emerged later.^[29] No fatalities resulted from these early events, and aviation security measures were minimal, reflecting the novelty of air travel vulnerabilities.^[100]

1960s-1980s High-Profile Cases

During the 1960s and early 1970s, the United States experienced a surge in aircraft hijackings, with over 130 incidents between 1968 and 1972, most aimed at diverting flights to Cuba due to economic desperation, political dissatisfaction, or defection regrets among passengers.^[30] These non-violent takeovers, often involving knives or handguns, succeeded in about 100 cases, prompting Cuba to eventually return many hijackers and aircraft while granting asylum to some.^[70] The phenomenon peaked with multiple hijackings on single days, leading to U.S. implementation of airport metal detectors and no-fly lists by 1973, which drastically reduced such events.^[100] A shift toward politically motivated hijackings occurred in the late 1960s, exemplified by the Dawson's Field events from September 6 to 12, 1970, when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) seized four Western airliners—three successfully (TWA Flight 741, Swissair Flight 100, and Pan Am Flight 93)—and diverted them to a remote Jordanian airstrip known as Dawson's Field.^[101] The hijackers, demanding the release of imprisoned militants and Palestinian fedayeen, held over 200 passengers hostage before releasing most and detonating the emptied aircraft on September 12, escalating regional tensions and contributing to Jordan's Black September conflict.^[102] One anomalous case amid this era was the November 24, 1971, hijacking of Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305 by a man using the alias D.B. Cooper, who demanded $200,000 in ransom and four parachutes before leaping from the rear airstairs over southwestern Washington state, vanishing with the money and remaining unidentified despite FBI investigations yielding partial serial-numbered bills downstream.^[7] This skyjacking, the only unsolved commercial airline hijacking in U.S. history, inspired copycats but lacked ideological ties, focusing instead on extortion.^[103] In the mid-1970s, international terrorism intensified with the June 27, 1976, hijacking of Air France Flight 139 by two PFLP members and two German revolutionaries shortly after departure from Athens, diverting the Airbus A300 with 248 passengers and 12 crew to Entebbe, Uganda, under dictator Idi Amin's protection.^[104] The hijackers separated Jewish and Israeli hostages, killing one during an escape attempt, and demanded $5 million ransom plus prisoner releases; Israeli commandos executed Operation Entebbe on July 4, rescuing 102 hostages in a 90-minute raid that killed all seven hijackers, Ugandan soldiers, and three hostages, with one commando fatally wounded.^[105] The October 13, 1977, seizure of Lufthansa Flight 181, a Boeing 737 with 86 passengers and five crew en route from Palma de Mallorca to Frankfurt, by four PFLP militants seeking to free imprisoned Red Army Faction members, involved a 3,000-mile odyssey across Dubai, Aden, and Mogadishu.^[106] Hijackers murdered Captain Jürgen Schumann mid-flight and threatened further violence; West German GSG 9 commandos stormed the aircraft on October 18 in Mogadishu, killing three hijackers and capturing the fourth, rescuing all remaining hostages unharmed in Operation Magic Fire.^[107] The decade closed with the June 14, 1985, hijacking of TWA Flight 847, a Boeing 727 with 153 passengers and crew from Athens to Rome, by two Lebanese Shiite militants affiliated with Hezbollah, who diverted it to Beirut and beat U.S. Navy diver Robert Stethem to death, dumping his body on the tarmac.^[8] Over 17 days, the plane shuttled between Beirut and Algiers, with hijackers demanding the release of 784 Shiite prisoners held in Israel and Kuwait; negotiations led to 39 American hostages' release by June 30, though 39 others endured prolonged captivity, highlighting vulnerabilities in Middle Eastern aviation security.^[108]

1990s-Present and Cyber Examples

On April 7, 1994, Federal Express Flight 705, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10 cargo aircraft en route from Memphis to San Jose, was the target of an attempted hijacking by Auburn Calloway, a FedEx flight engineer seeking insurance payouts through a staged crash; armed with hammers and a speargun, Calloway attacked the crew mid-flight, but the pilots and engineer fought back, subduing him despite severe injuries, and made an emergency landing in Memphis where he was arrested.^[109]^[110] Air France Flight 8969, an Airbus A300 bound from Algiers to Paris, was hijacked on December 24, 1994, by four members of the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria at Houari Boumediene Airport; the hijackers, disguised as security personnel, killed three passengers and demanded the plane fly to Paris for a suicide attack, but French authorities diverted it to Marseille, where GIGN forces stormed the aircraft on December 26, killing all four hijackers and rescuing 173 passengers and crew.^[111] In November 1996, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961 from Addis Ababa to Nairobi was hijacked by three Ethiopians demanding flight to Australia; after refusing to refuel in Comoros due to fears of bombing, the Boeing 767 ran out of fuel and crashed into the Indian Ocean on November 23, killing 125 of 175 aboard, with survivors attributing deaths partly to hijackers' false assurances and removal of life vests.^[28] The September 11, 2001, attacks involved al-Qaeda operatives hijacking four U.S. airliners—American Airlines Flight 11, United Airlines Flight 175, American Airlines Flight 77, and United Airlines Flight 93—crashing them into the World Trade Center towers, the Pentagon, and a Pennsylvania field after passenger intervention thwarted the fourth target; the coordinated operation killed 2,977 people and prompted global aviation security overhauls.^[112] Post-2001 incidents declined sharply due to reinforced cockpit doors, screening, and intelligence; examples include the March 2001 hijacking of a Russian Tu-154 by three Chechens demanding release of comrades, ending with Saudi forces storming the plane in Medina and killing one hijacker and a flight attendant, and the February 17, 2014, hijacking of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 702 by co-pilot Hailemedhin Abera Tegegn, who diverted the Boeing 767 from Addis Ababa to Geneva seeking asylum, locking out the captain and surrendering peacefully upon landing with all 202 aboard unharmed.^[113]^[114] Cyber hijacking encompasses unauthorized seizure of digital assets or traffic, often via protocol exploits. In February 2008, Pakistan Telecom erroneously announced BGP routes for YouTube's IP blocks, hijacking global traffic through Pakistan and causing widespread outages for up to two hours as packets were rerouted and dropped.^[115] A April 2010 BGP incident involved China Telecom withdrawing and re-advertising routes for U.S. providers like Verizon and NTT America, redirecting about 15% of global internet traffic through China for 18 minutes, raising espionage concerns though no data theft was confirmed.^[115] Domain hijacking, altering DNS records to redirect traffic, featured in the August 27, 2013, Syrian Electronic Army compromise of the New York Times' Melbourne IT registrar account, replacing DNS entries and taking the site offline for hours while redirecting to a message claiming exposure of U.S. support for Syrian rebels.^[116] In January 2015, Lizard Squad hijacked google.com.vn by exploiting registrar vulnerabilities, redirecting Vietnamese users to a denial-of-service warning page amid broader attacks on regional domains.^[117]

Legal and International Frameworks

Domestic Prosecutions and Statutes

In the United States, aircraft hijacking, termed "aircraft piracy," is primarily governed by federal statute under 49 U.S.C. § 46502, which prohibits seizing or exercising control over an aircraft within the special aircraft jurisdiction of the United States—encompassing U.S.-registered aircraft in flight, operations within U.S. territorial airspace, or landings at U.S. facilities—through force, violence, threats, or intimidation with wrongful intent.^[2] ^[118] Convictions carry a mandatory minimum sentence of 20 years' imprisonment, with life imprisonment or the death penalty applicable if the offense results in death, as determined under general federal sentencing provisions following the repeal of aircraft piracy-specific capital procedures in 1994.^[119] ^[120] Related offenses under 49 U.S.C. §§ 46501–46507 cover interference with flight crew members, carrying weapons aboard aircraft, and explosive or incendiary device threats, often charged alongside piracy to address preparatory or ancillary acts, with penalties ranging from fines and up to 20 years' imprisonment depending on severity.^[121] Prior to the 1961 amendments to the Federal Aviation Act, which explicitly criminalized hijacking with potential death penalties, many early cases were prosecuted under general federal laws for kidnapping, robbery, or assault, though states lacking specific statutes deferred to federal jurisdiction for interstate commerce impacts.^[122] ^[123] Federal prosecutions occur in U.S. district courts where the hijacking commenced, continued, or concluded, per 18 U.S.C. § 3237, with the Department of Justice prioritizing evidence collection for passenger safety and perpetrator apprehension, often involving FBI-led investigations.^[124] From 1961 to 1972, U.S. authorities pursued 171 individuals in hijacking incidents involving American aircraft, resulting in 35 convictions primarily under aircraft piracy statutes, though success rates varied due to escapes, suicides, or foreign jurisdictions.^[125] Post-1970s enhancements, including Tokyo and Hague Conventions implementation via domestic law, have facilitated prosecutions even for hijackings ending outside U.S. borders if offenders are extradited or captured domestically, with minimum 20-year terms applying to attempts or conspiracies.^[121] State-level charges remain supplementary but rare, given federal preemption over aviation crimes affecting interstate commerce.^[123]

Global Treaties and Extradition Protocols

The international legal framework for addressing aircraft hijacking emphasizes state obligations to prevent impunity through prosecution or extradition. The Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, signed at Tokyo on September 14, 1963, and entering into force on December 4, 1969, establishes jurisdiction over in-flight offenses, including those jeopardizing safety, vesting primary authority in the state of aircraft registration while requiring landing states to facilitate restoration of control and delivery of suspects to competent authorities.^[126] With 188 state parties, it provides cooperative mechanisms but does not explicitly mandate extradition for hijacking, focusing instead on immediate response duties.^[127] The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, adopted at The Hague on December 16, 1970, and entering into force on October 14, 1971, directly targets hijacking by defining it as any act of seizing or exercising control over an aircraft in flight through violence, threats, intimidation, or related means, regardless of motive.^[128] Contracting states must enact domestic laws punishing the offense with severe penalties and establish jurisdiction based on aircraft registration, departure or landing sites, or offender nationality.^[128] Extradition protocols under the Hague Convention invoke the aut dedere aut judicare principle to deny safe havens. Article 8 declares hijacking an extraditable offense automatically included in any pre-existing bilateral extradition treaty between parties, obviating the need for amendments.^[128] Article 9 mandates that, absent extradition, the custodial state must prosecute the offender if they do not extradite upon request from a state asserting jurisdiction, such as the flag state or affected departure/arrival states; this applies upon the offender's presence in territory without lawful grounds for refusal.^[128] Widely ratified, the convention has fostered bilateral cooperation, though practical extraditions depend on reciprocal treaties and exceptions for political offenses, which hijacking explicitly excludes.^[129] Complementing these, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, signed at Montreal on September 23, 1971, and entering into force on January 26, 1973, covers related threats like aircraft damage or sabotage, with identical extradition clauses in Articles 8 and 9 mirroring the Hague framework to ensure comprehensive coverage of aviation security offenses.^[130] Ratified by 190 states, it reinforces global protocols by broadening punishable acts while maintaining aut dedere aut judicare obligations.^[131] The 2010 Protocol Supplementary to the Hague Convention, entering into force on July 1, 2018, extends seizure definitions to cyber-based interference, applying the same extradition imperatives to emerging threats. These instruments, administered by ICAO, integrate into national laws and bilateral extradition agreements, promoting universal jurisdiction elements to counter cross-border hijackings, though gaps persist in non-party states and enforcement amid geopolitical tensions.^[132]

Countermeasures and Responses

Aviation and Physical Security Measures

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, amid a surge in aircraft hijackings—over 300 incidents worldwide between 1968 and 1972—governments implemented initial physical security measures focused on passenger and baggage screening.^[69] The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) mandated metal detectors for passengers and X-ray screening for carry-on luggage starting January 5, 1973, reducing successful hijackings by identifying concealed weapons like firearms and knives.^[133] These measures, coupled with profile-based screening of passengers deemed higher risk, were credited with deterring most domestic hijackings by the mid-1970s, though international incidents persisted.^[134] The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) formalized global standards in 1974 through Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention, requiring states to establish aviation security programs including access controls, screening at checkpoints, and protection of aircraft on the ground against unlawful interference.^[135] Compliance involved physical barriers, such as fencing around airfields, and procedures for verifying identities and inspecting items, with ICAO audits enforcing implementation; by 1980, these standards had been adopted by over 150 member states, correlating with a decline in hijacking frequency from peaks in the 1970s.^[136] Domestically, the U.S. expanded Federal Air Marshal Service deployments on high-risk flights in the 1980s, arming undercover agents to provide on-board deterrence and rapid response capability.^[137] Following the September 11, 2001, hijackings, which exploited lax pre-boarding access and weak cockpit protections, the U.S. Congress passed the Aviation and Transportation Security Act on November 19, 2001, creating the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to federalize and standardize screening.^[138] TSA procedures prohibited items like box cutters and knives over 4 inches, mandated photo ID verification, and introduced explosive detection systems for all checked baggage by 2003, screening 100% of domestic passengers and cargo.^[139] Cockpit doors were retrofitted with reinforced, lockable designs—required for all U.S. commercial aircraft by April 2003—featuring bulletproof materials and surveillance peepholes to prevent unauthorized entry, a measure ICAO later incorporated globally.^[140] Additional physical countermeasures included expanded air marshal coverage to thousands of daily flights and behavioral detection programs training officers to identify suspicious individuals pre-boarding based on observable indicators like evasion or nervousness.^[141] In 2024, the FAA mandated secondary barriers—movable partitions deployable during takeoff and landing—to further secure flight decks against potential breaches, addressing vulnerabilities exposed in incidents like the 2016 EgyptAir hijacking attempt.^[140] These layered defenses, emphasizing "defense in depth" with redundant checks, have prevented any successful U.S. commercial hijacking since 2001, though critics note trade-offs in efficiency and privacy from intensified pat-downs and full-body scanners introduced in 2009.^[142] Internationally, ICAO's Aviation Security Plan emphasizes risk-based physical measures, including armed guards on flights to high-threat regions, with data showing hijacking attempts dropping to fewer than 10 annually post-2010.^[143]

Cybersecurity Protocols and Defenses

Cybersecurity protocols and defenses against digital hijacking focus on mitigating unauthorized takeover of network sessions, routing paths, domain resolutions, and related control mechanisms, which enable attackers to intercept, redirect, or impersonate legitimate traffic. These measures emphasize encryption, validation, and monitoring to disrupt common vectors such as man-in-the-middle attacks and spoofing. In aviation contexts, where cyber hijacking could target systems like Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) or Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS), protocols include developing Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to secure communication, navigation, and surveillance infrastructures against spoofing and jamming.^[144]^[145] For session hijacking, where attackers steal or predict session identifiers to impersonate users, primary defenses involve enforcing HTTPS for encrypting data in transit, regenerating session IDs after authentication or critical actions, and implementing short session timeouts with automatic termination on inactivity.^[146]^[147] Additional layers include zero-trust policies that continuously validate tokens and avoid exposing session IDs in URLs or logs.^[147]^[148] In practice, organizations like those following OWASP guidelines prioritize unpredictable, cryptographically secure session tokens to thwart both targeted and generic attacks.^[149] IP and BGP route hijacking, which manipulates Border Gateway Protocol announcements to divert traffic, is countered through Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) for validating route origins and signatures, preventing unauthorized prefixes from being accepted.^[150] Prefix filtering at network edges rejects invalid announcements, while adherence to Mutually Agreed Norms for Routing Security (MANRS) promotes global peering validations and anomaly detection.^[151]^[150] TCP-MD5 authentication protects BGP sessions from spoofed resets using pre-shared keys.^[152] These protocols, though not foolproof, reduce risks by limiting propagation of hijacked routes, as seen in incidents where unfiltered announcements enabled widespread redirection.^[153] DNS hijacking, involving alteration of Domain Name System records to redirect queries, is defended via DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC) for cryptographic validation of responses, ensuring authenticity against tampering.^[154] Encrypted DNS protocols like DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) and DNS-over-TLS (DoT) obscure queries from interception, while strong, unique credentials with multi-factor authentication secure registrar and provider accounts.^[155]^[156] Regular firmware updates for routers and monitoring for anomalous resolutions further harden against local and authoritative hijacks.^[157] In aviation-specific cyber defenses, segmentation isolates critical flight systems from non-essential networks, reducing lateral movement risks, complemented by intrusion detection and regular vulnerability assessments per emerging ICAO and IATA guidelines.^[158]^[145] Overall, layered approaches combining prevention, detection via tools like traffic analyzers, and rapid mitigation—such as session revocation—enhance resilience, though complete elimination requires ongoing adaptation to evolving threats.^[159]^[160]

Policy Debates on Negotiation and Deterrence

Policy debates surrounding negotiation with hijackers center on balancing immediate hostage safety against long-term incentives for future attacks, with deterrence strategies emphasizing non-concession to reduce overall incidence rates. In aviation contexts, the U.S. government formalized a no-negotiation policy toward terrorist hijackings in the 1970s, viewing concessions—such as ransom payments or prisoner releases—as rewards that embolden perpetrators, as evidenced by the surge in hijackings following early successful demands in the 1960s and 1970s.^[161] ^[162] This stance posits that negotiation prolongs incidents and signals vulnerability, whereas deterrence through swift military or law enforcement responses, as in the 1976 Entebbe raid, disrupts operational planning and raises perceived costs for hijackers.^[163] Empirical research underscores the effectiveness of deterrence over negotiation, with analyses of over 1,000 terrorist campaigns from 1970 to 2005 showing that groups granted policy concessions committed 40% more attacks annually than those denied them, attributing this to reinforced commitment to violence among ideologically driven actors.^[162] Critics of strict non-negotiation, often from humanitarian or diplomatic perspectives, argue it risks lives in isolated cases, yet data from hijacking durations indicate resolved negotiations correlate with higher recidivism rates among perpetrator networks compared to forceful resolutions.^[164] Post-9/11 policy shifts, including the U.S. Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001, institutionalized deterrence via enhanced screening and armed responders, reducing successful hijackings to near zero in commercial aviation by elevating risks without reliance on talks.^[165] In cyber hijacking scenarios, such as ransomware demands that seize control of digital systems akin to physical takeovers, debates mirror aviation concerns but grapple with decentralized actors and economic pressures. The U.S. Department of Justice and FBI explicitly advise against payments, citing intelligence that ransoms exceeding $1 billion in 2023 alone sustained criminal ecosystems, including North Korean and Russian groups, while recovery rates post-payment hover below 50% due to non-compliance or reinfection.^[166] ^[167] Proposals to ban public-sector payments, enacted in states like North Carolina by 2021, aim to deter through financial starvation, though private entities face incentives to pay for operational continuity; Brookings analyses warn that payments amplify attack frequency by 20-30% in targeted sectors, prioritizing systemic resilience over short-term mitigation.^[168] ^[169] Opponents highlight potential data loss catastrophes, yet causal evidence links payment norms to escalated demands, with non-payers experiencing fewer repeat victimizations per Chainalysis reports on blockchain-tracked transactions.^[168]

Controversies and Impacts

Political Motivations and Asymmetric Warfare

In the mid-20th century, aircraft hijackings increasingly served political ends, enabling non-state actors to compel attention to ideological demands, extract concessions from governments, or facilitate defections. From 1961 to 1972, over 130 U.S.-origin hijackings targeted Cuba, often motivated by anti-Castro sentiments or desires for asylum, reflecting Cold War ideological divides and Cuba's permissive stance toward such arrivals until bilateral agreements curbed them.^[68] Similarly, Palestinian factions, including the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), conducted high-profile operations to spotlight grievances against Israel, such as the September 1970 Dawson's Field hijackings, where four airliners from Western carriers were seized and three destroyed after passengers were released in exchange for prisoner swaps.^[27] These acts frequently yielded short-term gains like publicity or releases but provoked international backlash, including enhanced aviation security that diminished their viability by the late 1970s.^[27] Later examples underscore persistent political drivers, often intertwined with separatist or Islamist ideologies. The 1976 Entebbe hijacking of Air France Flight 139 by PFLP-External Operations and German militants diverted the plane to Uganda, where Israeli hostages were separated for leverage in demanding Palestinian prisoner releases, culminating in an Israeli commando raid that rescued most captives on July 4.^[27] In 1985, Hezbollah operatives hijacked TWA Flight 847, holding passengers for 17 days to negotiate the release of Shiite militants from Israeli custody, resulting in one American death and eventual concessions amid U.S.-Lebanon diplomatic pressures.^[170] The 1999 hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight IC-814 by Harkat-ul-Mujahideen militants, linked to Pakistani Islamist networks, forced India to free three prisoners, including Masood Azhar, who later founded Jaish-e-Mohammed, illustrating how such operations can seed future threats.^[171] Hijackings exemplify asymmetric warfare tactics, where resource-poor non-state groups exploit civilian vulnerabilities to impose disproportionate strategic burdens on states, generating media amplification and negotiation leverage without direct military confrontation.^[172] This approach mirrors broader irregular strategies, as seen in statistical analyses showing hijackings' role in political coercion during peaks like 1968-1972, when over 300 incidents worldwide correlated with insurgent campaigns against perceived oppressors.^[173] Empirical outcomes reveal causal limitations: while achieving tactical publicity—e.g., PFLP's 1970 actions drew global coverage—such methods often unified opponents, accelerating countermeasures like universal passenger screening post-1973, which reduced successful hijackings by orders of magnitude.^[27] Mainstream narratives in academia and media, prone to sympathetic framing of "liberation" struggles, understate how these tactics alienated potential allies and entrenched state resolve, as evidenced by the PLO's eventual disavowal of hijackings by 1973 for diplomatic gains.^[170]

Effectiveness of Responses and Civil Liberties Trade-offs

Reinforced cockpit doors, mandated by the FAA in 2003 for all U.S. commercial aircraft, have proven highly effective in preventing hijackers from gaining control of flight operations, as evidenced by the absence of successful commercial airline hijackings in the United States since September 11, 2001.^[174]^[175] These ballistic-resistant barriers, combined with protocols requiring pilots to remain locked in during flight except under strict procedures, address the core vulnerability exploited on 9/11 by denying access to controls even if attackers breach the cabin.^[176] Globally, the adoption of similar reinforcements has contributed to a sharp decline in successful hijackings, with only isolated attempts failing due to crew resistance or early intervention rather than post-breach control seizures.^[177] However, broader passenger screening measures implemented by the TSA, such as advanced imaging technology and pat-downs, exhibit mixed effectiveness against determined hijackers, primarily serving as deterrents or catches for low-threat items rather than adaptive tactics like those used in 2001 (e.g., box cutters, then permitted).^[178] Empirical data from TSA reports indicate millions of prohibited items confiscated annually, but critics, including security analysts, argue these protocols create a false sense of security while failing to address insider threats or non-metallic weapons, with costs exceeding $8 billion yearly for marginal risk reduction in hijacking scenarios.^[179] Intelligence-driven measures, like no-fly lists, have intercepted potential threats but suffer from high error rates, with thousands erroneously listed lacking effective appeal processes.^[180] These responses entail significant civil liberties trade-offs, including erosion of Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches, as routine full-body scans and behavioral detection programs enable widespread government intrusion into personal privacy without individualized suspicion.^[178] The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 expanded surveillance powers, allowing bulk data collection and roving wiretaps justified under anti-hijacking rationales, which legal scholars contend disproportionately burdens innocent travelers through indefinite no-fly designations and fusion center data-sharing that amplifies false positives.^[181]^[182] Facial recognition deployment at airports, piloted by TSA since 2019, raises additional concerns over mass biometric surveillance, with oversight reports highlighting risks of misidentification and lack of transparency in error correction, potentially entrenching a permanent security apparatus at the expense of due process. In cybersecurity contexts analogous to hijacking—such as domain or infrastructure takeovers—responses like enhanced authentication protocols and incident response frameworks have mitigated some threats but often involve expansive monitoring that conflicts with privacy rights, as government-mandated data retention and vulnerability disclosures compel private entities to surrender user information, blurring lines between defense and overreach.^[183]^[184] While effective against opportunistic attacks, these measures can stifle innovation and enable mission creep into non-security surveillance, with civil liberties advocates noting insufficient safeguards against abuse in classified cyber operations.^[185] Overall, the empirical record suggests targeted physical barriers yield high returns on security with minimal liberty costs, whereas pervasive screening and digital surveillance impose diffuse burdens that may not proportionally reduce residual risks from evolving tactics.^[186]

Statistical Trends and Broader Societal Effects

Aircraft hijackings peaked globally during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with over 300 incidents recorded between 1968 and 1972 alone, averaging more than 60 per year at the height in 1969-1971.^[29] In the United States, more than 130 commercial flights were hijacked between 1968 and 1972, often for ransom demands or political leverage, such as prisoner releases.^[30] This surge prompted initial countermeasures like pilot negotiation training and, by 1973, mandatory passenger screening with metal detectors at U.S. airports, which correlated with a sharp decline to fewer than 10 incidents annually by the late 1970s.^[67] From the 1980s through 2001, global hijackings stabilized at 20-40 per year, frequently linked to Middle Eastern political groups seeking publicity or concessions, though successful outcomes diminished due to enhanced international cooperation and fortified aircraft procedures.^[29] The September 11, 2001, attacks marked a shift toward using hijacked planes as weapons, resulting in nearly 3,000 deaths and prompting reinforced cockpit doors, armed pilots in some jurisdictions, and expanded no-fly lists worldwide.^[187] Post-9/11, incidents plummeted to near zero, with only isolated attempts, such as the 2016 EgyptAir Flight 181 hijacking resolved without fatalities, reflecting the deterrent effect of multilayered security protocols.^[6] As of 2023, aviation authorities report fewer than one attempted hijacking per year globally, a rate over 99% below 1970s peaks, attributable to pre-flight intelligence, behavioral screening, and global treaties like the Tokyo Convention of 1963 as amended. These trends have imposed substantial economic burdens, including annual global aviation security expenditures exceeding $10 billion by the 2010s, with U.S. airport screening alone costing taxpayers over $8 billion yearly post-9/11 implementation of the Transportation Security Administration.^[188] The 2001 attacks caused immediate airline industry losses of $10 billion in revenue and grounded U.S. flights for days, necessitating $15 billion in federal bailouts to avert bankruptcies among major carriers.^[189] Broader effects include persistent opportunity costs from delays—estimated at $1-2 billion annually in lost productivity—and a reevaluation of risk, where the probability of hijacking-related death remains lower than other air travel hazards like mechanical failure.^[34] Societally, hijackings fostered widespread aviation anxiety, contributing to a measurable uptick in travel avoidance post-major events; surveys following 9/11 indicated 20-30% of Americans temporarily reduced flying due to fear, amplifying economic ripple effects on tourism and trade.^[190] Enhanced security has yielded trade-offs, including privacy erosions from biometric surveillance and pat-downs, yet empirical data affirm their efficacy in averting repeats of pre-1973 vulnerabilities, where hijackers succeeded over 90% of the time versus near 0% today.^[69] Long-term, the phenomenon underscored causal links between lax borders and asymmetric threats, influencing policy toward proactive deterrence over reactive negotiation, as evidenced by reduced offender success rates from 1970s highs to post-2001 minima.^[34]

References

[1]
hijacking Definition, Meaning & Usage - Justia Legal Dictionary
Definition of "hijacking" The unlawful act of taking a vehicle by force or threat How to use "hijacking" in a sentence.
[2]
49 U.S. Code § 46502 - Aircraft piracy - Law.Cornell.Edu
(A). “aircraft piracy” means seizing or exercising control of an aircraft in the special aircraft jurisdiction of the United States by force, violence, threat ...
[3]
HIJACKING Definition & Meaning | Merriam-Webster Legal
The meaning of HIJACKING is the felony of hijacking a vehicle.
[4]
CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT HIJACKING - Office of Justice Programs
HIJACKING IS DEFINED AS ANY UNLAWFUL SEIZURE OR EXERCISE OF CONTROL OF CIVIL AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT WITH THE INTENTION OF ALTERING ITS COURSE TO A DIFFERENT ...
[5]
First hijack of an aircraft | Guinness World Records
First hijack of an aircraft ... The first hijacking of an aircraft in flight was carried out in March or April 1919 by Hungarian aristocrat Baron Franz Nopcsa von ...
[6]
Airline hijackings, once relatively common, are rare today
May 28, 2024 · Between 1968 and 1972, hijackings reached a peak, with over 305 incidents recorded globally within those five years. In 2021, the most recent ...
[7]
D.B. Cooper Hijacking - FBI
Cooper Hijacking ... FBI artist rendering of so-called D.B. Cooper, who hijacked Northwest Orient Flight 305 out of Portland (Oregon) ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[8]
Hijacking of TWA Flight 847 - FBI
Hijacking of TWA Flight 847. Hamadei is a Lebanese terrorist who took part in the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 and. Mohammed Ali Hamadei. On June 14, 1985, TWA ...
[9]
Hijacking - Oxford Public International Law
Hijacking generally refers to the illegal seizure of a land vehicle, ship, or aircraft in transit and its forcible diversion to a new destination against the ...
[10]
HIJACKING - The Law Dictionary
Definition and Citations: This term applies to stealing something while it in transit, including planes, cars, trucks and merchandise in them.
[11]
[PDF] AIRCRAFT HIJACKING C O N V E N T IO N ^ - GovInfo
The Aircraft Hijacking Convention, signed at the Hague, aims to suppress unlawful seizure of aircraft, addressing the global threat of hijacking. 77 countries ...
[12]
Aircraft Hijacking and International Law
Since 1947, 60 % of hijackings have been refugee escapes. In 1968-1969, hijacking rises at the peak. In 1968 there were 27 hijacking attempted to Cuba and 82 ...Missing: core | Show results with:core
[13]
[PDF] Unlawful interference at airports: Hijacking, bombing, cybercrime ...
Consequently, modern unlawful interference extends far beyond traditional physical attacks to include sophisticated cybercrime, insider threats, and the misuse ...
[14]
Hijack - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Origin and history of hijack. hijack(v.) by 1922 (perhaps c. 1918), American ... Related: Hijacked; hijacking. Related: Hijacker. also from 1922.
[15]
hijack, v. meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
The earliest known use of the verb hijack is in the 1920s. OED's earliest evidence for hijack is from 1923, in Literary Digest. hijack is of unknown origin.
[16]
hijack / skyjack - Wordorigins.org
Jan 23, 2023 · The earliest uses of hijack that I have found come from Oklahoma in 1915–16, with the earliest referring to hijackings of trucks carrying liquor ...<|separator|>
[17]
The Grammarphobia Blog: Hoboes, bootleggers, and hijackers
Sep 10, 2009 · ' ” And, “So much for hijacking on the high seas.” Here's another OED citation for “hijacker” that includes a definition for the benefit of ...
[18]
HIJACK Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
verb. hi·jack ˈhī-ˌjak. hijacked; hijacking; hijacks. Synonyms of hijack ... Etymology. origin unknown. First Known Use. 1923, in the meaning defined at ...<|separator|>
[19]
What is the origin of the word 'hijack'? | Notes and Queries
THE word 'hijack' has its origins in pre-revolutionary France. Impoverished peasants attacked and robbed aristocrats travelling in coaches through the ...
[20]
Full article: Hijack: Etymology and History - Taylor & Francis Online
Aug 21, 2024 · Hijack: Etymology and History. William SayersMedieval Studies ... Subsequently, the noun lost agency and became the act of hijacking or the goods ...Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[21]
The Etymology of the Word "Hijack": A Linguistic Exploration
Jul 3, 2024 · ... hijacking" a meeting or a digital platform. Linguistic Significance. The etymology of "hijack" exemplifies how language evolves in response ...
[22]
History of piracy - Pirates & galleons - Q-files
The earliest known instances of piracy date as far back as the 14th century BC, when tribes known as Sea Peoples threatened ships sailing in the Aegean Sea and ...
[23]
The History of Pirates: From Ancient Sea Peoples to the Golden Age
Jul 18, 2023 · Piracy has existed since at least as early as 1350 BC when ship attacks occurred regularly in Egypt and North Africa. These incursions were ...
[24]
Pirate Interdiction and the U.S. Navy
Jun 21, 2024 · Somali pirates hijacked M/V Danica White—a Danish cargo ship—in June and spent 83 days in captivity until the Danish Foreign Ministry paid a ...
[25]
History of pirates: the 'Golden Age of Piracy'
When was the golden age of piracy? In the Western world, the period from the 1680s to the 1720s has come to be known as the 'golden age' of piracy. This was ...
[26]
Piracy Timeline - History of Piracy - The Way Of The Pirates
1850 – Piracy eliminated in Asian waters. 1991 – Somali government collapsed, and ensuing civil war gave rise to the first acts of piracy around Gulf of Aden.
[27]
Train robbery - Wikipedia
Since the invention of locomotives in the early 19th century, trains have often been the target of robbery, in which the goal is to steal money or other ...
[28]
A Brief History of Airplane Hijackings, From the Cold War to D.B. ...
Jul 18, 2022 · In response to the spate of more violent and costly hijackings, the U.S. government established the first anti-hijacking security protocols.
[29]
Five notorious plane hijackings that time will never forget - AeroTime
Sep 21, 2024 · The introduction of screening ended the 'golden age of hijacking' and 305 global hijackings between 1968 and 1972 were reduced to around 20 – 40 ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[30]
Airline hijackings were once common but are very rare today
Jul 1, 2017 · Incidents of hijacking have been around almost as long as human flight itself with suspected hijacks dating as far back as 1919, and the first ...
[31]
The US once had more than 130 hijackings in 4 years. Here's why ...
Mar 29, 2016 · Between 1968 and 1972, more than 130 American airplanes were hijacked. Sometimes there was more than one hijacking on the same day.
[32]
Fly Me to Cuba, Said the American Hijackers - JSTOR Daily
Apr 18, 2021 · This wave of fly-me-to-Cuba air hijackings was at its most intense in the years 1968–1973, writes historian Teishan A. Latner.
[33]
The Cuban Hijackings: Their Significance and Impact Sixty Years On
Oct 19, 2018 · The Cuban hijackings, initiated by Castro's rebels, led to 159 aircraft hijackings, 85 to Cuba, and a 1973 agreement, and impacted modern ...
[34]
The Contagiousness of Aircraft Hijacking - jstor
Although there have been hijackings from 1931 to the present, their peak period was 1968-72 (see fig. 1). During that period there were 326 hijacking attempts ...
[35]
[PDF] an economic study of us - aircraft hijacking, 1960-1976
This study explains US aircraft hijacking patterns (1961-1976), the reduction after 1972, and the costs of mandatory preboarding searches. Increased ...
[36]
[PDF] Chapter 26 The Terrorist Threat to Transportation Targets and ...
Hijackings declined. There were 47 attempted hijackings of commercial airliners between 9/11 and March 2020. This continued the downward trajectory of hijacking ...
[37]
A History Of Cybersecurity And Cyber Threats
Apr 25, 2024 · The 1950s is when we started seeing the first examples of hacking. Specifically, something called “phone phreaking” (not as fun as it sounds) or ...
[38]
Significant Cyber Incidents | Strategic Technologies Program - CSIS
This timeline records significant cyber incidents since 2006, focusing on cyber attacks on government agencies, defense and high tech companies, or economic ...
[39]
The History Of Cybercrime And Cybersecurity, 1940-2020
Nov 30, 2020 · From the 1940s to the present, discover how cybercrime and cybersecurity have developed to become what we know today.
[40]
A Brief History of Cybercrime - Arctic Wolf
Take a look at the history of cybercrime, the most devastating cyber attacks seen to date, along with rundowns of the fallout.
[41]
[PDF] chapter three - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
The Hague Convention defines the offense as unlawfully seizing or attempting to seize control of an aircraft by force, threat, or intimidation, or being an ...
[42]
[PDF] TERRORIST SKYJACKINGS JAN[15515031].pdf - CIA
The ELF was most active in 1969; our records show only one attempted sky- jacking since 1972. The group's targets were primarily Ethiopian domestic flights.Missing: peak data
[43]
Figure 1 - Worldwide Civil Aviation Hijackings: 1970-2000
Sep 10, 2012 · There were no hijackings of US-registered carriers from 1991 through 2000. Data are through 2000 and do not include the hijacking of 4 airplanes by terrorists.
[44]
New IMB report reveals concerning rise in maritime piracy incidents ...
Jan 10, 2025 · The 2023 annual report reveals that 105 vessels were boarded, nine attempted attacks, four vessels hijacked and two fired upon. Where the number ...
[45]
Maritime piracy dropped in 2024 but crew safety remains at risk - ICC
Jan 14, 2025 · It reveals that 94 vessels were boarded, 13 attempted attacks, six vessels hijacked and three fired upon. While the number of reported incidents ...
[46]
Chowchilla school bus hijacking | Research Starters - EBSCO
The Chowchilla school bus hijacking, which occurred on July 15, 1976, involved the abduction of a bus carrying 26 children and their driver in rural California.
[47]
https://transweb.sjsu.edu/research/Security-Awareness-Public-Bus-Transportation-Case-Studies-Attacks-Against-Israeli-Public-Bus-System
[48]
Case Studies of Attacks Against the Israeli Public Bus System
This report presents 16 case studies of attacks against Israeli buses, including both lethal and nonlethal attacks, and statistical data since 1970.<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] A Study of Prefix Hijacking and Interception in the Internet
This would hijack traffic to the prefix only when the owner withdraws its adver- tisements. However, even in that situation, the hijacking. AS would not be able ...
[50]
A Deep Dive on the Recent Widespread DNS Hijacking Attacks
Feb 18, 2019 · This post seeks to document the extent of those attacks, and traces the origins of this overwhelmingly successful cyber espionage campaign back to a cascading ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[51]
Historical DNS Hijacking Incidents - The Corp.AD
Feb 26, 2025 · It seems likely that the 2018-2019 DNSp espionage campaign, the 2013 New York Times attack, the 2016 Brazilian bank heist, and the 2009 X ...
[52]
[PDF] Manual Account Hijacking in the Wild - Google
Nov 5, 2014 · Unsurpris- ingly, this value drives criminals to steal, or hijack, such accounts. In this paper we focus on manual account hijacking—account hi-.
[53]
What is Session Hijacking | Types, Detection & Prevention - Imperva
Session hijacking involves an attacker using captured, brute forced or reverse-engineered session IDs to seize control of a legitimate user's session.How Session Hijacking Works · Preventing Session Hijacking
[54]
Browser Hijackers - Malwarebytes
It is believed that browser hijackers may have originated from a group of software companies in Tel Aviv, Israel, called Download Valley, which produce ...
[55]
What is the Mirai Botnet? - Cloudflare
Learn how Mirai malware turns IoT devices running on the ARC processor and the Linux OS, into botnets. Mirai is commonly used to launch DDoS attacks, ...
[56]
Hacking Wall Street - The New York Times
Jul 20, 2021 · And in 2016, hackers associated with North Korea broke into Bangladesh Bank and hijacked employee credentials in an attempt to steal $951 ...
[57]
Illicit stock deals using hijacked accounts exceed 300 billion yen
May 9, 2025 · Unauthorized stock market trades using hijacked brokerage accounts have soared in recent weeks, surpassing 304.9 billion yen ($2.08 billion) ...
[58]
Hackers hijack Japanese financial accounts to conduct nearly $2 ...
May 9, 2025 · Hackers hijack Japanese financial accounts to conduct nearly $2 billion in trades · Cybercrime · Industry · News · News Briefs.
[59]
Imperva Stops Hordes of Bots from Hijacking Financial Accounts in ...
Oct 27, 2022 · Imperva Stops Hordes of Bots from Hijacking Financial Accounts in Largest Recorded Account Takeover Attack. Application Security. Imperva ...
[60]
https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/126715
[61]
Europe between financial repression and regulatory capture - EconStor
First, government agencies are frequently described as being at the mercy of the financial sector, routinely hijacking political, regulatory and supervisory ...
[62]
Beyond Financial Repression and Regulatory Capture: The ... - SSRN
Dec 4, 2019 · ... hijacking political, regulatory and supervisory processes. This trend is often referred to as "regulatory capture" and would explain the ...
[63]
Hacking the market: Systemic contagion from cybersecurity breaches
Nov 28, 2017 · Firstly, we show that hacking events are becoming more prevalent and severe in terms of numbers of clients' record impacted since 2010, when ...Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[64]
Hacking and Systemic Financial Armageddon - Credit Slips
Oct 2, 2014 · The Chase hacking is a red flag that hacking poses a real systemic risk to our banking system, and a national security risk as well. Frankly, I ...
[65]
The strange story of the U.S.-Cuba hijacking accord
Oct 27, 2021 · Between 1968 and 1972, the number of hijackings worldwide was over 300, with over 50% of them originating in the US and landing in Cuba.
[66]
Historical Documents - Office of the Historian - State Department
Although there is no evidence of official Cuban complicity in the hijackings, Fidel Castro does obtain a certain amount of political leverage from the incidents ...
[67]
Dawson's Field Hijackings - Homeland Security Digital Library
Jan 9, 2018 · Once aircraft were emptied, the PFLP used explosives to destroy the empty planes. There was a total of 310 hostages, a majority of them freed on ...Missing: motivations | Show results with:motivations
[68]
Why Airline Hijackings Became Relatively Rare - The New York Times
Mar 29, 2016 · The first airplane hijackings occurred not long after international air travel became commonplace. In those days, most hijackers were seeking refuge or riches.<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Why US airline hijackings spiked in the early 1970s - CNN
Aug 2, 2017 · The 1985 hijacking of TWA Flight 847 lasted 17 days. One passenger, a member of the U.S. Navy, was killed. JOEL ROBINE/AFP/Getty Images.
[70]
The securitization of air travel in the United States (1968–72)
Aug 12, 2024 · This article traces the evolution from selective passenger profiling to a 1972 US security order to screen all passengers.
[71]
[PDF] AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF U.S. AIRCRAFT HIJACKING, 1961-1976*
3 During the peak years, 1968-1972, the proportion apprehended declined to a low of .15 in 1968 then rose steadily to .60 in. 1972. By contrast, all offenders ...
[72]
The Economics of Piracy: How Financial Incentives Drive Maritime ...
Aug 27, 2024 · Maritime piracy, far from being a relic of the past, remains a significant threat in international waters, driven principally by strong financial incentives.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[73]
Survey of maritime pirates spotlights poverty motive, threat of world's ...
Sep 3, 2015 · A recently released survey of prison inmates convicted of maritime piracy has named poverty as one of the driving reasons for their criminal actions.
[74]
Maritime piracy risk assessment and policy implications: A two-step ...
According to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB), piracy causes a loss of about $ 25 billion a year in global economic losses due to theft, ransoms, ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[75]
Beyond Ransoms: The Financial Impact of Ransomware Attacks
Apr 9, 2025 · The average ransom payment made by organizations following ransomware attacks rose to approximately $2.73 million, marking an increase of nearly $1 million ...
[76]
The Average Cost Of Ransomware Attacks (Updated 2025)
May 24, 2025 · On average, small businesses impacted by a data breach can expect to pay $120,000 to $1.24M to respond and recover. To understand the full ...
[77]
Air travel by passengers with mental disorder | Psychiatric Bulletin
Jan 2, 2018 · Most hijackings were the result of terrorism, which accounted for most of the fatalities. Hoffman (Reference Hoffman, Wilkinson and Jenkins1999) ...
[78]
Draft: Hostage Takers: An Empirical Study of Aircraft Hijackers
The hijackers were involved in 308 incidents committed on air carriers registered in the United States. Data were obtained from the Federal Aviation and the ...Missing: psychological | Show results with:psychological
[79]
The Insider Threat of Mental Health Problems in Aviation
Dec 21, 2023 · Perhaps the most dramatic occurred in April 1994, when FedEx Flight 705 was hijacked by an off-duty jump seat rider. Facing possible dismissal ...
[80]
Aviation security: we need to talk about mental health
Jan 26, 2021 · “Suicidal hijackings do not need to be perpetrated by Islamists – mental ill health, as was the case with Robinson, exists in all countries.
[81]
Draft: Hostage Takers and Their Weapons - Office of Justice Programs
Data on all 447 aircraft hijackers who were involved in 308 incidents committed on air carriers registered in the United States between 1961 and 1990 were used ...
[82]
Aircraft Hijacking under the Hague Convention 1970: A New Regime?
as the threat to use such measures of coercion. But a typical way of hijacking an aircraft is by the threat to use force, e.g., the hijacker pulls out a ...
[83]
10 of the deadliest airline hijackings in history - Times of India
Mar 12, 2025 · Dawson's Field Hijackings. On September 6, 1970, the PFLP pulled off a daring and terrifying move by hijacking four planes in a single day.
[84]
9/11 Hijackers Used Mace And Knives, Panel Reports
Jan 27, 2004 · The hijackers of Sept. 11, 2001, blasted Mace or pepper spray at flight crew members and passengers to keep them away from the cockpits and wielded knives.Missing: tactics | Show results with:tactics
[85]
The world's most infamous aeroplane hijackings - Airport Technology
Jun 25, 2021 · Terror in the Skies: A Look at History's Most Notorious Airplane Hijackings. 9/11 is collectively considered the worst hijacking in the history ...
[86]
Red Sea cargo ship hijack: How to keep merchant vessels safe from ...
Dec 17, 2023 · A growing number of cargo vessels have come under attack in the Red Sea in recent weeks – can new technologies help to keep commercial ...
[87]
Vulnerabilities in aircraft systems allow remote airplane hijacking ...
Apr 10, 2013 · Communication technologies like ADS-B and ACARS can be abused to remotely exploit vulnerabilities in aircraft systems, a researcher said.
[88]
Hijacking airplanes with an Android phone - Help Net Security
Apr 10, 2013 · The completely realistic scenario of plane hijacking via a simple Android app has galvanized the crowd attending the Hack In The Box Conference in Amsterdam ...
[89]
Hacking planes - UK researchers developing plans to stop 'flight ...
Nov 4, 2014 · Theoretical vulnerabilities mean that a 'cyber bomb' could be possible, yet attacks are limited in their scope and extremely complex to ...
[90]
[PDF] An Experimental Study of GPS Spoofing and Takeover Attacks on ...
Aug 12, 2022 · Addi- tionally, an attacker can reuse current navigation messages to make the attack stealthier. Broadly, there are two ways of hijacking a ...
[91]
Methods and systems for detecting GPS spoofing attacks
GPS spoofing attack is a technique by which a GPS receiver is tricked into trusting fake GPS signals. Actual GPS signals are fairly weak satellite signals that ...<|separator|>
[92]
How to deal with GPS jamming and spoofing - CRFS
An even more subtle and complex form of GPS spoofing, deception spoofing, involves hijacking GPS systems by initially sending them correct location information ...
[93]
CAN Injection: keyless car theft | Dr. Ken Tindell
Apr 3, 2023 · The theft device is designed to be connected to the control CAN bus (the red bus in the wiring diagram) to impersonate the smart key ECU.
[94]
How to Get Away With Car Theft: Unveiling the Dark Side of the CAN ...
May 5, 2023 · A car theft incident from 2022 highlighted the potential for using the same “CAN injection” technique on many car models. In this blog entry, we ...
[95]
How Hackers Gain access to Your Vehicle - Upstream Security
Apr 12, 2022 · How Hackers Gain access to Your Vehicle · Exploiting a key fob · Relay Attacks · Replay attacks · Jamming communication · Reprogramming key fobs.Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[96]
Compromise Infrastructure: Domains, Sub-technique T1584.001
Oct 1, 2020 · Domain registration hijacking is the act of changing the registration of a domain name without the permission of the original registrant.
[97]
Domain Hijacking: How It Works and Prevention - Bright Security
Apr 1, 2024 · Social engineering attacks are a common method used in domain hijacking. Attackers manipulate individuals into divulging sensitive information, ...
[98]
World's First Skyjacking - InfoPlease
Jul 24, 2020 · The first recorded skyjacking of an airplane took place on Feb. 21, 1931 at the city of Arequipa, Peru when a group of rebel soldiers in Peru ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[99]
The First Hijack - The Retrospectors
Pan-Am pilot Byron Rickards was surrounded by soldiers and told he had become the prisoner of a revolutionary organisation shortly after landing in Arequipa, ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[100]
First hijack of an aircraft, commerical airliner | Guinness World Records
First hijack of an aircraft, commerical airliner ... The first hijacking of a commercial airliner took place on 25 July 1947. On that day, pilot Vasile Ciobanu ...
[101]
Miller: Airplane hijackings during the late 60s and early 70s
Jul 2, 2023 · One hundred and eleven of those planes were seized for destination purposes, and twenty-six were hijacked for extortion. Ninety of the one ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[102]
1970 Hijackings | American Experience | Official Site | PBS
1970 Hijackings · New York-Bound Plane Hijacked · Third Plane Hijacked · Hijacking of Third Plane Fails · First Plane Lands in Jordan · Fourth Plane Diverted · Fourth ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[103]
12 | 1970: Hijacked jets destroyed by guerrillas - BBC ON THIS DAY
The 40 hostages were taken from the planes minutes before the explosions destroyed the grounded jets. Two of the planes had been captured by the Popular Front ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[104]
Who Was the Mysterious Hijacker D.B. Cooper? - History.com
It's the only unsolved hijacking case in the history of commercial aviation. On the afternoon of November 24, 1971—Thanksgiving Eve—a man aboard a flight ...
[105]
Operation Entebbe | IDF
Shortly after taking off from Athens, four of the new passengers hijacked the flight and demanded the release of hundreds of prisoners worldwide. The hijackers ...
[106]
The Entebbe Rescue Operation - Jewish Virtual Library
Four additional terrorists joined the hijackers in Entebbe. The kidnappers demanded a ransom of $5 million for the release of the airplane. They also wanted ...
[107]
Unlawful Interference Boeing 737-230C D-ABCE, Thursday 13 ...
On October 13, 1977, Lufthansa flight LH181, a Boeing 737 flying from Palma de Mallorca (PMI) to Frankfurt (FRA) with 91 passengers and crew, was hijacked.
[108]
44 Years On: The Hijack Of Lufthansa Flight 181 - Simple Flying
Oct 17, 2021 · The flight took off on October 13th, 1977, at 14:00 local time. It had 90 passengers and five crew members (two pilots and three flight ...
[109]
TWA flight 847 is hijacked by terrorists | June 14, 1985 - History.com
TWA Flight 847 from Athens to Rome is hijacked by Shiite Hezbollah terrorists who immediately demand to know the identity of those with Jewish-sounding names.
[110]
How A FedEx Crew Overcame Serious Injuries To Recover A Hijack ...
Jan 8, 2024 · A FedEx employee flying as a deadhead passenger on the scheduled flight attempted to hijack the aircraft. The hijacker carried a speargun ...
[111]
Today in history: FedEx Flight 705 attempted hijacking - AeroTime
Apr 6, 2022 · Calloway was planning to hijack the plane and kill the crew before committing suicide and disguising the crash as an accident.
[112]
Letter: Recalling how France avoided its own 9/11 - Financial Times
Nov 14, 2023 · ... hijack of Air France flight 8969 on December 24-26 1994. Four Armed Islamic Group of Algeria terrorists hijacked a plane on the tarmac at ...
[113]
The 9/11 Terrorist Attacks - Naval History and Heritage Command
Sep 7, 2023 · On the morning of 11 September 2001, 19 terrorists from the Islamist extreme group al Qaeda hijacked four commercial aircraft and crashed two of them into the ...Missing: excluding | Show results with:excluding
[114]
Major airplane hijackings since 1990 | The Seattle Times
Sep 9, 2009 · A look at major airplane hijackings since 1990: January 2007: Sudanese plane carrying 103 passengers and crew is hijacked and diverted to Chadian capital, N' ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[115]
Ethiopian Airlines co-pilot hijacks plane to seek Geneva asylum - BBC
Feb 17, 2014 · The last hijacking to take place at Geneva airport was that of an Air Afrique plane in 1985. In 1996, an Ethiopian Airlines flight was hijacked ...
[116]
A Brief History of the Internet's Biggest BGP Incidents | Kentik Blog
Jun 6, 2023 · Perhaps the most famous BGP hijack was the incident in February 2008 involving the state telecom of Pakistan, PTCL, and YouTube.Disruptions and attacks... · BGP origination errors · BGP AS path errors
[117]
Times Site Is Disrupted in Attack by Hackers - The New York Times
Aug 27, 2013 · The New York Times Web site was unavailable to readers on Tuesday afternoon after an online attack on the company's domain name registrar.
[118]
5 times domains have been hijacked - StatusCake
Oct 19, 2021 · Heard of domain hijacking? Well here's 5 examples of when domains were hijacked and by who, showing how important it is to monitor yours!
[119]
1407. Aircraft Piracy Within Special Aircraft Jurisdiction—49 U.S.C. ...
Aircraft piracy is the seizure by force or violence or threat of force or violence or any other form of intimidation with wrongful intent of an aircraft.
[120]
1410. Death Penalty For Aircraft Piracy - Department of Justice
On September 13, 1994, the special death penalty procedures for the aircraft piracy offense, then codified at 49 U.S.C.§ 46503, were repealed when the death ...
[121]
[PDF] Page 1465 TITLE 49—TRANSPORTATION § 46502 - GovInfo
—An individual convicted of violating section 46502 of title 49, United States Code, or its predecessor, may be sentenced to death in accordance with the ...
[122]
1. Aircraft Piracy and Related Offenses (49 U.S.C. §§ 46501-07)
Federal law prohibits the seizure, by force or violence, of any aircraft within the special aircraft jurisdiction of the United States.
[123]
Plane Hijacking - CQ Almanac Online Edition
S 2268 amended the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 to make hijacking of an aircraft in flight a federal offense, punishable by imprisonment or death.
[124]
LEGAL RAMIFICATIONS OF HIJACKING AIRPLANES
AS MOST STATES DO NOT HAVE STATUTES PROHIBITING HIJACKING, THE CRIME IS USUALLY PROSECUTED UNDER STATE STATUTES RELATING TO KIDNAPPING, ROBBERY, ...
[125]
1409. Indictment For Aircraft Piracy - Department of Justice
An air piracy indictment may be returned in the district where the hijacking offense was begun, continued or terminated. See 18 U.S.C. § 3237.
[126]
[PDF] Descriptive Study of Aircraft Hijacking. Criminal Justice ... - ERIC
HIJACKING CASES INVOLVING U. S. AIRCRAFT. 1 MAY 1961 - 1 MARCH 1972. TOTAL NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS - 171. CONVICTIONS - 35. Aircraft Piracy - 1. Bendicks, Leonard ...
[127]
[PDF] Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board
This convention covers offenses and acts on aircraft that jeopardize safety or good order, on aircraft registered in a contracting state, while in flight or on ...
[128]
[PDF] convention on offences and certain other acts - ICAO
Apr 22, 1999 · Status: 188 Parties. State. Date of signature. Date of deposit of instrument of ratification, accession or succession.
[129]
[PDF] Convention for the suppression of unlawful seizure of
This Convention shall apply only if the place of take-off or the place of actual landing of the aircraft on board which the offence is committed is situated.
[130]
Convention for the Suppression of unlawful seizure of aircraft - UNTC
The Hague, 16/12/1970. EIF information. 14 October 1971. Authentic texts. Spanish ... For further information and assistance, if required, with a partially ...
[131]
[PDF] Convention' for the suppression of unlawful acts against the safety of ...
The convention aims to suppress unlawful acts against civil aviation safety, including violence on board, destroying aircraft, and damaging air navigation ...
[132]
[PDF] CONVENTION FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF UNLAWFUL ACTS
Sep 23, 1971 · Entry into force: The Convention entered into force on 26 January 1973. Status: 190 Parties. This list is based on information received from ...
[133]
Legal Instruments related to Aviation Security - ICAO
This Convention provided for effective legal measures being taken to deter acts of unlawful seizure of aircraft through the cooperation of nations throughout ...
[134]
When Flying Involved Little to No Airport Security - History.com
Jul 10, 2025 · “The hijacking of TWA Flight 847 became notorious because it was one of the first hijackings covered on TV," says Price. In response, Federal ...<|separator|>
[135]
Aviation Security: Past, Present, and Future - NATA
The Nixon administration sought to address the problem and announced an anti-hijacking program (ironically, on September 11, 1970). Requirements and standards ...
[136]
Annex 17 - Security - The Postal History of ICAO
On 22 March 1974, the ICAO Council adopted the new International Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) on aviation security, embodied in the first edition ...
[137]
History and Evolution of Aviation Security
Feb 3, 2025 · 1931: The first recorded hijacking occurred in Peru, bringing the need for some level of security into awareness. The first recorded aircraft ...<|separator|>
[138]
GAO-09-273, Aviation Security: Federal Air Marshal Service Has ...
This is the accessible text file for GAO report number GAO-09-273 entitled 'Aviation Security: Federal Air Marshal Service Has Taken Actions to Fulfill Its ...
[139]
Timeline | Transportation Security Administration - TSA
Nineteen terrorists hijack four U.S. airliners and crash two into the New York World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon; the fourth crashes in Pennsylvania.
[140]
TSA Timeline: How Travel And Airport Security Changed After 9/11
Sep 10, 2021 · No boarding pass or ID was needed to go to the gate, and 4-inch-blade knives were allowed aboard planes. Now we take off shoes, ...Missing: common | Show results with:common
[141]
[PDF] Secondary Flightdeck Barrier on Commercial Passenger Aircraft ...
Aug 22, 2025 · Per section 350 of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Reauthorization Act of 2024 (Public. Law 118-63), the FAA convened an aviation ...
[142]
https://www.tsa.gov/travel/security-screening
[143]
Security Screening | Transportation Security Administration - TSA
TSA's screening procedures are intended to prevent prohibited items and other threats to transportation security from entering the sterile area of the airport.What Can I Bring? · Liquids, Aerosols, and Gels Rule · Complete List (Alphabetical)
[144]
[PDF] ICAO-Annex-17-Security.pdf
Restricted) provides detailed procedures and guidance on aspects of aviation security and is intended to assist States ...
[145]
AVIATION CYBERSECURITY - ICAO
ICAO's work on aviation cybersecurity is comprehensive and complex. It includes: - Developing Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs)
[146]
[PDF] Aviation Cybersecurity: An Overview
Aug 15, 2025 · Aviation cybersecurity involves attacks like ADS-B spoofing, ACARS spoofing, and ATC jamming. Threat actors include cybercriminals, and systems ...
[147]
Session Hijacking - How It Works and How to Prevent It - Ping Identity
Aug 15, 2024 · Make sure you are using the latest encryption, authentication methods, and secure web protocols.
[148]
What Is Session Hijacking? Definition & Prevention | Proofpoint US
Session hijacking is a cyber-attack method where adversaries intercept or steal valid session tokens (like cookies or authentication IDs) to impersonate ...What Is Session Hijacking? · What Is a Session? · The Impacts of Session Hijacking
[149]
Session Hijacking Explained & How to Prevent It - Descope
Aug 19, 2024 · Keep an eye on session duration · Terminate sessions timely · Regenerate session IDs · Don't put session IDs in URLs · Use HTTPS · Set session ID ...What is a session? · How session hijacking works · Common session hijacking...
[150]
Session Management - OWASP Cheat Sheet Series
Attackers can perform two types of session hijacking attacks, targeted or generic. In a targeted attack, the attacker's goal is to impersonate a specific (or ...
[151]
How to Protect Your Business from BGP Hijacking - LoginRadius
Nov 12, 2021 · Best Practices to Prevent and Mitigate BGP Hijacking · #1. Mutually Agreed Norms For Routing (MANRS) · #2. RPKI adoption.
[152]
How to Detect and Prevent IP Hijacking Attacks - NRS
Apr 18, 2025 · Implement Prefix Filtering One of the most effective ways to prevent IP hijacking is by implementing prefix filtering at the network's edge.
[153]
[PDF] BGP hijacking: brief guide on protecting BGP from bad actors
➔ TCP-MD5: is used to protect BGP sessions against spoofed TCP segments and TCP resets, both sides use a pre-shared key to generate and verify a checksum using ...
[154]
BGP Hijacking: Understanding Threats to Internet Routing - Kentik
Dive into BGP Hijacking: understanding its workings, exploring real cases, and learning protection strategies for a secure network.
[155]
How to Prevent DNS Attacks: DNS Security Best Practices
Dec 8, 2023 · To prevent DNS attacks, protect the protocol with encryption, protect the server by hardening and isolation, and protect access with traffic ...
[156]
DNS Hijacking: What It Is and How to Protect Yourself - ClouDNS Blog
Jan 14, 2025 · Use encrypted DNS: Encrypted DNS protocols like DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) and DNS-over-TLS (DoT) can help protect against DNS hijacking by encrypting ...
[157]
What is DNS Hijacking? Detection, and Prevention Strategies
Jul 21, 2025 · You can prevent DNS hijacking by using strong, unique passwords for your domain registrar and DNS provider accounts. Enable two-factor ...
[158]
How to detect and prevent DNS hijacking - NordLayer
Protect yourself by using strong passwords for your router, updating its firmware, enabling DNSSEC validation, and using a VPN to encrypt your online activity.What is DNS hijacking? · Types of DNS hijacking · Examples of DNS hijacking
[159]
[PDF] Compilation of Cyber Security Regulations, Standards, and ... - IATA
This document is a compilation of cyber security regulations, standards, and guidance applicable to civil aviation, subject to constant review.
[160]
What Is Session Hijacking? Types, Risks & Prevention - Group-IB
Vital Protection Measures Against Session Hijacking. First, tighten session management to block session hijacking attempts. Use strong, unpredictable tokens, ...Types Of Session Hijacking... · Vital Protection Measures... · Protection Measures At The...
[161]
What is DNS hijacking? | Detection & Prevention - Kaspersky
There are a number of ways DNS hijacking can be stopped and prevented. For individual users, they should not click on suspicious links or visit domains with a ...
[162]
Chapter 1. U.S. Policy Towards Terrorism, Hijacking of Aircraft, and ...
U.S. Policy Towards Terrorism, Hijacking of Aircraft, and Attacks on Civil Aviation. Israeli Attack on Beirut Airport and Hijacking of TWA Flight 840, January- ...
[163]
Don't negotiate with terrorists, study says | PBS News
Apr 28, 2014 · Comparing incidences of violence and the number of concessions violent groups are offered, the study shows a correlation between acts of terror ...
[164]
'We do not negotiate with terrorists' – but why? | Chatham House
Jan 13, 2022 · Equally, both the US and the UK can be said to have negotiated with designated terrorist groups when hostages were not directly involved. Should ...
[165]
Duration and competing-risks determinants of terrorist hostage ...
Terrorist hostage-taking incidents (i.e., skyjackings, barricade and hostage taking [henceforth, barricade missions], kidnappings, and non-aerial hijackings of ...
[166]
https://www.nextgov.com/cybersecurity/2024/03/ransomware-payment-debate-resurfaces-amid-change-healthcare-incident/395026/
[167]
Ransomware payment debate resurfaces amid Change Healthcare ...
Mar 18, 2024 · The Biden administration “strongly discourages paying of ransoms, to stop the flow of funds to these criminals and disincentivize their attacks, ...
[168]
Government is fed up with ransomware payments fueling cyberattacks
Oct 18, 2024 · Sources say the FBI advises against paying a hacker's ransom request, but that the government also understand companies may need to pay the ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[169]
Should ransomware payments be banned? - Brookings Institution
Jul 26, 2021 · We examine the vexing issue of whether or not to ban ransom payments and wider ideas about how to disrupt the flow of money to the criminals.Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking<|control11|><|separator|>
[170]
Should State Governments Ban Ransomware Payments?
Given the surge of ransomware attacks and increasing costs of payments to unlock stolen data in 2024, some states have banned public ransomware payments.Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[171]
Airline Hijacking: Causes and Motives Behind It Case Study
Jul 29, 2024 · However, airline hijackings shaped the current aviation system and security measures that aim to preserve civil liberties.
[172]
[PDF] Political Hijacking: What Law Applies in Peace and War
"Piracy" is the word most frequently used to describe the acts of political hijacking, and certainly such hijackings have some resemblance to acts of piracy.
[173]
[PDF] Asymmetric Warfare: A state vs non-state conflict* - Dialnet
The usage of unconventio- nal tools and tactics, be it guerrilla warfare or terrorism or irregular warfare or any other forms are becoming more synonymous ...Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[174]
[PDF] statistical analyses of aircraft hijackings - and political assassinations
Statistical Analyses of Aircraft Hijackings. Aircraft hijacking is one of the modern phenomena that has been of much concern in the U.S. in the last fifteen ...
[175]
Flight Deck Barriers Are Critical for Security - ALPA
Flight deck barriers are essential for security, yet passenger aircraft need secondary barriers, and cargo aircraft lack intrusion-resistant doors entirely.
[176]
A Perspective on Cockpit Security since 9/11 - FLYING Magazine
Oct 2, 2024 · Has the airline industry mitigated risks in the wake of 9/11? Yes, but it's an evolving process that requires everyone to participate.
[177]
Flight Deck Security | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
An armoured and locked flight deck door mitigates the risk of passenger unlawful interference. However, it creates other security issues.
[178]
Cockpit Door: Are They Secure? - AN Aviation Services
Jun 16, 2022 · Modern cockpit door have safety systems to keep out intruders. They can be opened from the cabin - to help pilots in an emergency.
[179]
[PDF] Over-Exposed? TSA Scanners and the Fourth Amendment Right to ...
Mock, The TSA's New X-Ray Vision: The Fourth Amendment Implications of "Body-Scan" Searches at Domestic Airport Security Checkpoints, 49 SANTA CLARA L. REv. 213 ...Missing: PATRIOT erosion
[180]
[PDF] National Security in a Post-9/11 World: The Rise of Surveillance ...
The devastation of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks had a profound impact on people around the world. The Canadian and United States governments ...
[181]
[PDF] Report on Effects on Privacy & Civil Liberties - Homeland Security
Apr 27, 2006 · of Customs and Border Protection (CBP), use the No-fly and Selectee lists for screening airline passengers. TSA is responsible for screening ...Missing: PATRIOT erosion
[182]
[PDF] collateral damage? the impact of national security crises on the ...
See USA PATRIOT Act § 809. 7. See Jules Lobel, The War on Terrorism and Civil Liberties, 63 U. PITT. L. REV. 767, 778 ...Missing: offs aviation TSA
[183]
Privacy, information collection, and homeland security - ScienceDirect
In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there have been several statutory and regulatory changes that enhance the collection and use of ...Missing: erosion | Show results with:erosion
[184]
Tensions Between Cybersecurity and Other Public Policy Concerns
Civil liberties have an important informational dimension to them, and cybersecurity is in large part about protecting information, so it is not surprising that ...Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[185]
[PDF] Cybersecurity Incident & Vulnerability Response Playbooks - CISA
"likely to result in a demonstrable impact to public health or safety, national security, economic security, foreign relations, civil liberties, or public ...
[186]
[PDF] Governance by Proxy: Cyber Challenges to Civil Liberties
May 13, 2015 · The greatest challenges we are likely to face in the information environment over the next decade are challenges to civil liberties.
[187]
[PDF] Civil Liberties and Security in Cyberspace - Hoover Institution
More effective computer security and timely detection of and response to unauthorized access or use of cyber systems would help reduce both cyber crime and ...Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[188]
Aviation Security 24 Years After 9/11: Are the Skies Safer?
Sep 12, 2025 · For decades, the hijacking of a commercial airplane was seen as a way for political extremists to secure prisoner releases or political ...
[189]
[PDF] Economic Aspects of Airport Security Measures - DTIC
This thesis estimates that the hijacking-preventing impact of airport screening measures is insignificant, but the opportunity costs these measures impose on ...Missing: societal psychological
[190]
Assessing the impact of the September 11 terrorist attacks on U.S. ...
No industry has suffered greater economic damage from the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 than the U.S. airline industry. In addition to directly ...Missing: hijacking | Show results with:hijacking
[191]
[PDF] An Exploratory Analysis of the Psychological Dimensions of Airline ...
Terrorism acts such as bombings and hijackings can satisfy multiple objectives for terrorists including the realization of their cause, funding, strengthening ...