Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Expanded clay aggregate

Expanded clay aggregate, commonly known as lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA), is a porous ceramic material produced by heating and expanding special natural clays at temperatures between 1100°C and 1300°C in a rotary kiln, resulting in lightweight, rounded granules with a cellular internal structure and a hard, clinkerized outer shell.^[1] These granules typically range from 0.5 mm to 10 mm in size and are valued for their low density, typically 300–500 kg/m³ when dry, which makes them significantly lighter than traditional aggregates.^[1] The expansion process involves the combustion of organic components within the clay, creating a uniform pore structure that imparts excellent thermal insulation properties, with thermal conductivity values ranging from 0.08 to 0.20 W/m·K.^[1]^[2] The production of expanded clay aggregate begins with the selection of argillaceous clays rich in minerals like albite, which are milled and shaped into pellets before being fed into the kiln for thermal expansion.^[3] Optimal sintering occurs around 1140–1180°C, where additives such as coal powder (up to 20%) or flotation waste can enhance pore formation and reduce water absorption to as low as 4%, improving the material's impermeability and mechanical strength.^[3] This results in a product that is chemically inert, incombustible, and resistant to frost and biological degradation, with specific heat capacity of 0.9–1.0 kJ/kg·K.^[1] The process yields aggregates available in various grades, from insulating types for thermal applications to structural variants offering higher compressive strength for load-bearing uses.^[2] In construction and civil engineering, expanded clay aggregate is widely used as a lightweight filler in concrete, mortars, and screeds to reduce structural dead loads while maintaining adequate shear strength.^[1] It serves as an effective thermal and acoustic insulator in building blocks, roofing, and floor systems, and its high porosity facilitates applications in drainage layers, geotechnical fills, and wastewater filtration.^[2] Beyond construction, the material finds use in hydroponics as a growing medium due to its water retention and aeration properties, and in refractory products for high-temperature environments.^[1] Its environmental benefits include recyclability and the ability to incorporate waste materials during production, contributing to sustainable building practices.^[3]

Manufacturing

Raw Materials

Expanded clay aggregate is primarily produced from specific types of natural clays that exhibit suitable bloating characteristics when subjected to high temperatures, ensuring the formation of a lightweight, porous structure. Suitable clays include illitic and kaolinitic varieties, which contain clay minerals such as illite, kaolinite, or chlorite, along with accessory minerals like feldspar and iron oxides.^[4]^[5] These clays are selected for their mineral composition, typically comprising 50-70% silica (SiO₂) and 15-27% alumina (Al₂O₃), with appropriate levels of fluxing elements including alkaline earth elements like CaO and MgO to promote viscous melt formation and gas entrapment during expansion.^[6] Illitic clays are particularly effective due to their ability to trap gases like CO₂ from minor carbonate decomposition, while kaolinitic clays contribute to strength through neo-formed mullite development.^[5] Optional additives such as coal powder (up to 20%) or flotation waste may be incorporated to enhance pore formation and reduce water absorption.^[3] The clays must have low organic content to prevent uncontrolled gas evolution or defects in the final product, ensuring consistent expansion and structural integrity.^[5] Purity is critical, as contaminants such as excessive organics, sulfides, or soluble salts can hinder bloating or lead to undesirable reactions, compromising the aggregate's quality and performance.^[4] Raw clays are sourced from deposits with minimal impurities, often surface clays or shales, and undergo testing for bloating index to confirm expansion potential.^[4] Pre-processing begins with crushing the raw clay using jaw, roll, or hammer mills to reduce it to manageable sizes, followed by grinding into a fine powder with a specific surface area suitable for pellet formation.^[4] The powder is then mixed with water to achieve optimal plasticity, typically forming a pug or slurry, and shaped into pellets or granules ranging from 2-20 mm in diameter via extrusion or pan pelletizing methods.^[6]^[4] For softer or friable clays, extrusion is preferred to produce denser, more uniform granules that enhance bloating consistency.^[4] These steps prepare the material for subsequent thermal processing while maintaining the clay's inherent expansion properties.^[5]

Production Process

The production of expanded clay aggregate begins with pelletizing the prepared clay mixture into uniform spherical or granular shapes, typically ranging from 2-20 mm in diameter, to ensure consistent expansion during subsequent heating. This step involves extruding or forming the plastic clay mass through appropriate machinery, followed by drying the green pellets in a controlled environment to remove free moisture and prevent cracking or deformation in the kiln. The drying process utilizes hot air, often recycled from the cooling stage for energy efficiency, reducing the moisture content to below 1% before firing.^[7]^[8] The dried pellets are then fed into a rotary kiln for thermal treatment, where they undergo firing at temperatures between 1100°C and 1200°C for approximately 20-25 minutes. During this phase, the clay reaches a pyroplastic state, and internal gases generated from the dehydroxylation of clay minerals (releasing water vapor) and the decomposition of organic matter (producing carbon dioxide and other volatiles) create pressure within the pellets, causing them to expand 4-5 times in volume and form lightweight, porous spheres with a hard ceramic outer shell.^[9]^[10] Following expansion, the hot aggregates are rapidly cooled in a rotary cooler or fluidized bed using ambient or cold air, which solidifies the porous structure and prevents further alteration. The cooled material is then screened and sorted into desired size fractions, typically ranging from 1 mm to 40 mm, with oversized particles crushed if necessary to achieve uniformity; quality control measures, such as visual inspection and density checks, ensure consistent product specifications throughout this stage.^[7]^[8]

Properties

Physical Characteristics

Expanded clay aggregate, commonly known as LECA, possesses a low bulk density ranging from 250 to 800 kg/m³, which is approximately 3 to 5 times lower than that of conventional natural aggregates (1200–1600 kg/m³), enabling significant weight reductions in applications requiring lightweight materials.^[11]^[12] This characteristic stems from the aggregate's cellular, porous structure formed during high-temperature expansion, with specific values varying by grain size; for instance, granules of 4–10 mm exhibit a bulk density of around 530 kg/m³, while 7–15 mm sizes are approximately 310 kg/m³.^[13] The particle size distribution of expanded clay aggregate typically spans 0–30 mm, with common grades falling between 2–20 mm to suit coarse aggregate requirements in construction and horticulture. High internal porosity, often reaching 30–50% void space within individual pellets, enhances its insulation properties and contributes to the overall low density, while also allowing for substantial water absorption capacities of 18–30% by weight after 24 hours of immersion.^[13]^[14] For example, medium-coarse particles (3–8 mm) can absorb up to 19.6% water, reflecting the open, interconnected pore network.^[15] In terms of thermal performance, expanded clay aggregate demonstrates excellent insulation with thermal conductivity values between 0.08 and 0.12 W/m·K, depending on moisture content and particle size; dry 8–20 mm granules, for instance, achieve 0.09 W/m·K. Mechanically, individual pellets exhibit compressive strengths up to 3–5 MPa under cylindrical loading, with fragmentation resistance varying from 1.0 N/mm² for larger granules to over 5.0 N/mm² for finer structural types, ensuring adequate durability for load-bearing uses without excessive brittleness.^[14]^[13]

Chemical Properties

Expanded clay aggregate (ECA), post-expansion, primarily consists of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) at 50-70%, aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) at 15-25%, and trace oxides such as iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) below 5%, with negligible organic content resulting from the high-temperature firing process that vitrifies the material.^[16]^[17] This composition renders ECA chemically inert, exhibiting a neutral pH range of 7-8 and low solubility in both water and acids.^[18] Its resistance to chemical attack ensures stability in aggressive environments, preventing degradation or reactions with surrounding materials.^[7] In concrete mixes, this inertness minimizes interactions with cement hydration products, maintaining mix integrity without contributing to alkali-aggregate reactions.^[11] Furthermore, ECA demonstrates an absence of harmful leachates, as verified through compliance with standards such as ASTM C330 for lightweight aggregates used in structural concrete.^[15]

Applications

Construction Uses

Expanded clay aggregate (ECA), commonly known as lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA), is widely utilized in the production of lightweight concrete for structural applications in construction. This material serves as a substitute for traditional dense aggregates, resulting in concrete with an oven-dry density typically ranging from 1400 to 1900 kg/m³, which enables the creation of beams, slabs, and other load-bearing elements while maintaining adequate mechanical performance.^[19]^[15] The incorporation of ECA in lightweight concrete significantly reduces the dead load of structures by 20-30% compared to normalweight concrete, which weighs approximately 2400 kg/m³, thereby allowing for smaller foundation sizes, reduced material usage in supporting elements, and lower transportation costs for precast components.^[20]^[21] This weight reduction also contributes to decreased seismic forces in earthquake-prone areas, enhancing overall structural efficiency without compromising durability. In precast manufacturing, ECA is employed to produce blocks, roof tiles, and insulation fills that offer a balance of low density and sufficient strength. For instance, precast ECA blocks can achieve compressive strengths of 20-30 MPa, suitable for non-structural and semi-structural walls, while roof tiles benefit from the aggregate's thermal insulation properties alongside mechanical stability.^[22]^[15] Insulation fills using ECA provide void filling in construction joints and floors, with compressive strengths up to 3 MPa, ensuring stability under moderate loads.^[14] Geotechnically, ECA serves as a lightweight fill material in civil engineering projects, particularly for embankments and bridge approaches, where it reduces settlement risks and overall project weight by up to 50% relative to soil fills. In bridge construction, its compressible nature aids in vibration damping, mitigating dynamic loads from traffic and improving long-term performance.^[23]^[24]

Horticultural and Hydroponic Uses

Expanded clay aggregate, commonly known as lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA), serves as an inert soilless growing medium in hydroponic systems, where its porous structure facilitates root oxygenation and nutrient delivery without soil compaction. The material's high pore space, typically providing 30-50% air-filled porosity, ensures adequate oxygen availability to roots while allowing for efficient nutrient solution flow in systems like ebb and flow or deep water culture.^[25]^[26] This porosity, combined with its chemical inertness that prevents leaching of unwanted substances, supports healthy root development and reduces the risk of anaerobic conditions.^[26] In container gardening and green roof applications, LECA pebbles in sizes of 8-16 mm are favored for their drainage properties, which help prevent waterlogging by promoting rapid percolation while maintaining structural stability for plant roots. Pre-soaking the aggregate can adjust its water-holding capacity, allowing growers to tailor moisture levels based on plant needs, such as for drought-tolerant species on extensive green roofs.^[25] This size range also enhances aeration in potted plants, minimizing root rot in urban horticultural settings.^[27] LECA finds additional utility in aquaponic and constructed wetland filtration systems, where its high surface area supports biofiltration by fostering microbial communities that convert ammonia and nitrites into nitrates. In aquaponics, the aggregate's adsorptive qualities enable effective nutrient retention and removal, achieving up to 92% reduction in total ammonia nitrogen and 64% in phosphorus through enhanced microbial activity and plant uptake.^[28] This makes it ideal for media bed designs that integrate fish rearing with plant cultivation, providing both mechanical support and biological treatment.^[25]

History

Invention and Early Development

The invention of expanded clay aggregate is credited to Stephen J. Hayde, a building contractor and brick maker based in Kansas City, Missouri, who began experimenting around 1908 with bloated clay and shale byproducts from brick kilns.^[29] While seeking lightweight materials to enhance concrete strength and reduce weight—initially drawing from reject bricks and clay for potential use in construction—Hayde observed that certain clays expanded significantly when heated to approximately 1,200–1,300°C, forming porous yet durable granules with non-interconnected air cells encased in a hard, ceramic-like matrix.^[30] This discovery stemmed from his practical trials at facilities like the Flannigan-Zeller Brick Company in Kansas City, where he tested clay balls in existing kilns to identify optimal heating durations of about two hours for consistent bloating.^[31] By 1914, Hayde conducted further validation at the Ocean Shore Iron Works in San Francisco, confirming the aggregate's viability for structural applications.^[31] Hayde's breakthrough culminated in U.S. Patent No. 1,255,878, granted on February 18, 1918, for a rotary kiln process to produce the material commercially under the trademark "Haydite."^[32] The patent detailed heating select clays or shales in a rotating kiln to achieve uniform expansion, enabling large-scale production of lightweight aggregate suitable for concrete. During World War I, Hayde freely licensed the technology to the U.S. government, facilitating its use in shipbuilding, such as the concrete-hulled USS Selma, which highlighted the material's buoyancy and strength benefits.^[29] In the early 1920s, initial testing focused on integrating Haydite into lightweight concrete for U.S. construction, driven by the demand for earthquake-resistant structures following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which had exposed vulnerabilities in heavy masonry and prompted innovations in reinforced concrete.^[33] The first dedicated commercial plant opened in Kansas City in 1920 under the Haydite Company (later part of the American Aggregate Company), marking the shift from experimental kiln trials to industrial output.^[34] Early applications emphasized the aggregate's role in reducing dead loads while maintaining structural integrity, with tests demonstrating its efficacy in buildings and bridges.^[31] Development faced initial challenges, including inconsistent expansion due to variable temperatures in batch kilns, which led to uneven granule sizes and properties.^[30] These issues were largely resolved by the 1930s through refinements to the rotary kiln design, which provided controlled, continuous heating for more predictable bloating and higher yields, solidifying Haydite as a reliable material.^[29]

Commercialization and Modern Advances

The commercialization of expanded clay aggregate accelerated during World War II, when demand surged for lightweight concrete in military applications, including shipbuilding and the construction of bunkers and fortifications to reduce structural weight while maintaining strength.^[35] This wartime need built on earlier processes like the Hayde method, spurring post-war scaling in production. In Europe, industrial manufacturing of lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA) began in the early 1950s, following initial developments in Denmark in 1931, with companies such as Laterlite in Italy pioneering commercial production starting in 1964 to meet growing construction demands.^[36]^[1]^[37] By the 2020s, the industry had expanded to numerous production facilities worldwide, with Europe alone operating numerous plants; as of 2025, the European Expanded Clay Aggregate Association (EXCA) represents 10 member companies operating 11 plants across 10 countries, accounting for over 80% of European production and employing approximately 2,000 people.^[38] Global annual production exceeded several million cubic meters, driven by standardized quality controls such as EN 13055, which specifies properties for lightweight aggregates used in concrete, mortar, and grout to ensure consistency and performance.^[36]^[39] Modern advances have focused on enhancing efficiency and versatility, including the adoption of energy-efficient rotary kilns that optimize combustion and insulation to reduce energy consumption by 8-12% compared to traditional designs.^[40] These improvements, along with the use of alternative fuels like biomass, have lowered operational costs and emissions since the early 2000s. Additionally, customized LECA grades with specific particle sizes and porosities have been developed for emerging applications, such as 3D-printed concrete, where they improve printability and reduce material weight without compromising mechanical properties.^[41]

Environmental Aspects

Sustainability Benefits

Expanded clay aggregate is derived from abundant natural clay sources, providing a widely available material that minimizes reliance on finite resources and supports sustainable extraction practices, with clay pits often restored for enhanced biodiversity post-mining.^[42] This aggregate is 100% recyclable and reusable, allowing demolition waste to be repurposed directly into new production cycles or as non-hazardous fill without requiring additional energy, water, or raw materials, thereby significantly reducing landfill waste and promoting a circular economy in construction and horticulture.^[42] The inherently lightweight nature of expanded clay aggregate—typically one-fifth the density of traditional gravel—reduces transportation emissions through fewer required loads and shorter haul distances, while also lightening foundation and structural loads to cut material use and embedded carbon; for context, its integration in lightweight concrete can yield a carbon footprint of approximately 200 kg CO₂ per m³ (using low-carbon cements), compared to 250-400 kg CO₂ per m³ for gravel-based alternatives.^[43]^[44] Owing to its inert chemical composition, expanded clay aggregate avoids leaching pollutants into soil or water during use.^[42] With a proven durability exceeding 50 years in structural applications due to resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, rot, and degradation, it minimizes replacement frequency and maintenance demands over building lifecycles.^[45] These attributes enable expanded clay aggregate to contribute toward LEED certification credits in categories such as materials and resources, and sustainable sites, facilitating recognition in green building standards for reduced environmental impact.^[46]

Production Impacts and Mitigation

The production of expanded clay aggregate is energy-intensive, primarily due to the high-temperature rotary kiln firing process required to expand the clay pellets, with average energy consumption of approximately 2.5 GJ per ton of aggregate produced, mainly from natural gas combustion.^[47] This energy demand contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, typically ranging from 200 to 400 kg of CO₂ equivalent per ton of aggregate, depending on fuel sources and process efficiencies.^[48] Mitigation strategies include adopting advanced kiln technologies, such as hybrid dryers and cogeneration systems, which can reduce energy use by up to 25% and corresponding CO₂ emissions by 20%.^[49] Dust and particulate matter emissions occur during raw material crushing, pelletizing, and kiln firing, with uncontrolled kiln emissions reaching up to 65 kg per megagram of feed material.^[50] These are effectively managed through fabric bag filters and wet scrubbers, achieving controlled emissions as low as 0.13 kg per megagram, in compliance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards under AP-42 guidelines.^[50] In the European Union, best available techniques further limit channelled dust emissions from kiln off-gases to 5–50 mg/Nm³ as a daily average.^[51] Water consumption in the pelletizing stage, where clay is mixed and formed into balls before drying and firing, averages about 400 liters per cubic meter of aggregate produced, but is largely mitigated through closed-loop recycling systems that reuse process water.^[52] Clay quarrying for raw material extraction impacts land use by altering local topography and habitats, though mitigation involves progressive site reclamation, such as backfilling and revegetation, to restore ecosystems post-extraction.^[53] Additionally, incorporating alternative raw materials like waste clays from construction excavations or industrial byproducts reduces reliance on virgin quarried clay, minimizing land disturbance while maintaining product quality.^[54]

References

[1]
Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate - ScienceDirect.com
LECA, or lightweight expanded clay aggregate, is defined as a porous ceramic product produced by heating and burning special plastic clay at 1100–1300 °C, ...
[2]
Laterlite Expanded Clay: Lightweight Insulating Strong Aggregate
Laterlite Expanded Clay is a lightweight aggregate (LWA), with insulating characteristics made by expanding special natural clays at high temperature (1200°C).Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[3]
(PDF) Properties of Expanded Clay Aggregates - ResearchGate
The voids and pores in these aggregates improve the thermal and acoustical insulating properties and yield a good fire resistance [3, 4] . Moreover, low density ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[4]
None
### Summary of Raw Materials for Expanded Clay Aggregate (ESCS)
[5]
[PDF] Use of clay in the manufacture of lightweight aggregate
Conversely, neo-formed mullite, the main product of illitic and kaolinitic clay thermal decomposition, has been associated with strength development [48].
[6]
The development of indonesian local clay as a lightweight ...
In this study, the lightweight expanded clay aggregate had been produced using Boyolali bentonite as single raw material without any additives for expanding ...
[7]
Expanded Clay Aggregate - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Expanded clay is produced by heating clay at high temperature where gases formed during heating produce a porous and lightweight structure. Expanded clay is ...
[8]
Expanded clay - EXCA
The clay is extracted, pre-treated and introduced to rotary kilns. These kilns are heated to temperatures up to 1.150 ºC and this process transforms the clay ...
[9]
Synthesis and characterization of bentonite-based lightweight ...
Apr 26, 2024 · The optimum manufacturing conditions for expanded clay aggregate were a firing temperature of 1100–1200°C, a firing duration of 20–25 minutes, a ...
[10]
Production of lightweight expanded aggregates from smectite clay ...
Apr 11, 2024 · The LOI is mainly due to the dehydroxylation of clay minerals, organic matter oxidation and decomposition of carbonates and hydroxides with the ...
[11]
Review Lightweight expanded clay aggregate as a building material
May 10, 2018 · LECA has many interesting physical properties. Its thermal conductivity in the range of 0.097 to 0.123 W/m K [6]. Ardakani and Yazdani [7] found ...
[12]
Density of Aggregate in kg/m3: Key Information and Standards
Jul 27, 2024 · Coarse Aggregates: The bulk density of coarse aggregates ranges from 1200 to 1600 kg/m³. · Fine Aggregates: The bulk density of fine aggregates ...
[13]
[PDF] Expanded Clay Aggregate (ECA)
The particles formed are round in shape and generally range in size from 0-30mm. ... Bulk Density: 300 to 750 kg/m3. Cylinderical Compressive Strength: 0.6 to 3.0 ...
[14]
[PDF] Technical data sheet Laterlite Expanded Clay
Laterlite Expanded Clay is a lightweight aggregate made by ex- panding special natural clays at high temperature (1200°C). It is supplied either as granules in ...
[15]
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Lightweight Expanded Clay ...
Jun 20, 2024 · Lightweight expanded clay aggregates are very porous and have high absorption capacities as mentioned earlier. Dry or as-is condition usage of ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[16]
[PDF] Study of the Processes in Swelling of Expanded Clay Masses Based ...
Jul 7, 2022 · ABSTRACT: The article investigates the possibilities of obtaining high–quality expanded clay based on the clay of the Gurlen.
[17]
[PDF] To Study the Effect of Addition of Lightweight Expanded Clay ...
It can be noted that the content of Sio2 in the total composition fluctuated from 50% to 70%, Al2O3 fluctuated ... expanded clay aggregate,". Scientific Research ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[18]
[PDF] Physical and Mechanical Properties of Lightweight Expanded Clay ...
Ceramic clay has the nature of economic and practical, energy-saving environmental protection, with lightweight, high strength, low water absorption, thermal ...
[19]
Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Batching – LWAC | Laterlite
... Expanded Clay LWA are suitable for the realization of reinforced concrete loadbearing structures. Performances. Density ranging between 1400 kg/m3 and 2000 kg/m ...
[20]
Lightweight Concrete vs Normalweight Concrete: Comparing Cost ...
Apr 17, 2024 · The greatest cost savings were found in the footings, where LWC presented a 27 percent reduction in the material costs due to lower structural ...
[21]
Comparing properties of foamed concrete and lightweight expanded ...
Accordingly, eight concrete mixes were designed and made with LECA and foamed concrete at densities of 1400, 1600, 1800 and 2000 kg/m3.
[22]
ECA for Roofs and Floors | Expandedclayaggregate.com
High Compressive Strength. Cylinder Compressive Strength 0.6 to 3.0 N/mm2 ... Block | Lightweight ECA ® Solid Precast Concrete Construction Wall Panel ...
[23]
[PDF] Guidelines for Using Lightweight Fills in Transportation Infrastructure ...
In addition to being lightweight, it offers frost heave resistant solutions in areas with harsh cold climates, thermal insulation, and vibration dampening in ...
[24]
Improving Bridge Embankments with Lightweight Geotechnical Fill
Apr 9, 2024 · Lightweight aggregates can stabilize soil to improve bridge abutments, embankments, approaches and retaining wall design.Missing: vibration damping
[25]
Soilless Growing Mediums | Oklahoma State University
It is commonly known as lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA), grow rocks or Hydroton®. They are heavy enough to provide secure support for the plants, ...
[26]
Hydroponics: Water-saving Farming for New Mexico's Arid ...
Pros: recycled glass media, lightweight. • Cons: limited supply, pH concerns. Photograph of pieces of LECA. LECA (Light Expanded Clay Aggregate). • Pros: high ...
[27]
A study on light expanded clay aggregate (LECA) in a geotechnical ...
Nov 21, 2017 · In this study, first the LECA and its suitable properties have been introduced in a geological and geotechnical view. Then the LECA application on greenhouse ...Missing: damping | Show results with:damping
[28]
Physical filtration of nutrients utilizing gravel-based and lightweight ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In addition, MGB provides sufficient surface area for nitrifying bacteria growth, increases microbial transformation rate, and serves as ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
None
###Summary of Stephen J. Hayde's Invention of Expanded Clay Aggregate
[30]
Stephen J. Hayde: Father of the Lightweight Concrete Industry
In 1917, his tests showed that a rotary kiln could be used to economically produce expanded shale, clay, and slate in large quantities with properties identical ...
[31]
Hayde Lightweight Patent 100 Years Ago | SMART
Dec 31, 2020 · In 1917, his tests showed that a rotary kiln could be used to economically produce expanded shale, clay and slate in large quantities with ...
[32]
Father of Lightweight Aggregate - ESCSI
The original US patent on the rotary kiln process for manufacturing “Haydite” expanded shale clay and slate (ESCS) was awarded to Stephen Hayde on February 18, ...Missing: Missouri | Show results with:Missouri
[33]
ACI: A Century of Progress - American Concrete Institute
(expanded shale, clay, and slate) was undertaken around 1908, Stephen J. Hayde is generally recognized as the founder of the expanded shale indus- try; he ...
[34]
The Story of Structural Lightweight Concrete - ESCSI
The first commercial plant dedicated to expanded shale aggregate began operating in Kansas City, Missouri in 1920 under the name Haydite Company.Missing: San Francisco earthquake 1906
[35]
The Evolution of Concrete Masonry Units: From Ancient Foundations ...
... World War II (1939–1945) saw them in bunkers ... Lightweight aggregate CMUs, using expanded clay, pumice, or slag, improved insulation, echoing cinder blocks.
[36]
[PDF] Building our future with expanded clay | EXCA
Expanded clay lightweight aggregate has been produced since the start of the 20th century in the United States and in Europe production started in the early.
[37]
About the group - Laterlite
Our company history began in 1964 when we first introduced lightweight expanded clay aggregates into Italy. Today we have four Italian manufacturing plants, ...Missing: 1950s | Show results with:1950s
[38]
https://argex.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/WEB_EXCA-Market-Brochure.pdf
[39]
https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/cen/a8e87cdf-860c-4bee-996e-822826ffa148/en-13055-2016
[40]
3D Concrete Printing Review: Equipment, Materials, Mix Design ...
Rahul and Santhanam evaluated the 3D printability of concrete prepared with lightweight expanded clay aggregates with a maximum size of 10 mm. The concrete ...
[41]
Sustainability - EXCA
Expanded clay is 100% recyclable or reusable. Demolition waste containing expanded clay is disposable and not hazardous, and no use of new materials, new ...Missing: landfill | Show results with:landfill
[42]
Sustainability | Lightweight Expanded Clay Fill Aggregate - LECA
As a result, we are preventing the emission of around 1,105 tons of CO₂ every year, directly supporting our mission to decarbonise our operations and produce ...
[43]
[PDF] Carbon footprint of concrete based on secondary materials
The benchmarks, CEM I and CEM. III/A, both with Liapor expanded clay aggregate, have a CO2 emission of just over 330 and. 200 kg/m3, respectively. The high ...
[44]
https://publications.tno.nl/publication/34622204/hTavRE/gijlswijk-2015-carbon.pdf
[45]
LEED Rating System - ESCSI
The use of Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate (ESCS) in building designs contributes toward LEED® Green Building certification credits.
[46]
Industry Commitments - ESCSI
Average energy consumption was calculated to be 2.36 MBtu per ton of lightweight aggregate produced. This energy includes process energy, energy used in mobile ...
[47]
Development and performance evaluation of self-compacting ...
Additionally, the lightweight nature of LECA contributes to energy savings in transportation and reduces the overall carbon footprint of concrete [40].Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[48]
Decarbonizing the ceramics industry: A systematic and critical ...
This article reviews 324 studies to answer the following questions: what are the main determinants of energy and carbon emissions emerging from the ceramics ...
[49]
[PDF] EMISSION FACTOR DOCUMENTATION FOR AP-42 SECTION ...
This reference documents measurements of controlled filterable PM emissions and uncontrolled CO2 emissions from a lightweight aggregate kiln (kiln No. 2) ...<|separator|>
[50]
[PDF] BAT Guidance Note on Best Available Techniques for the ...
BAT is to reduce channelled dust emissions from hot off-gases in the manufacture of expanded clay aggregates to 5-50 mg/m3, as a daily average value, by ...
[51]
[PDF] ESCS Environmental Footprints Rev Sep 2023.docx - ESCSI
However, energy and emissions indicate significant declines due to continuous plant improvements and enhanced process technology efficiencies, while the water ...Missing: consumption per
[52]
[PDF] RECLAMATION THROUGH EXTRACTION: A DESIGN-LED ...
This paper has conceptualized and argued for an alternative approach to the reclamation of aggregate quarries in urban and peri-urban situations.
[53]
Reusing waste clay from excavations and tunnelling - IOM3
Dec 7, 2022 · The REAL project demonstrates the potential of reusing waste clays as meaningful construction resources that offer a more environmentally ...