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Explosive booster

An explosive booster is a high explosive charge, typically consisting of several ounces of a sensitive secondary explosive material encased in a container, used to amplify and transmit the detonation impulse from a primary detonator to initiate a stable detonation in less sensitive main charges or blasting agents.^[1] These boosters are essential in explosive trains because they bridge the gap between the relatively weak output of a detonator—such as a blasting cap—and the higher energy requirements of insensitive high explosives (IHEs), ensuring reliable initiation without premature sensitivity.^[2] In blasting operations, boosters improve the detonation velocity and efficiency when initiating materials like ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO), which are common in mining and demolition due to their stability and cost-effectiveness.^[1] Explosive boosters are classified as secondary high explosives, which are less sensitive to shock and heat than primary explosives but more responsive than tertiary blasting agents, allowing safe handling while providing sufficient shock pressure for propagation.^[2] Common compositions include pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), or cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine (HMX), often in cast or pressed forms with densities optimized for energy delivery, such as PETN at around 1.77 g/cm³ or HMX-based mixtures like LX-07 (90% HMX, 10% binder).^[3] These materials must exhibit high detonation velocities—typically exceeding 6,000 m/s—and favorable pulse shapes to avoid dead-pressing or incomplete initiation in the main charge.^[3] In practical applications, explosive boosters are widely employed in civilian sectors such as mining, quarrying, and construction blasting, where they ensure uniform detonation in boreholes loaded with bulk emulsions or ANFO to fragment rock efficiently.^[1] In military contexts, they form critical components of fuzes, warheads, and demolition charges, augmenting the explosive train to detonate insensitive fillings like TATB-based PBX 9502 in munitions, enhancing safety margins against accidental initiation.^[3] Boosters without detonators are classified under UN hazard 1.1D for their mass explosion potential, requiring strict storage and transport regulations to mitigate risks.^[4] Advances in booster design, such as non-explosive alternatives or insensitive formulations, continue to balance performance with safety in high-stakes environments.^[3]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

An explosive booster is a secondary high explosive charge designed to bridge the gap between a low-energy detonator and a low-sensitivity main charge, converting the initial weak input into a robust shockwave capable of initiating reliable detonation.^[3] This component is essential in explosive trains, where it serves as an intermediary to amplify the initiation signal without the extreme sensitivity of primary explosives.^[3] The primary purpose of an explosive booster is to ensure the dependable detonation of low-sensitivity main charges or insensitive high explosives, such as ANFO or TATB-based formulations, in applications like mining, demolition, and military ordnance, thereby minimizing the risk of misfires that could compromise safety and efficiency.^[3] By providing a stable transition from the detonator's output to the main charge's requirements, boosters enhance overall system reliability while allowing the use of safer, less sensitive main explosives that are less prone to accidental initiation.^[3] At its core, the booster operates through shockwave amplification, where the rapid chemical decomposition generates a detonation front propagating at velocities typically ranging from 6,000 to 8,000 m/s, sufficient to exceed the initiation threshold of main charges that detonate at lower speeds, such as 3,000 to 5,000 m/s for ANFO or around 6,900 m/s for TNT.^[5] This velocity differential ensures the shock pressure and duration are adequate to trigger the main charge's sustained detonation. Unlike detonators, which provide the initial spark or shock to ignite the booster, or main charges, which deliver the bulk of the explosive energy for the intended effect, boosters specifically focus on this amplification role without serving as the primary energy source.^[3]

Role in Detonation Sequences

In an explosive train, the detonation sequence typically progresses from a detonator containing a primary explosive, which generates an initial weak shock wave, to a booster composed of a secondary high explosive, and finally to the main charge of a tertiary or insensitive explosive.^[3] This structured progression ensures reliable energy amplification, as the primary explosive in the detonator is highly sensitive but produces insufficient output to directly initiate the less sensitive main charge.^[3] The booster functions by receiving the relatively low-energy shock from the detonator and converting it into a sustained, high-velocity detonation wave capable of propagating through and reliably detonating the main charge.^[3] This energy transfer mechanism involves the booster's secondary explosive undergoing rapid decomposition to produce a planar shock front that overcomes the main charge's higher initiation threshold, often at velocities exceeding 6,000 m/s depending on the formulation.^[3] Without this amplification, the detonation wave may attenuate or fail to transition to high-order detonation in the main charge.^[3] Absence of a booster can lead to sequence failures, such as dead-pressing, where a weak incoming shock desensitizes the main charge explosive, rendering it unable to detonate and resulting in low-order or partial reactions.^[6] In artillery shells, for instance, direct exposure of pressed insensitive explosives like TNT to a detonator's output without a booster has historically caused such desensitization, leading to duds or incomplete bursts that compromise weapon effectiveness.^[7] In military munitions, boosters are sometimes termed "gaine" (from the French gaine-relais, meaning relay sleeve), particularly in artillery shells and air-dropped bombs, where they are sized as small charges typically ranging from 10 to 200 grams to fit fuze wells and ensure compact integration.^[8] This terminology highlights the booster's role as an intermediary relay in the train, bridging the gap between initiator and main explosive for consistent performance.^[8]

History

Early Developments

The concept of explosive boosters emerged in the late 19th century alongside the development of high explosives, particularly with Alfred Nobel's invention of dynamite in 1867, which required reliable initiation for nitroglycerin-based charges. Nobel's blasting cap, patented in 1865, utilized mercury fulminate as a primary explosive to generate a detonation shock wave capable of initiating the less sensitive dynamite main charge; however, for larger or more insensitive nitroglycerin formulations, additional booster charges were necessary to amplify and propagate the detonation reliably, preventing incomplete explosions in mining and construction applications.^[9]^[10] In the 1890s and early 1910s, picric acid gained prominence as an early booster material due to its high brisance and relative sensitivity, which allowed it to bridge detonators and main charges in both mining operations and artillery shells. First adopted by the French military in 1885 as a bursting charge under the name melinite and patented for shell use by Eugène Turpin in 1886, picric acid was valued for its ability to detonate upon initiation by mercury fulminate, though its sensitivity to heat and friction posed handling challenges.^[11]^[12] Around 1900, tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine), first synthesized in 1877 by Belgian chemist Karel Hendrik Mertens but practically developed by German chemists including Wilhelm Michler and Carl Meyer, was introduced as a superior booster alternative to picric acid, offering greater stability and detonation velocity. By 1906, tetryl was employed in blasting caps and military detonators for its brisance and reduced sensitivity to premature initiation, making it ideal for reliable energy transfer. The first significant patents for tetryl-based boosters appeared in the early 1900s, with widespread military adoption during World War I in artillery shells, where it served as a base charge to minimize duds by ensuring consistent propagation to the main explosive filler like TNT or picric acid.^[13]^[11]

Modern Advancements

During World War II, tetryl emerged as a standard booster explosive in military applications due to its high detonation velocity and reliability in amplifying the shock wave from detonators to initiate less sensitive main charges.^[14] Its stability and effectiveness made it a preferred choice over earlier materials like picric acid, which suffered from instability issues. However, tetryl's drawbacks, including toxicity and sensitivity to handling, prompted post-war shifts toward superior alternatives. By the 1950s, RDX and PETN largely replaced tetryl in U.S. munitions for their higher brisance and performance; for instance, Composition A-5, a formulation of 98.6% RDX with 1.4% stearic acid as a phlegmatizer, became widely adopted in artillery shells and boosters to enhance safety and efficiency.^[15]^[16] In the 1960s through the 1980s, commercial blasting saw significant innovations in cast booster designs, particularly PETN-wax mixtures optimized for initiating ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) emulsions in large-scale mining operations. These cast boosters, such as those developed by major manufacturers, offered improved density and water resistance, allowing reliable detonation propagation over extended distances while minimizing misfires. A notable development was the 1987 European Patent EP0244089A2, which described booster compositions enabling cap-sensitive charges that reduced reliance on traditional boosters in certain scenarios; nonetheless, boosters remained indispensable for ensuring uniform detonation in voluminous blasts.^[17]^[18] Post-2000 advancements have focused on enhancing safety through low-sensitivity formulations, driven by the need for insensitive munitions (IM) standards to mitigate risks from improvised explosive devices (IEDs). HMX-based boosters, often polymer-bound for reduced impact sensitivity, have been engineered to withstand accidental stimuli like fragments or fire while maintaining high output; for example, studies on HMX composites demonstrate critical shock pressures of approximately 3–4 GPa for initiation, far above typical environmental threats.^[19] From 2020 to 2025, research has explored alternative booster technologies, including hydrogen peroxide-based non-explosive initiators and sustainable formulations with bio-derived binders to minimize environmental impact during production and disposal.^[20]^[21]

Materials and Composition

Primary Explosive Components

Explosive boosters primarily utilize secondary high explosives as their core components, including pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), and cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine (HMX), due to their balance of sensitivity and power for reliable detonation initiation.^[22] These materials are selected over primary explosives, such as lead azide, which exhibit excessive sensitivity to unintended stimuli like friction or impact, making them unsuitable for the larger masses and handling requirements of boosters.^[22] Instead, secondary explosives provide the necessary shock sensitivity to propagate from a detonator while maintaining relative stability during storage and transport.^[23] PETN (C₅H₈N₄O₁₂) is a nitrate ester explosive with a detonation velocity of approximately 8,300 m/s at a density of 1.76 g/cm³, offering high brisance as evidenced by its sand crush test result of 62.7 g (131% relative to TNT).^[23] Its impact sensitivity is moderate, with a Bureau of Mines drop height of 17 cm, and it shows low friction sensitivity, cracking rather than detonating under steel shoe tests.^[23] PETN's oxygen balance of -18.7% supports near-complete combustion during detonation, contributing to efficient energy release.^[24] This compound is favored for cast boosters owing to its melt-castability, allowing uniform filling of molds without voids.^[22] RDX (C₃H₆N₆O₆), a cyclic nitramine, exhibits a higher detonation velocity of 8,750 m/s at 1.77 g/cm³ and brisance comparable to PETN, with a sand crush of 60.2 g (129% TNT).^[23] It has an impact sensitivity of 32 cm drop height and detonates under friction, but its oxygen balance of -21.6% ensures effective oxidation of decomposition products.^[23]^[24] RDX is particularly suited for pressed boosters, where its high power density enables compact, high-performance formulations like Composition A.^[22] HMX (C₄H₈N₈O₈), structurally similar to RDX but with greater molecular stability, achieves a detonation velocity of 9,100 m/s at 1.89 g/cm³ and brisance of 60.4 g sand crush (126% TNT).^[23] Its impact sensitivity is lower at 60 cm, with friction sensitivity leading to explosion, and an oxygen balance of -21.6% akin to RDX, promoting complete combustion.^[23]^[24] HMX is preferred in advanced pressed or plastic boosters for applications requiring enhanced thermal stability and velocity over RDX.^[22] In comparison, PETN excels in castable applications due to its lower melting point (141°C), facilitating easier processing, while RDX and HMX provide superior power in solid-pressed forms, with HMX offering marginally higher velocity and stability at the cost of increased production complexity.^[23] These components have heat of detonation values around 6 MJ/kg (5.5-6.5 MJ/kg for phlegmatized forms), sufficient to reliably initiate 1-10 kg of less-sensitive main charges like ANFO in blasting operations.^[25]

Formulation and Phlegmatization

The phlegmatization process for explosive boosters involves incorporating inert desensitizing agents, such as wax, polymers, or oils, into the high explosive base to mitigate risks of unintended initiation from impact, friction, or shock while preserving essential performance characteristics like detonation velocity. These phlegmatizers are typically added at 5-20% by weight, which coats the explosive crystals and reduces sensitivity without significantly compromising energy output or propagation efficiency. This step is crucial for practical handling and storage, as pure secondary explosives like PETN or RDX are highly sensitive in their undiluted form.^[26] Common formulations of phlegmatized boosters balance explosive potency with safety through specific ratios of active material and binders. For instance, common PETN-based cast boosters, such as pentolite, consist of 50% PETN and 50% TNT, or variants with higher PETN content (e.g., 95/5). Composition C-4, widely used as a plastic booster, consists of 91% RDX combined with 9% plasticizer (primarily di(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate and polyisobutylene) to form a moldable, stable matrix. These mixtures are often processed by casting: the components are heated to a molten state, blended, and poured into molds to solidify into precise shapes, ensuring uniformity and ease of integration into detonation trains.^[27] Manufacturing boosters begins with grinding the explosive crystals, such as PETN or RDX, to fine micron-sized particles (typically 5-50 μm) to promote homogeneous distribution and optimal packing density. The phlegmatizer is then added during mixing, frequently under vacuum to eliminate air entrapment that could create voids and reduce detonation stability. The resulting slurry or powder is pressed into final forms at high pressures of 10,000-20,000 psi, yielding densities exceeding 1.5 g/cm³—essential for achieving consistent shock wave transmission.^[27]^[28] Quality control in booster production emphasizes verifying reliable detonation propagation, particularly through tests for critical diameter—the smallest charge dimension that sustains a stable detonation wave. For PETN-based formulations, this value is typically around 0.3-1 mm in unconfined conditions, ensuring the booster can initiate larger main charges without failure. Additional assessments include velocity of detonation measurements and sensitivity checks to confirm the phlegmatized material meets performance thresholds while adhering to safety standards.^[29]

Types

Cast Boosters

Cast boosters are high-energy explosive devices manufactured by melting secondary high explosives, such as PETN or RDX compositions, and pouring the molten material into rigid molds to form uniform charges. These are typically encased in plastic tubes, though some smaller variants use cardboard, with diameters ranging from approximately 25 to 100 mm and lengths from 100 to 300 mm to suit various borehole sizes in commercial blasting. A key design feature is the inclusion of one or more central detonator wells or through-tunnels, which securely accommodate blasting caps, electronic detonators, or detonating cord for reliable initiation.^[30]^[31] The casting process yields boosters with highly uniform density, often around 1.65 g/cm³, ensuring consistent shock wave propagation and efficient energy transfer to less-sensitive main charges. This design also imparts waterproofing properties through the plastic shell, allowing submersion in wet conditions for up to 6 months without loss of detonation sensitivity, which is critical for underground or surface mining in damp environments. Cast boosters excel in reliably initiating bulk agents like water-based emulsions or ANFO, providing the necessary high detonation pressure—typically over 200 kbar—and velocity exceeding 7,000 m/s to overcome the insensitivity of these materials in large-scale blasts.^[30]^[31] Prominent commercial examples include Dyno Nobel's TROJAN series, which are PETN-based pentolite formulations available in weights from 200 to 500 g for optimized performance in open-pit operations. Orica's Pentex boosters, formulated as RDX slurries cast into plastic shells with single or dual detonator wells, similarly support versatile applications in iron ore and coal mining. These boosters demonstrate high initiation reliability in field use, with consistent performance across environmental variations, and offer a shelf life of up to 5 years when stored properly. In contrast to more malleable pressed alternatives, cast boosters provide rigid, high-volume forms tailored for industrial-scale detonations.^[30]^[32]^[31]

Pressed and Plastic Boosters

Pressed boosters consist of powdered high explosives, such as RDX, that are compressed into dense pellets or blocks to serve as reliable initiators for less sensitive main charges. These boosters are typically formed by loading fine explosive powder into molds and applying high pressure, achieving densities around 1.7 g/cm³, as seen in pressed RDX formulations used in experimental and operational settings.^[33] Plastic boosters, in contrast, are formulated as malleable compositions that allow for hand-molding into custom shapes, enhancing their utility in confined or improvised applications. Semtex, a well-known plastic explosive, combines RDX and PETN with rubber binders like styrene-butadiene rubber, enabling it to be shaped for irregular geometries, such as in booby traps or demolition charges.^[34] These boosters are often deployed in small units ranging from 10 to 100 g, offering portability for field operations and adaptability to non-standard environments where rigid forms would be impractical.^[35] Unlike the fixed, high-volume rigidity of cast boosters, pressed and plastic variants prioritize flexibility for precision placement.^[36] The primary advantages of pressed and plastic boosters include their ease of transport in small quantities, which reduces logistical demands compared to bulkier alternatives, and their ability to conform to complex voids or attachments without specialized equipment.^[37] This adaptability lowers costs for low-volume production and deployment, making them suitable for tactical scenarios. However, a key drawback is the risk of uneven density during pressing or molding, which can introduce voids and lead to inconsistent detonation performance or failure to propagate the shock wave reliably.^[38] Proper control of compression and binder distribution is essential to mitigate these variability issues.^[39]

Applications

Commercial Blasting

In commercial blasting operations, explosive boosters play a critical role in initiating detonator-insensitive bulk explosives such as ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) mixtures, which are widely used in open-pit mining for resource extraction.^[40]^[41] These boosters act as high-explosive amplifiers, providing the necessary shock wave to reliably detonate ANFO in borehole patterns, particularly in dry conditions where ANFO's low sensitivity would otherwise prevent consistent propagation.^[40]^[41] In quarrying and construction, boosters ensure efficient energy transfer to break rock in large-scale excavations, integrating seamlessly with main explosive columns to achieve desired fragmentation without excessive overbreak.^[42] Techniques involving boosters often incorporate electronic detonators connected directly to the boosters, enabling precise millisecond delay sequences that control blast progression and minimize vibrations.^[42] For instance, in typical surface mining blasts, detonators initiate the booster at the base of the borehole, followed by sequential firing across multiple holes to optimize rock movement and fragmentation in charges ranging from 500 kg to several tonnes per hole.^[42] This setup allows for tailored delay patterns, such as 25-millisecond intervals between rows, promoting uniform breakage in bench blasting while adhering to safety protocols for airblast and ground vibration limits.^[42] The use of boosters significantly enhances blasting efficiency by reducing misfire incidents, which constitute a major portion of explosive-related safety events in mining.^[43] Proper priming with boosters at the borehole bottom prevents charge cut-offs and ensures full detonation of insensitive agents like ANFO, leading to higher yields in large extractions, such as those exceeding 10,000 tonnes of ore per blast.^[43]^[40] In practice, this reliability translates to lower operational downtime and improved overall productivity in high-volume operations.^[44] In Australian iron ore mining, boosters are typically sized 200-500 g for ANFO columns of 300-600 kg to ensure reliable initiation and fragmentation, as commonly practiced in large-scale operations.^[40]

Military and Demolition Uses

In military ordnance, explosive boosters, also known as gaines, serve as intermediate charges to reliably transmit the detonation from a fuze or detonator to the main explosive fill, such as Composition B or polymer-bonded explosives (PBX), in artillery shells and bombs. For instance, the M107 155mm artillery projectile employs an M739A1 point-detonating fuze incorporating a booster charge to initiate the Composition B main charge upon impact, ensuring consistent high-order detonation despite the relative insensitivity of the fill. Similarly, aerial bombs like the MK82 general-purpose bomb use booster assemblies to bridge the fuze and the tritonal or PBXN-109 payload, enhancing reliability in variable impact conditions.^[45]^[46] In demolition operations, boosters are integral to shaped charges for breaching structures, where they amplify the detonator's signal to focus the explosive energy into a high-velocity jet capable of cutting steel and concrete. The M2A4 shaped charge, weighing 15 pounds with 11.5 pounds of Composition B and a 0.11-pound Composition A3 booster, penetrates up to 30 inches of reinforced concrete or equivalent steel plating, commonly used for destroying abutments, bridges, and barriers in combat engineering tasks. Boosters like the PETN-based M151 (1.25 pounds) are often employed to prime these charges via detonating cord, enabling precise cuts; for example, a configured charge with approximately 100 grams of PETN booster can sever steel beams in structural demolitions.^[46] Plastic explosives such as C-4 function as versatile boosters in improvised explosive devices (IEDs), providing a stable, moldable interface between initiators and less sensitive main charges like ammonium nitrate fuel oil. In military analyses of IED threats, C-4's high detonation velocity (8,040 m/s) allows it to reliably boost heterogeneous fills in vehicle-borne or command-detonated devices, contributing to their prevalence in asymmetric warfare.^[47]^[46] Insensitive PBX variants provide enhanced safety by resisting unintended initiation from shock, fire, or tampering. Boosters facilitate standoff initiation in urban warfare and demolition scenarios, minimizing handler exposure by integrating with shock tubes or remote firing systems like the Modernized Demolitions Initiator (MDI). This allows soldiers to prime and detonate charges from distances up to 1,000 feet using nonelectric components, such as the M11 blasting cap paired with PETN detonating cord, thereby reducing risks during breaching operations in confined environments.^[46]

Safety and Regulations

Handling Hazards

Explosive boosters, primarily composed of high explosives such as PETN, RDX, and HMX, pose significant physical risks during handling due to their sensitivity to mechanical and electrical stimuli. Shock sensitivity is a primary concern, where impact can lead to unintended detonation; for PETN, historical drop-weight tests indicate a median energy threshold (E50) of 3.8 J for 50% probability of initiation, equivalent to a drop height of approximately 19 cm using a standard 2 kg weight.^[48] Friction from rough surfaces or abrasive particles can generate sparks or shear forces sufficient to initiate reaction, with dry PETN exhibiting a friction sensitivity of 50 ± 4 N in BAM tests, resulting in loud explosions.^[49] Electrostatic discharge (ESD) represents another hazard, as these materials have low initiation thresholds; PETN requires approximately 0.25 J, RDX ~0.1 J, and HMX ~0.1 J to ignite.^[50]^[51] Health risks arise from direct contact or exposure to vapors and dust during storage, transport, or use. Skin contact with nitramines like RDX can cause dermatitis and sensitization, as observed in workers exposed to RDX fumes and in animal studies where rabbits developed persistent irritation at doses of 27–165 mg/kg.^[52] Inhalation of fumes or dust from these compounds leads to respiratory irritation, while long-term exposure is associated with neurological effects, including convulsions, seizures, and hyperactivity; for RDX, acute inhalation in humans has caused unconsciousness and dizziness, and HMX dermal exposure in rabbits induced clonic convulsions at ≥168 mg/kg.^[52]^[53] Historical storage incidents underscore these dangers, such as the 1947 Texas City disaster, where improper storage of approximately 2,300 tons of ammonium nitrate led to a massive detonation after a shipboard fire, killing over 500 people and injuring thousands due to chain reactions involving nearby explosives.^[54] Basic mitigations focus on preventing initiation triggers. Grounding equipment and personnel via conductive paths, such as wrist straps or brushes, dissipates static charges to below hazardous levels. Temperature control during storage is essential to maintain stability, with recommendations to keep boosters below 50°C to avoid increased sensitivity from thermal degradation.^[55] Separation of boosters from primary initiators in dedicated magazines prevents sympathetic detonation.

Legal and Transport Standards

Explosive boosters, as high explosives capable of mass detonation, are classified under the United Nations system as Division 1.1D hazardous materials, indicating substances and articles that present a mass explosion hazard but do not typically produce toxic gases or projectiles in amounts likely to endanger people or property outside the immediate vicinity of the explosion.^[56] For example, PETN-based boosters fall under UN number 0042 when formulated as cast boosters without detonators, requiring specialized handling protocols.^[57] This classification mandates the use of placarded vehicles for transport and blast-resistant packaging to mitigate risks during storage and shipment, ensuring compliance with international safety standards.^[58] In the United States, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) oversees the production, distribution, and storage of explosive boosters under the Federal Explosives Law, codified in 18 U.S.C. § 841 et seq., which defines explosives and establishes licensing requirements for manufacturers, importers, dealers, and users.^[59] The ATF publishes an annual list of explosive materials, with the 2025 edition including common booster components like PETN and RDX.^[60] Permits are required for the storage of more than 50 pounds of high explosives like boosters, with facilities subject to ATF inspections to ensure security against theft and compliance with construction standards for magazines.^[61] Following the enactment of the USA PATRIOT Act in 2001, additional restrictions were imposed on plastic explosive boosters, including mandatory incorporation of detection markers to aid in identification and prevent misuse in terrorist activities, building on prior antiterrorism measures.^[62]^[63] Internationally, the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols impose limitations on the military use of explosive boosters, prohibiting their employment in ways that cause superfluous injury, indiscriminate harm to civilians, or excessive incidental damage relative to military advantage, as outlined in common Article 3 and Protocol I.^[64] In the European Union, the REACH Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 governs chemical precursors used in explosive boosters, such as ammonium nitrate or nitromethane, through registration, evaluation, and authorization processes to control environmental and health risks, supplemented by specific rules on marketing and possession under Regulation (EU) 2019/1148.^[65] Transport of explosive boosters by sea adheres to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, which limits net quantities to 50 kg per package for Division 1.1D materials to minimize explosion risks, and requires segregation from incompatible substances like oxidizers to prevent accidental reactions during stowage and carriage.^[66]^[67] These provisions ensure that shipments are accompanied by proper documentation, including dangerous goods declarations, and stored in designated holds away from heat sources or ignition risks.^[68]

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The low melting point of TNT (80.9°C [1]) has enabled Australian munitions to be filled with melt—cast TNT—based explosive compositions, which.Missing: phlegmatization | Show results with:phlegmatization
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Impact and Friction Sensitivities of PETN: II. Sensitivities of the Acidic ...
Dec 20, 2022 · In this second part of our work on the sensitivity of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) the investigations focus on the manufacturing process.
[33]
Charge Diameter - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Charge diameter is defined as the diameter of an explosive charge, which affects the velocity of detonation (VOD) and must exceed a critical value to ensure ...Missing: booster | Show results with:booster
[34]
[PDF] TROJAN® SPARTAN - TECHNICAL DATA SHEET
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION. TROJAN SPARTAN cast boosters are detonator sensitive, high density, high energy molecular explosives avaliable in various sizes ...
[35]
[PDF] Pentex™ D - Orica
Pentex™ D is a high explosive composition booster cast into a plastic shell. Pentex™ D has a high density and high velocity of detonation to maximise ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[36]
Pentex™ - Orica
Pentex™ boosters are available with single or double detwells to accommodate detonators and detonating cord for different applications. Industry. Iron Ore ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[37]
[PDF] DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - NASA Technical Reports Server
During the quarter, the sensitivities of granular RDX charges having densities of 1.075 g/cm3 and pressed RDX charges of 1.72 g!-m3 density were determined ...
[38]
[PDF] Fourier Transform Rheology of Paste Explosives: I. Semtex ...
Aug 8, 2013 · Semtex Formulations†. D. Mark Hoffman*, H. Turner and A. Racoveneau. High Explosives Application Facility. Lawrence Livermore National ...
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Plastic Explosive | NIST
Jan 15, 2025 · a high explosive in a pliable plastic matrix; examples include Composition C-4 (a white plastic explosive containing primarily RDX) and Semtex.
[40]
[PDF] CECW-EG Engineer Manual 1110-2-3800 - USACE Publications
Mar 1, 1972 · Because of their in- sensitivity, blasting agents should be detonated by a primer (para 3-8) of high explosive. Ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
[PDF] EXPLOSIVE WEAPON EFFECTS - GICHD
Jul 20, 2006 · The five weapon systems reviewed are 122 mm multi barrel rocket launchers,. 81-120 mm mortars, 152-155 mm artillery guns, 115-125 mm tank guns ...Missing: dead | Show results with:dead
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[PDF] Compacting Plastic-Bonded Explosive Molding Powders to Dense ...
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States. Government. Neither the Regents of the University of California, ...
[43]
RDX Red Gum: A High Performance Pressable Formulation
Formulations of RDX:RG were pressed to produce pellets with densities ranging from 1.628-1.683 g/cm3. ... Pressed RDX/wax pellets with a density of (Formula ...
[44]
Boosters - Orica
High explosive amplifiers, sensitive enough to pick up initiation from a detonator and then reliably initiate bulk blasting agents.
[45]
ANFO Explosive | Dyno Nobel
ANFO Prilled Ammonium Nitrate (AN) is a nominal blend of porous Ammonium Nitrate prill and fuel oil. It is a dry, free flowing explosive.Missing: open- pit
[46]
[PDF] Module 2 - Initiation Systems
Electric detonators are used frequently in surface coal mines to initiate detonating- cord trunk lines. Accordingly, their safe use will be discussed in this ...
[47]
[PDF] Best Practice Guidelines - Prevention of Explosive Misfires
Consider reducing auger discharge rates when multiple priming blast holes. Detonator and boosters have been known to separate due to bouncing/interaction ...
[48]
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.iecr.0c06294
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[PDF] Overview of Explosive Initiators - DTIC
A discussion of common primary explosives and formulations employed in the devices will also be included. 15. SUBJECT TERMS. Primary explosive Initiator ...Missing: gaine | Show results with:gaine
[50]
[PDF] FM 3-34.214 (FM 5-250) EXPLOSIVES AND DEMOLITIONS July 2007
Jul 11, 2007 · Other requests for this document must be referred to Commandant, United States Army Engineer School, ATTN: ATSE-DD,. 320 MANSCEN Loop, Suite 336 ...Missing: gaine | Show results with:gaine
[51]
[PDF] Guide for the Selection of Explosives Detection and Blast Mitigation ...
Feb 7, 2008 · The IAB (made up of government and first responder representatives) was established to ensure equipment standardization and interoperability and ...
[52]
Joint Program Executive Office for Armaments & Ammunition
Modern Demolitions Initiator (MDI). MDI is a suite of initiating components used to activate all standard military demolitions and explosives. It gives Soldiers ...
[53]
Sources of Variation in Drop-Weight Impact Sensitivity Testing of the ...
Mar 29, 2021 · We compile a historical data set with over 450 impact test results of the explosive standard pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) from 1959 to 2020.
[54]
Impact and Friction Sensitivities of PETN: I. Sensitivities of the Pure ...
Jul 1, 2022 · Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) is a sensitive and brisant explosive. PETN is transported wetted (25 %) with water to limit its impact ...Missing: formulation | Show results with:formulation
[55]
None
**Summary of Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity (PETN, RDX, HMX):**
[56]
HEALTH EFFECTS - Toxicological Profile for RDX - NCBI Bookshelf
No studies were located regarding neurological effects in animals after inhalation exposure to RDX. No studies were located regarding the following effects ...
[57]
[PDF] TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR HMX
You may be exposed by breathing, eating, or drinking substances containing the substance or by skin contact with it. If you are exposed to a substance such as ...
[58]
Texas City Fire - Army Corps of Engineers
The explosion immediately killed more than 500 people and wounded more than 5,000, as tons of steel flew in all directions, landing and igniting additional ...
[59]
[PDF] Explosive Safety with Regards to Electrostatic Discharge
Jul 12, 2014 · Most people seldom recognize that a shock due to static charge, or properly called, Electrostatic Discharge. (ESD) is a phenomenon that has ...
[60]
[PDF] Aging of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) - OSTI.GOV
Jul 27, 2009 · PETN is very stable with respect to thermal decomposition. Low-temperature thermal studies have not revealed evidence of chemical degradation ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
30 CFR Part 56 Subpart E -- Explosives - eCFR
(a) Detonators shall not be stored in the same magazine with other explosive material. (b) When stored in the same magazine, blasting agents shall be separated ...Missing: mitigation | Show results with:mitigation
[62]
Subpart C—Definitions, Classification and Packaging for Class 1
Explosives in Class 1 are divided into six divisions as follows: (1) Division 1.1 consists of explosives that have a mass explosion hazard.Missing: gaine | Show results with:gaine
[63]
[PDF] Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods - UNECE
At its nineteenth session (2-10 December 1996), the Committee adopted a first version of the. “Model Regulations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods”, ...Missing: eco- phlegmatizers
[64]
Hazardous Materials: Harmonization with International Standards ...
Jan 7, 2013 · These changes ensure the domestic hazard classification, hazard communication and packaging requirements are consistent with those employed ...
[65]
[PDF] Federal Explosives Law and Regulations | ATF
diameter or diameter only of display fireworks). (c) Each licensed importer shall, not later than the close of the next business day following the date of ...
[66]
[PDF] Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms & Explosives - ATF
Classes of Explosive Materials. For storage purposes there are three classes of explosives (based on definition of “explosives” under 18 USC 841(d) ― may ...
[67]
Plastic Explosives Reminder | Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco ... - ATF
Between 1979 and 2005, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) documented more than 27000 bombing and attempted bombings in the United ...
[68]
1442. Plastic Explosives Convention - Department of Justice
The Antiterrorism Act of 1996, at Title VI, 110 Stat. at 1287-90, made it unlawful for any person to manufacture plastic explosives.
[69]
[PDF] Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain ...
The use of explosive and expanding bullets was forbidden by the St Petersburg Declaration of 1868 and the Hague Declaration of. 1899. The use of chemical and ...
[70]
Marketing and use of explosive precursors (from 31 January 2021)
Jan 31, 2021 · It establishes EU-wide rules for the making available, introduction, possession and use of substances and mixtures that could be misused to make ...
[71]
[PDF] International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (Volume 1)
For further information on the use of labels, marks and signs, see part 5 of the IMDG Code. ... a 50 kg package) and any diluent meets the provisions of 2.4.2.3.5 ...
[72]
49 CFR Part 176 -- Carriage by Vessel - eCFR
Individual explosive substances are identified in column 17 of the Dangerous Goods List in the IMDG Code (IBR, see § 171.7 of this subchapter).
[73]
49 CFR § 176.84 - Other requirements for stowage, cargo handling ...
These requirements apply to the loading of hazardous materials in cargo transport units as well as the stowage of cargo transport units.