First Fleet
The First Fleet was the convoy of eleven ships dispatched by the British government to establish a penal colony in New South Wales, Australia, carrying approximately 1,487 people including 778 convicts, marines, officials, seamen, and free settlers.[1] Departing from Portsmouth on 13 May 1787 under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, the fleet undertook an eight-month voyage via Tenerife, Rio de Janeiro, and the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at Botany Bay between 18 and 20 January 1788.[2][3] Finding Botany Bay unsuitable due to poor soil, shallow waters, and exposure to winds, Phillip relocated the settlement to the more favorable Port Jackson, entering on 26 January 1788 and founding the colony at Sydney Cove.[3][4] The convicts, predominantly men convicted of petty crimes amid Britain's overcrowded prisons following the American Revolutionary War's end to transportation, were tasked with building infrastructure, farming, and sustaining the outpost with provisions stocked for two years.[1][5] The expedition's success in establishing a viable European presence despite logistical challenges, including disease prevention measures that resulted in relatively low mortality, laid the foundation for British expansion in Australia, profoundly altering the continent's demographics and displacing indigenous Eora and other Aboriginal groups through settlement and resource competition.[6][7] Primary accounts from fleet participants, such as journals documenting the voyage and initial interactions, provide key insights into these events, underscoring the operation's strategic intent as a solution to penal overcrowding and imperial rivalry.[7][8]Historical Context
Origins in British Penal Policy
Britain's penal system in the 18th century heavily relied on transportation of convicts as an alternative to execution or short-term imprisonment, formalized by the Transportation Act of 1718, which authorized courts to sentence felons to seven years, fourteen years, or life overseas servitude. Between 1718 and 1775, approximately 52,000 convicts were transported primarily to the American colonies, where they provided labor for plantations and settlements.[9] The American War of Independence from 1775 to 1783 disrupted this system, as hostilities prevented shipments, and the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing U.S. independence effectively ended legal transportation to former British territories there.[10] This cessation created an acute penal crisis, with prisons and floating prison hulks—decommissioned ships moored on the Thames and elsewhere—rapidly overcrowding as convicts accumulated without outlets for removal. By the early 1780s, the backlog included thousands awaiting transportation, exacerbating disease, escapes, and public disorder, as seen in the 1780 Gordon Riots that damaged facilities like Newgate Prison.[11] Hulks, intended as temporary measures under the 1776 Hulks Act, housed hundreds under brutal conditions, with high mortality from typhus and malnutrition, yet proved insufficient and costly for long-term containment.[12] Domestic alternatives, such as the failed 1779 Penitentiary Act for reformatory prisons, faltered due to funding shortages and skepticism about rehabilitation efficacy, leaving the government under Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger facing pressure to resume large-scale transportation.[13] Proposals for new destinations emerged, including West Africa and Madagascar, but these were rejected due to harsh climates and logistical failures, as with the aborted Das Voltas Bay settlement in 1785.[14] A pivotal suggestion came from James Maria Matra, a former midshipman on Captain Cook's Endeavour, who in August 1783 submitted "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in the New South Wales," advocating Botany Bay—described favorably in Cook's 1770 journals—as a site for convicts, American Loyalists, and free settlers to relieve penal pressures while fostering trade in flax and timber.[15] Matra's plan, revised in 1785 before a parliamentary committee, aligned with Home Secretary Lord Sydney's needs, leading to Orders in Council in 1785 authorizing a New South Wales penal colony.[16] The government formalized the decision in August 1786, commissioning Captain Arthur Phillip to lead the expedition, prioritizing convict disposal over immediate profitability or strategic gains in official instructions.[17]Strategic Imperial Motivations
The establishment of a British settlement in New South Wales via the First Fleet was influenced by strategic considerations articulated in early proposals, particularly James Matra's 1783 plan, which positioned the colony as a key Pacific outpost to bolster British naval and commercial influence. Matra, having sailed with James Cook on the Endeavour, argued that New South Wales' location offered a secure base for expanding trade networks across Asia, the Americas, and Europe, while providing resources to strengthen Britain's maritime power amid growing imperial rivalries.[18] His submission to the Portland and Pitt administrations emphasized pre-empting rival powers from claiming the region, aligning with government interests in fortifying holdings post-Cook's explorations.[18] A core strategic rationale involved access to naval stores essential for the Royal Navy, including flax for sails and rope from Norfolk Island—settled concurrently in February 1788—and potential timber imports from nearby New Zealand. These materials addressed shortages in British supplies, as flax from traditional sources like Russia proved unreliable due to geopolitical tensions.[19] The colony's proximity to rich whaling and sealing grounds off the Australian coast further promised economic viability, enabling a self-sustaining outpost that could support naval operations in the South Pacific.[19] Matra's proposal highlighted Botany Bay's mild climate and fertile soils as ideal for cultivating such resources, contrasting with harsher alternatives like African sites rejected in 1785 parliamentary deliberations.[18] Geopolitically, the settlement served to assert British sovereignty over territories charted by Cook in 1770, forestalling French incursions amid reports of their Pacific explorations. Undersecretary Evan Nepean's 1785 memorandum outlined advantages including the site's defensibility and utility as a resupply point on routes from the Cape of Good Hope to China and India, reinforcing its role as a bulwark against European competitors.[19] A 1785 committee on convict transportation endorsed New South Wales over West African bays, citing these imperial benefits alongside penal needs.[18] The Pitt ministry's approval in August 1786 integrated these strategic imperatives with the urgent need for convict disposal after the American Revolution ended transportation to the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, framing the colony as a dual-purpose venture to project power eastward.[19] Instructions to Governor Arthur Phillip prioritized surveying secure harbors and resource potential, underscoring the imperial calculus that elevated New South Wales from a mere dumping ground to a prospective hub for British expansion in the antipodes.[19]Preparation and Assembly
Planning and Logistics
The planning for the First Fleet stemmed from Britain's urgent need for a new penal destination after the loss of its American colonies in 1783, which had previously absorbed transported convicts. Proposals emerged as early as 1783 when James Matra, who had sailed on James Cook's Endeavour, advocated for a settlement at Botany Bay to relieve prison overcrowding, facilitate trade with Asia, and potentially accommodate American Loyalists; this was endorsed by Joseph Banks. Home Secretary Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, refined and formalized the initiative, culminating in Orders in Council issued in 1785 that authorized establishing a convict colony in New South Wales.[16][20] In August 1786, Royal Navy Captain Arthur Phillip received orders to organize the expeditionary convoy, leveraging his naval experience and prior knowledge of Portuguese Brazil to inform logistical strategies. Appointed Governor-designate on 12 October 1786, Phillip directed the assembly of 11 vessels—comprising the naval escorts HMS Sirius and HMS Supply, six chartered convict transports, and three storeships—at Portsmouth, where convicts were embarked from Thames hulks and prisons like Newgate. The fleet carried 751 convicts alongside 252 marines, officials, and free settlers, with stores including tools, seeds, livestock, and foodstuffs calibrated for an anticipated eight-month voyage plus two years of self-sustaining settlement to avert reliance on distant resupply.[21][16][22] On 25 April 1787, King George III issued detailed instructions to Phillip, empowering him to found the colony at Botany Bay or an alternative site if unsuitable, enforce British laws, allocate land grants up to 30 square miles for cultivation, and maintain peace with Indigenous inhabitants while prioritizing agricultural viability and convict labor productivity. Phillip's oversight ensured rigorous health protocols under Surgeon-General John White, including segregation of sexes and medical staffing, which yielded a mortality rate of approximately 3%—far below typical convict voyages—demonstrating effective pre-voyage quarantine and provisioning amid challenges like delayed ship fittings and convict indiscipline. The fleet departed Portsmouth on 13 May 1787 after final musters and loading.[20][22][16]Recruitment of Convicts and Personnel
The convicts transported on the First Fleet were drawn from individuals sentenced to penal transportation by courts in England, Scotland, and Ireland, primarily for property offenses such as theft and burglary, which constituted the majority of cases amid Britain's overcrowded prisons following the loss of the American colonies as a dumping ground.[16][12] Starting in late 1786, Home Office under-secretary Evan Nepean coordinated the assembly of suitable prisoners from county gaols, London prisons like Newgate, and prison hulks moored on the Thames and at Plymouth, prioritizing those physically fit for colonial labor and whose sentences—typically seven years or life—remained active. Warrants for transportation were issued to sheriffs and gaolers, enabling the transfer of approximately 775 convicts (582 men and 193 women) to embarkation ports like Portsmouth and Plymouth by early 1787 for loading onto the chartered transport ships.[23] This selection process emphasized practicality over punishment severity, as capital sentences were reserved for more violent crimes, aligning with evolving British penal policy to relieve domestic gaols rather than purely deter crime.[16] The free personnel accompanying the fleet encompassed naval officers, a marine guard detachment, merchant ship crews, and support staff, totaling around 550 individuals including families.[23] Captain Arthur Phillip, appointed governor-designate on October 12, 1786, influenced the selection of key administrative and naval personnel, drawing from Royal Navy ranks for the escort vessels HMS Sirius and HMS Supply, whose crews comprised disciplined sailors under direct Admiralty control.[16][24] The convict guard consisted of a marine detachment of approximately 160 rank-and-file from the Portsmouth and Plymouth divisions of the Royal Marines, augmented by officers under Lieutenant-Governor Robert Ross, formed specifically for the expedition and tasked with maintaining order during the voyage and initial settlement.[25] These marines were detached from regular units, with recruitment focusing on experienced personnel suitable for extended overseas duty. Transport ship crews, numbering several hundred, were hired via government contracts to merchant captains, supplemented by naval surgeons to oversee convict health. A small number of civilian specialists, such as surgeons' mates and overseers, rounded out the personnel, selected for their utility in establishing the colony.[26]Fleet Composition
The Ships and Their Specifications
The First Fleet comprised eleven vessels chartered or commissioned by the British government: two Royal Navy ships for command and escort duties, six convict transports carrying prisoners and some free personnel, and three storeships loaded with provisions for the new colony. These ships were mostly merchant vessels adapted for the expedition, with tonnages measured in builder's old measurement ranging from 168 to 612 tons burthen.[27] The naval contingent included HMS Sirius, a frigate of 612 tons commanded by Captain John Hunter, serving as the fleet's flagship, and the brig HMS Supply of 168 tons under Lieutenant Henry Ball, which acted as an armed tender and scout. Sirius measured approximately 110 feet in length with a beam of 30 feet, accommodating around 160 personnel including officers, crew, and marines, while Supply was smaller at 70 feet long and carried about 50 people.[27][3] The six convict transports were:| Ship | Tonnage | Length (ft) | Beam (ft) | Convicts Carried | Commander |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alexander | 452 | 114 | 31 | 192 male | Duncan Sinclair |
| Charlotte | 345 | 105 | 28 | 88 male, 20 female | Thomas Gilbert |
| Friendship | 276 | 75 | - | 76 male, 21 female | Francis Walton |
| Lady Penrhyn | 333 | - | - | 101 female | William Copton Sever |
| Prince of Wales | 350 | - | - | 1 male, 49 female | John Mason |
| Scarborough | 430 | - | - | 208 male | John Marshall |