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NIR

Near-infrared (NIR), also denoted as near-infrared radiation or light, refers to the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum spanning wavelengths from approximately 780 nm to 2500 nm, positioned immediately beyond the visible red light spectrum.^[1]^[2] This range, invisible to the human eye, corresponds to wavenumbers of about 12,800 to 4,000 cm⁻¹ and is characterized by lower energy photons that interact primarily through overtone and combination vibrational modes of molecular bonds, enabling deeper tissue penetration compared to visible light while avoiding excessive heating associated with longer infrared wavelengths.^[3]^[4] NIR's defining utility stems from its application in spectroscopy, a technique that measures absorption, reflection, or transmission of NIR light to infer chemical composition and physical properties without destroying samples.^[5] Developed from foundational infrared discoveries in the early 19th century and advanced through mid-20th-century innovations like those by Karl Norris for agricultural analysis, NIR spectroscopy has become a cornerstone for rapid, non-invasive quality control in industries including pharmaceuticals, food production, and polymers.^[6]^[7] Key achievements include real-time monitoring of moisture, protein, and fat content in grains and dairy, as well as process optimization in manufacturing, where it outperforms traditional wet chemistry methods in speed and cost-efficiency.^[8] In biomedical contexts, NIR enables functional imaging of brain activity and tissue oxygenation via diffuse optical tomography, offering portable alternatives to MRI for clinical diagnostics.^[9]^[10] While robust for quantitative analysis when calibrated against reference data, its reliance on multivariate statistical models can introduce variability from instrument drift or sample heterogeneity, underscoring the need for rigorous validation in empirical applications.^[11]

Electromagnetic and Spectral Applications

Near-Infrared Radiation

Near-infrared radiation (NIR) occupies the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately beyond the visible red light, spanning wavelengths from approximately 780 nanometers to 2500 nanometers (0.78 to 2.5 micrometers).^[12] This corresponds to frequencies of roughly 120 to 400 terahertz and photon energies between 0.5 and 1.6 electron volts, characteristics that distinguish it from higher-energy visible light while sharing similar propagation behaviors in vacuum.^[13] Unlike ultraviolet or visible radiation, NIR exhibits lower scattering in dense media like atmospheric gases or interstellar dust, facilitating transmission through such environments with reduced attenuation.^[14] The discovery of infrared radiation, encompassing NIR, occurred in 1800 when astronomer William Herschel passed sunlight through a prism and measured temperature gradients across the spectrum using thermometers; he detected peak heating beyond the visible red band, indicating an invisible form of radiation adjacent to visible light.^[14] Herschel's experiment demonstrated that this radiation arises from thermal emission, with intensity following Planck's law for blackbody sources at temperatures typical of earthly objects (e.g., peaking around 1000 nm for sources near 300 K). Subsequent refinements in the 19th century, including thermocouple measurements by Charles Piazzi Smyth in 1856, confirmed NIR's detectability and spectral continuity with visible light.^[15] Physically, NIR interacts with matter via excitation of molecular vibrational overtones and combination modes, rather than fundamental vibrations dominant in mid-infrared; these transitions produce weaker, broader absorption bands (often 10-100 times less intense), enabling deeper penetration into scattering or turbid materials such as biological tissues (up to several millimeters) or agricultural products without significant sample destruction.^[16] Emission occurs thermally from sources like the Sun (contributing ~50% of solar irradiance in the NIR range) or artificially via LEDs and lasers tuned to these wavelengths, with atmospheric windows (e.g., 800-1100 nm and 1500-1800 nm) allowing effective ground-based detection due to low absorption by water vapor and CO2.^[14] In spectroscopy, NIR's utility stems from these properties, permitting quantitative analysis of composition through diffuse reflectance or transmission, as overtones of C-H, O-H, and N-H bonds yield fingerprint-like spectra for organic materials.^[17] NIR's causal role in energy transfer emphasizes non-radiative relaxation post-absorption, converting photonic energy into heat via vibrational damping, which underpins applications like remote sensing where reflected NIR reveals vegetation health via chlorophyll absorption minima around 800-900 nm. Empirical data from satellite instruments, such as NASA's MODIS, quantify NIR reflectance differences: healthy vegetation reflects >50% in NIR bands versus <10% in red, enabling biomass estimation with accuracies exceeding 90% in calibrated models.^[14] Sources of NIR include blackbody radiation from room-temperature objects (peaking near 10 μm but with significant tail into NIR) and non-thermal processes like semiconductor recombination in InGaAs detectors. While some studies claim therapeutic effects from low-level NIR (e.g., photobiomodulation enhancing mitochondrial ATP via cytochrome c oxidase absorption at 810 nm), these remain contested due to inconsistent replication and potential placebo influences in clinical trials.^[9] Overall, NIR's empirical advantages in penetration and minimal ionization risk position it as a bridge between visible optics and thermal infrared for analytical instrumentation.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is an analytical technique that employs electromagnetic radiation in the near-infrared region, typically spanning wavelengths from 780 nm to 2500 nm, to measure the absorption, reflection, or transmission of light by samples.^[18] This method relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which quantifies how light intensity decreases as it passes through a medium due to absorption by molecular species, enabling indirect determination of chemical composition through overtone and combination bands of fundamental vibrations such as O-H, C-H, and N-H stretches.^[17] Unlike mid-infrared spectroscopy, NIRS probes weaker, higher-order absorptions, resulting in spectra with broad, overlapping peaks that necessitate multivariate statistical methods like partial least squares regression for quantitative analysis.^[9] The foundational observation of near-infrared radiation traces to William Herschel's 1800 experiment, where he detected thermal effects beyond visible red light using a prism and thermometer, establishing the existence of infrared wavelengths.^[19] Practical application as an analytical tool emerged in the mid-20th century, with Karl Norris's 1968 work at the U.S. Department of Agriculture demonstrating NIR for non-destructive analysis of agricultural products like grain moisture and protein content via direct spectrophotometry of thin samples.^[20] Subsequent advancements in the 1970s and 1980s, including Fourier-transform interferometry, improved resolution and speed, expanding NIRS from niche agricultural use to broader industrial and biomedical contexts.^[6] Instrumentation for NIRS generally comprises a broadband NIR light source (e.g., tungsten-halogen lamps), optical sampling interfaces for transmission, diffuse reflectance, or transflectance modes, and detectors such as InGaAs photodiodes or array-based systems for spectral acquisition.^[21] Common configurations include dispersive grating monochromators for sequential wavelength scanning or Fourier-transform (FT-NIR) systems using Michelson interferometers for simultaneous multiplexed detection, the latter offering higher signal-to-noise ratios through the Fellgett advantage.^[22] Miniaturized handheld devices, integrating micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) optics, have proliferated since the 2010s, enabling portable field analysis with resolutions around 10 nm.^[23] Applications span quality control in pharmaceuticals for active ingredient assay and polymorph detection, food and agriculture for moisture, fat, and protein quantification without solvents, and biomedical fields like non-invasive tissue oxygenation monitoring via hemodynamic changes in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin.^[5]^[16] In process analytics, inline NIRS probes facilitate real-time monitoring in manufacturing, reducing reliance on labor-intensive wet chemistry.^[24] Functional NIRS (fNIRS), applied since 1993 for brain imaging, detects cortical activation through light scattering alterations in blood oxygenation, offering portability over fMRI despite shallower penetration depths of 2-3 cm.^[25] Key advantages include non-destructive sampling, minimal preparation, rapid acquisition (seconds per spectrum), and versatility across solids, liquids, and gases, making it cost-effective for high-throughput screening.^[26] It avoids reagents and generates little waste, aligning with green analytical chemistry principles.^[27] Limitations encompass low molar absorptivity leading to poor sensitivity for trace analytes, spectral interferences from water and matrix effects requiring robust calibration models, and the need for extensive reference data to mitigate overfitting in chemometric predictions.^[28] Penetration depth is constrained to millimeters in scattering media, restricting deep-tissue utility without fiber-optic enhancements.^[29]

Technological Advancements and Instrumentation

Near-infrared (NIR) instrumentation fundamentally comprises broadband light sources, dispersive or interferometric elements, and detectors optimized for the 780–2500 nm wavelength range. Tungsten-halogen lamps serve as primary sources, providing continuous thermal emission with stable intensity across the NIR spectrum, while light-emitting diodes (LEDs) offer compact, low-power alternatives for targeted applications.^[23] Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) detectors predominate for their high quantum efficiency and low noise in the 900–1700 nm region, outperforming silicon-based photodiodes beyond 1100 nm.^[23]^[30] Advancements in miniaturization have integrated micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) for wavelength selection, such as Fabry-Pérot interferometers and Michelson setups, yielding spectrometers under 1 g with extended spectral coverage and improved signal-to-noise ratios.^[23] Devices like the MicroNIR spectrometer demonstrate performance metrics including a signal-to-noise ratio of 23,000:1 over 908–1676 nm, enabling precise quantification in pharmaceuticals and field-based agri-food analysis.^[23] Similarly, consumer-oriented units such as the SCiO cover 740–1070 nm for rapid food quality checks, leveraging silicon photodiodes for visible-to-shortwave NIR detection.^[23] In broadband NIR systems, fiber-optic bundles with high numerical apertures enhance light delivery and collection, supporting multichannel configurations up to 24 channels for in vivo monitoring.^[31] Transition from charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors, like the Princeton Instruments PIXIS 512f, to compact complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) arrays, exemplified by the Hamamatsu C14384MA (0.3 g), reduces power consumption and enables wearability while maintaining spectral resolutions under 5 nm.^[31] These evolutions facilitate real-time cerebral oxygenation assessments, with quantitative tracking of mitochondrial markers like cytochrome-c-oxidase.^[31] For NIR imaging, silicon-based CMOS and electron-multiplying CCD (EMCCD) sensors provide high-speed, low-noise detection in the 690–900 nm band, with recent noise reductions enabling single-photon sensitivity in fluorescence lifetime imaging.^[30] In the shortwave infrared extension (up to 2000 nm), InGaAs arrays offer superior sensitivity over mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) alternatives due to lower dark currents and cooling needs, though challenges persist in pixel uniformity and cost.^[30] Emerging quantum dot detectors promise higher operating temperatures and reduced noise, advancing hyperspectral and portable SWIR systems.^[30]

Geographical and Political Designations

Settlements Named Nir

Numerous kibbutzim and moshavim in Israel incorporate "Nir" into their names, derived from the Hebrew word meaning "plowed field," symbolizing agricultural productivity and pioneering settlement efforts during the pre-state and early statehood periods. These communities were often established as defensive outposts amid geopolitical tensions, particularly along border regions, and focused on collective farming, irrigation, and regional development. Notable examples include Nir David, founded on December 10, 1936, as Tel Amal—the inaugural stockade-and-tower settlement to secure the Beit She'an Valley against incursions—later renamed in honor of Zionist leader David Wolffsohn and affiliated with the Kibbutz Artzi movement.^[32]^[33] Nir Am, established in 1943 by immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe, many of whom were Youth Aliyah graduates, expanded Jewish presence northeast of Gaza and remains a secular agricultural kibbutz under the Ihud HaKvutzot VeHaKibbutzim federation.^[34]^[35] Similarly, Nir Oz, initiated on October 1, 1955, as a Nahal military outpost between Nirim and Nir Akiva, transitioned to civilian status and guarded southwestern border areas prone to cross-border threats.^[36] Nir Yitzhak, located in the northwestern Negev between Hevel Shalom and Hevel Eshkol, exemplifies border kibbutzim developed for security and cultivation in arid zones. Other settlements bearing the "Nir" prefix, such as the moshav Nir Aqiva near Netivot (covering approximately 1,000 dunams in the northwestern Negev), underscore the pattern of naming tied to land reclamation and communal self-reliance, with many under regional councils like Sdot Negev or Sha'ar HaNegev.^[37] These sites have historically contributed to Israel's water management, crop diversification (e.g., citrus, grains), and defense infrastructure, though their proximity to contested borders has exposed them to periodic conflicts, including rocket fire and infiltrations.^[38]

Regional and National Codes

In international standards, NIR serves as the subdivision code for Northern Ireland under the ISO 3166-2:GB system, which identifies constituent countries and provinces of the United Kingdom. This code, formatted as GB-NIR, is used in official contexts such as government data standards, logistics, and international trade to denote Northern Ireland distinctly from other UK regions like England (GB-ENG) or Scotland (GB-SCT).^[39]^[40] The ISO 3166 standard, maintained by the International Organization for Standardization, assigns NIR to reflect Northern Ireland's status as a province within the UK, with implementation dating back to the standard's updates in the early 2000s to accommodate subnational divisions.^[40] In the Philippines, NIR designated the Negros Island Region, an administrative division established on May 29, 2015, via Executive Order No. 183, encompassing Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, and Siquijor provinces as proposed Region XVIII. This region aimed to streamline governance across the islands but was dissolved on August 17, 2017, by Executive Order No. 18, reverting the provinces to their prior regional assignments under Regions VI and VII. Legislative efforts to revive NIR persist, as evidenced by Senate Bill proposals in the 18th Congress to reestablish it for enhanced local development, though no enactment has occurred as of 2025.^[41] Additional uses of NIR appear in specialized registries, such as National Internet Registries (NIRs) under the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority framework, where entities like APNIC, ARIN, and RIPE NCC operate as NIRs to allocate IP resources regionally on behalf of national members. However, these are functional codes rather than territorial designations, with NIRs established since the mid-1990s to decentralize global internet governance.^[42] In sports governance, NIR functions as the FIFA country code for Northern Ireland's national teams, distinct from the Republic of Ireland (IRL), a usage codified in FIFA statutes since the organization's recognition of partitioned affiliations post-1920s.^[43] These codes prioritize operational clarity over political sovereignty, avoiding overlap with full national ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes like GB for the UK.

Transportation and Infrastructure

Northern Ireland Railways

Northern Ireland Railways (NIR), trading as NI Railways, operates all passenger rail services within Northern Ireland as a subsidiary of the Northern Ireland Transport Holding Company (NITHCo), which oversees Translink. The network spans approximately 300 route-kilometres of mainly single-track line, utilising the 1,600 mm Irish broad gauge and remaining fully unelectrified with diesel traction. NIR serves 54 stations, focusing on commuter routes radiating from Belfast and one primary intercity line to Derry~Londonderry, with connections to the Republic of Ireland via the Enterprise service to Dublin. In the 2024-25 financial year, NIR handled 13.3 million passenger journeys, reflecting a 3.8% decline from the prior year amid ongoing infrastructure investments and post-pandemic recovery.^[44]^[45]^[46] Rail services in the region trace origins to 1839 with the opening of the Ulster Railway between Belfast and Lisburn, followed by rapid expansion including the formation of the Great Northern Railway in 1876, which consolidated much of Ulster's lines. Significant rationalisation occurred post-World War II, with major closures in 1946 and the 1950s under the Ulster Transport Authority (UTA), reducing the network from over 1,000 km. NIR was established via the Transport Act 1967, assuming rail operations from the UTA effective 1 April 1968, marking a shift toward state-managed efficiency amid declining usage and the end of steam traction in 1970. Subsequent decades saw further line closures, such as the Belfast and County Down in 1950, but retention of core corridors supported by public subsidy.^[47]^[48] Core routes include the Bangor Line (northeast commuter from Belfast, 32 km), Larne Line (to Larne Harbour via Whitehead, serving port links), Portadown Line (south to the border for Enterprise continuation), and the Derry~Londonderry Line (167 km northwest, with limited intermediate stops). Peak frequencies reach up to seven trains per hour on busy Belfast suburban segments, integrated with Translink's bus and Ulsterbus services for multimodal travel. The Enterprise, jointly operated with Iarnród Éireann since 1997, uses dedicated tilting trains for the Belfast-Dublin route, crossing at Portadown. Infrastructure upgrades, including the 2024 opening of Belfast Grand Central Station as a unified hub, have enhanced capacity and connectivity.^[49]^[50]^[46] NIR's fleet comprises around 40-50 diesel multiple units, primarily modernised CAF Class 4000 (introduced 2011-2012) and Bombardier Class 3000 units for suburban duties, replacing older 80 and 450 Class stock withdrawn by 2012. These three-car sets, capable of 90 mph, prioritise reliability on mixed-traffic lines shared minimally with freight. Rolling stock investment under NITHCo focuses on accessibility and emissions reduction, though full electrification remains absent pending all-island strategic reviews. Freight, limited to bulk commodities like cement, is handled separately by operators accessing NIR infrastructure.^[44]^[51] Performance metrics emphasise cost recovery through fares and concessions, with NIR statutorily obliged to deliver efficient services under economy and safety mandates. Challenges include border dynamics affecting cross-border operations and vulnerability to industrial disputes, yet patronage growth pre-2020—reaching over 13 million annually—demonstrates viability of preserved lines amid road congestion. Future plans, informed by the 2024 All-Island Strategic Rail Review, propose network expansion to nearly 3,000 km island-wide, including NI reopenings like the Derry-Portadown link for enhanced connectivity.^[44]^[45]^[51]

Economic and Administrative Acronyms

Financial Reserves and Reporting

Net International Reserves (NIR), also known as net official international reserves, represent a country's external assets held by monetary authorities minus short-term liabilities to non-residents and other reserve-related liabilities.^[52] This metric is standardized under the International Monetary Fund's Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual, sixth edition (BPM6), to provide a consistent framework for assessing reserve adequacy and external vulnerability.^[52] NIR excludes certain assets not readily available for use, such as gold held for policy purposes, and deducts liabilities like foreign currency deposits from residents to reflect usable reserves for interventions or payments.^[52] In financial reporting, central banks compile NIR data monthly or quarterly, incorporating foreign exchange holdings, gold, Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) allocations, and IMF reserve positions as assets, offset by reserve liabilities such as foreign exchange swaps and forward contracts payable.^[53] For instance, the Bank of Jamaica reports NIR as net holdings of international reserves, including foreign assets and liabilities, to gauge the country's capacity to withstand external shocks.^[53] Similarly, Egypt's Central Bank defines NIR as external assets held abroad for precautionary and transactional purposes, reported to monitor balance-of-payments stability.^[54] These reports adhere to IMF guidelines, ensuring transparency in reserve composition and valuation at market prices.^[52] NIR serves as a critical indicator in economic policy, often expressed in months of import cover or relative to short-term debt, to evaluate a nation's liquidity buffer against capital outflows or currency pressures.^[55] Barbados's Central Bank, for example, adopted NIR reporting in 2018 alongside gross international reserves to better reflect usable reserves amid external sector assessments.^[55] Jamaica's NIR reached US$6.15 billion by August 2025, equivalent to elevated import coverage, underscoring its role in signaling fiscal resilience post-reforms.^[56] Discrepancies in NIR calculations across countries arise from varying inclusions of liabilities, but IMF standardization mitigates inconsistencies in global comparisons.^[52] Official reports from central banks, as primary sources, provide verifiable data, though interpretations of adequacy thresholds may vary by economic context without implying universal benchmarks.^[53]^[54]

Demographic and Statistical Terms

In demography, the natural increase rate (NIR), also termed the rate of natural increase, measures the percentage change in a population resulting from the difference between births and deaths, excluding net migration. It is calculated as NIR = (crude birth rate [CBR] - crude death rate [CDR]), where CBR and CDR are expressed per 1,000 population, yielding NIR per 1,000; for percentage terms, divide by 10 (e.g., CBR of 20 and CDR of 8 per 1,000 equals 1.2% NIR).^[57]^[58] This metric isolates endogenous growth drivers, enabling analysts to assess fertility and mortality dynamics without confounding factors like immigration.^[59] NIR plays a central role in population projections and the demographic transition model, where high initial NIR reflects pre-industrial high birth and death rates, transitioning to low NIR in mature stages with declining fertility.^[60] A NIR of approximately 0% aligns with population stability at replacement fertility (around 2.1 children per woman, accounting for mortality), though actual rates vary with life expectancy improvements.^[58] Positive NIR above 2% has historically fueled rapid expansion in developing regions, while sub-zero NIR—termed natural decrease—emerges in low-fertility societies like Japan and parts of Europe, where deaths exceed births due to aging structures and below-replacement total fertility rates (TFR).^[61] Globally, NIR peaked at roughly 2.1% in the late 1960s amid post-World War II baby booms and health advances, but has since fallen to about 1% by the early 21st century, driven by fertility declines from urbanization, education, and contraceptive access.^[62] In 2024, high-NIR countries include Niger (3.71%) and Angola (3.3%), concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa with elevated CBR above 30 per 1,000, while advanced economies often report negative values, such as -0.3% in Italy.^[63] These disparities underscore NIR's utility in forecasting resource demands, with sustained low or negative rates signaling potential labor shortages absent migration offsets.^[64]

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[56]
Jamaica's Net International Reserves (NIR) Continue to Increase
Sep 12, 2025 · Jamaica's Net International Reserves (NIR) climbed US$6.15Bn at the end of August 2025, reflecting a 22.9% increase compared to August 2024.
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2.10 KEY TERMS DEFINED – Introduction to Human Geography
Rate of natural increase: The crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. This rate excludes the effect of migration. Replacement level: The average number of ...
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2.4 Population Change – Introduction to Cultural Geography
A natural increase rate (NIR) is the percent a population will grow per year, excluding annual migration. Usually, an NIR of 2.1 is required to maintain or ...
[59]
Growth or Decline: Understanding How Populations Change
Mar 24, 2016 · The change in the population from births and deaths is often combined and referred to as natural increase or natural change. Populations grow or ...
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Population Growth Models - Biological Principles
Mathematically, the growth rate is the intrinsic rate of natural increase, a constant called r, for this population of size N. r is the birth rate b minus ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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As Births Diminish and Deaths Increase, Natural Decrease becomes ...
Natural decrease is the ultimate demographic consequence of population aging, low fertility, and a diminishing proportion of women of childbearing‐age. Once ...
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Natural population growth - Our World in Data
Natural population growth is the population increase determined by births and deaths. Migration flows are not taken into account.
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Natural Population Increase by Country 2025
India's current growth rate is 0.81 percent, and for the first time, China's rate has gone negative, meaning that the population is shrinking by 0.02 percent.
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State & County Terms and Definitions - U.S. Census Bureau
Oct 8, 2021 · Births minus deaths. The rate of natural increase expresses natural increase during a time period as a proportion of an area's population at the ...