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Fractionating column

A fractionating column is a vertical apparatus used in fractional distillation to separate liquid mixtures into their individual components based on differences in boiling points, achieving this through repeated cycles of vaporization and condensation that enhance separation efficiency beyond simple distillation.^[1] In operation, the column functions as a countercurrent contactor where vapor rises from a reboiler at the base, enriched with more volatile components, while a portion of condensed vapor—known as reflux—flows downward from a condenser at the top, promoting mass transfer and compositional changes across multiple equilibrium stages.^[2] These stages are provided by internal structures such as trays (e.g., sieve, valve, or bubble-cap types) or packing materials (random or structured), which increase the surface area for vapor-liquid interaction and determine the column's separating power, often quantified by the number of theoretical plates.^[1] The design and height of the column are tailored to the feed composition, desired product purities, and relative volatilities of the components, with industrial units reaching heights of up to 60 meters or more to handle large-scale processes.^[3] Fractionating columns are essential in chemical engineering for applications ranging from laboratory-scale purification of organic compounds to massive industrial operations, such as the refining of crude oil into fuels like gasoline and kerosene,^[4] or the separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen.^[5] In petroleum fractionation, for instance, a single column can process thousands of barrels per day, dividing the feed into multiple side streams based on carbon chain lengths and boiling ranges.^[1] Advances in column design, including dividing-wall configurations, continue to improve energy efficiency and throughput in these processes.^[6]

Principles of Fractional Distillation

Basic Concept and Purpose

A fractionating column is a vertical tube or vessel integrated into a distillation apparatus to enhance the separation of liquid mixtures by facilitating multiple vapor-liquid equilibrium stages./05:_Distillation/5.03:_Fractional_Distillation/5.3B:_Fractionating_Columns) Unlike simple distillation, which relies on a single vaporization-condensation cycle, the fractionating column allows for repeated cycles within its structure, enabling the isolation of components with greater purity, particularly those exhibiting close boiling points.^[7] In operation, the column functions by heating the mixture at the base, generating vapor that ascends through the column while encountering cooler surfaces where partial condensation occurs./05:_Distillation/5.03:_Fractional_Distillation/5.3B:_Fractionating_Columns) The condensed liquid, known as reflux, drips back downward, countercurrently contacting the rising vapor and promoting mass transfer that enriches the vapor phase with more volatile components and the liquid phase with less volatile ones./05:_Distillation/5.03:_Fractional_Distillation/5.3B:_Fractionating_Columns) This iterative enrichment process simulates numerous theoretical plates of separation, amplifying the effectiveness of distillation for complex mixtures./05:_Distillation/5.03:_Fractional_Distillation/5.3B:_Fractionating_Columns) The separation efficiency in a fractionating column depends on differences in relative volatility between components, which for ideal mixtures is governed by Raoult's law stating that the partial vapor pressure of each component is proportional to its mole fraction in the liquid phase./Equilibria/Physical_Equilibria/Raoults_Law_and_Ideal_Mixtures_of_Liquids) A representative application is the fractional distillation of an ethanol-water mixture, where the column enables production of high-purity ethanol (up to approximately 95.6% before azeotrope formation) from fermented solutions by exploiting ethanol's higher volatility relative to water./Equilibria/Physical_Equilibria/Fractional_Distillation_of_Non-ideal_Mixtures_(Azeotropes))

Thermodynamic Basis

The operation of a fractionating column relies on the thermodynamic principle of phase equilibrium between the liquid and vapor phases, where the compositions of the two phases differ due to varying volatilities of the components in a mixture. At equilibrium, the chemical potential of each component is equal in both phases, leading to a specific distribution governed by temperature and pressure. Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) is typically represented by equilibrium curves, such as x-y diagrams for binary mixtures, which plot the mole fraction of a component in the liquid phase (x) against that in the vapor phase (y), illustrating how the more volatile component enriches the vapor. These curves form the foundation for predicting separations in distillation processes.^[8] A key measure of separability in distillation is relative volatility (α), defined for a binary mixture as α = (y₁/x₁) / (y₂/x₂), where y₁ and x₁ are the vapor and liquid mole fractions of the more volatile component, and y₂ and x₂ are those of the less volatile component. This parameter quantifies the ease of separation, with values greater than 1 indicating feasible distillation; for ideal binary systems, α can be assumed constant, simplifying VLE relations to y = (α x) / [1 + (α - 1) x]. Relative volatility decreases with increasing temperature and varies with pressure, influencing column design.^[8] For non-ideal mixtures, deviations from ideal behavior are accounted for using Henry's law for dilute solutes, which states that the partial pressure of the solute (p_solute) is proportional to its liquid mole fraction (x_solute), or p_solute = H x_solute, where H is the Henry's law constant specific to the solute-solvent pair at a given temperature. In real systems, activity coefficients (γ) correct for liquid-phase non-idealities in the modified Raoult's law: y_i P = x_i γ_i P_i^sat, where P is total pressure, P_i^sat is the saturation vapor pressure, and γ ≠ 1 reflects molecular interactions, such as in ethanol-water mixtures where γ can exceed 6. Models like Wilson or NRTL estimate γ for multicomponent VLE.^[9]^[8] In binary distillation analysis, such as the McCabe-Thiele method, assumptions include constant molar overflow—where liquid and vapor flow rates remain constant in each section due to equal molar latent heats of vaporization—and ideal vapor-liquid behavior for simplified equilibrium data. These approximations enable graphical construction of operating lines but may require adjustments for energy balances in non-ideal cases.^[8] Design limits in distillation are defined by the minimum reflux ratio (R_min), the lowest liquid reflux rate allowing the desired separation with infinite stages, occurring when the operating line pinches the equilibrium curve, and total reflux (R = ∞), requiring the minimum number of stages but no product withdrawal. These bounds guide practical reflux selection, typically 1.1 to 1.5 times R_min for economic operation.^[10]

Types of Fractionating Columns

Laboratory Columns

Laboratory fractionating columns are compact devices employed in research and educational environments to perform fractional distillation on small volumes of liquid mixtures, typically operating in batch mode to achieve separations based on differences in boiling points. These columns facilitate repeated vaporization and condensation cycles within a confined space, enhancing purity for analytical and synthetic purposes. Unlike larger industrial setups, laboratory columns prioritize precision and visibility over high throughput, making them ideal for handling samples in the range of milliliters to a few liters.^[11] Common types include Vigreux columns, which feature indented borosilicate glass walls to increase surface area for vapor-liquid contact; packed columns filled with materials such as glass beads or helices to promote efficient reflux; and spinning band columns equipped with a rotating band for superior separation in demanding applications. Vigreux columns, typically 10-100 cm in height and 1-2 cm in diameter, provide moderate efficiency suitable for routine distillations, while packed variants enhance performance through random or structured fillings that minimize channeling. Spinning band columns, often with a narrow bore around 8 mm, excel in ultra-pure isolations by mechanically agitating the vapor phase to achieve over 100 theoretical plates, enabling the breaking of azeotropes that resist simpler methods. All are predominantly constructed from borosilicate glass for its thermal shock resistance, chemical inertness, and transparency, allowing visual monitoring of the distillation process.^[12]^[13] In practice, these columns support batch operations in analytical chemistry and organic synthesis, such as purifying solvents like ethanol or diethyl ether from impurities, or separating structural isomers with close boiling points, such as ortho- and para-xylene derivatives. The process involves heating a mixture in a flask, allowing vapors to rise through the column where partial condensation occurs, and collecting distilled fractions in a receiver. Advantages include their low cost—often under a few hundred dollars per unit—and ease of setup in standard lab benches, requiring minimal specialized equipment beyond a heating mantle and condenser. However, limitations arise from restricted throughput, typically processing only 50-500 mL per run, and reduced efficiency for mixtures with wide boiling point ranges, where hold-up in the column can lead to product loss and longer operation times compared to continuous systems.^[11]^[14]^[15]

Industrial Columns

Industrial fractionating columns are engineered for large-scale, continuous processing in manufacturing facilities, enabling the separation of complex liquid mixtures into valuable products. These columns primarily utilize two types: tray columns and packed columns, each optimized for high-capacity operations. Tray columns employ horizontal plates such as bubble-cap trays, which feature caps to direct vapor through liquid for intimate contact; sieve trays, consisting of perforated plates for cost-effective vapor passage; and valve trays, with adjustable valves to accommodate varying flow rates and enhance efficiency.^[16]^[17] Packed columns, on the other hand, are filled with random packing—such as rings or saddles dumped into the column for increased surface area—or structured packing, like corrugated sheets or mesh arranged in precise layers to promote uniform vapor-liquid distribution and minimize pressure drop in demanding industrial settings.^[16]^[17] In terms of scale, industrial columns typically range from diameters of 0.5 to 10 meters and heights up to 60 meters, allowing for the handling of massive throughput volumes while maintaining structural integrity.^[18]^[19] Materials of construction prioritize corrosion resistance, with stainless steel and specialized alloys commonly used to withstand aggressive chemical environments, high temperatures, and pressures encountered in continuous service.^[17]^[20] These robust designs support operational modes involving continuous feed introduction at the midpoint and simultaneous withdrawal of products from multiple sidestreams, overhead vapor, and bottoms, as exemplified by crude oil atmospheric distillation towers where preheated feedstock enters a vertical column to yield fractions like naphtha, kerosene, and diesel through ongoing vaporization and condensation.^[21]^[22] Energy efficiency remains a critical focus in industrial column design, as these units account for 40-50% of the total energy consumption in chemical plants due to the intensive heating and cooling required for vapor-liquid equilibrium.^[23]^[24] To mitigate this, integration with heat pumps and advanced heat exchange systems—such as direct vapor-liquid heat transfer enhancements—can reduce energy demands by up to 64% compared to conventional setups, promoting sustainability in large-scale operations.^[25] In petrochemical applications, these columns are essential for separating naphtha reformate into aromatic components like benzene and toluene, often using thermally coupled configurations to achieve high-purity outputs with minimized energy use.^[26]

Design and Components

Packing and Tray Types

Fractionating columns employ internal structures known as trays or packings to promote intimate contact between ascending vapor and descending liquid phases, enabling repeated vaporization and condensation cycles essential for separation. Trays consist of horizontal plates installed at regular intervals within the column, while packings fill the column volume to create a continuous contact surface. These components are selected based on the desired efficiency, capacity, and operational flexibility of the distillation process.

Tray Types

Bubble-cap trays, one of the earliest designs dating back to the 19th century, feature risers on each hole covered by inverted caps that direct vapor through the liquid layer on the tray, ensuring bubble formation and preventing liquid leakage or weeping even at low vapor rates.^[27] These trays offer high efficiency and excellent turndown ratios, making them suitable for applications with variable vapor loads, but their complex fabrication results in high costs—typically 2–3 times that of simpler alternatives—and increased labor for installation.^[27] Despite their historical significance, bubble-cap trays are now infrequently used in modern industrial settings due to these economic drawbacks, though they remain viable for niche low-liquid-rate operations.^[27] Sieve trays, also known as perforated trays, represent a cost-effective modern option where round holes are punched or drilled into a flat deck, allowing vapor to pass upward through the liquid held on the tray.^[27] Their simplicity enables low production costs and ease of manufacturing, but they exhibit limited flexibility, with reduced capacity and higher entrainment at low vapor flowrates, and are more prone to weeping compared to advanced designs.^[27] Sieve trays are widely adopted in large-diameter industrial columns for their balance of efficiency and economy, particularly in high-throughput applications where fouling resistance is not a primary concern.^[27] Valve trays provide enhanced operational flexibility through adjustable openings that respond to vapor flow; fixed valve trays maintain permanent perforations for reliable performance, while moving valve trays feature liftable elements that open wider with increasing vapor velocity, achieving turndown ratios up to 4:1 or even 10:1 in optimized designs.^[27] This adaptability improves efficiency over sieve trays by deflecting vapor for better liquid-vapor mixing, though moving valves can suffer from fouling, erosion, and sticking in contaminated feeds, while fixed valves offer superior robustness and resistance to these issues at a moderate cost.^[27] Valve trays are prevalent in contemporary petrochemical distillations for their versatility in handling varying loads without significant efficiency loss.^[27]

Packing Types

Random packings, such as Raschig rings and Pall rings, are irregularly shaped elements—cylindrical for Raschig rings (with height equal to diameter) and slotted for Pall rings—dumped randomly into the column to provide uniform liquid distribution and high surface area for mass transfer.^[28] Raschig rings, the oldest type, offer basic performance but higher pressure drops, whereas Pall rings improve on this with internal cuts that enhance capacity and reduce pressure drop by promoting better flow dynamics.^[28] These packings are favored in applications requiring cost-effective filling of smaller columns, though their random orientation can lead to channeling if not properly distributed.^[28] Structured packings consist of orderly arranged corrugated sheets or meshes, often bundled in layers with perforations to facilitate uniform vapor-liquid flow and minimize channeling.^[28] Designs like Y-type or X-type configurations provide significantly lower pressure drops—approximately half that of random packings at equivalent surface areas—making them ideal for vacuum distillations or energy-sensitive processes.^[28] Their engineered geometry ensures predictable hydraulics and higher efficiency in large-scale operations, though they require precise installation to maintain performance.^[28]

Design Factors

Key design considerations for both trays and packings include the provision of sufficient surface area to maximize mass transfer rates between phases, with higher areas correlating directly to improved separation efficiency in the column.^[29] Liquid holdup, the volume of liquid retained within the internals, influences residence time and structural loading, necessitating calculations to ensure adequate drainage and prevent excessive buildup that could impair flow.^[29] Flooding limits represent the critical upper boundary of operation, where rising vapor entrains liquid and causes pressure surges; designs typically target 70% of this limit to maintain stable performance and avoid operational disruptions.^[29]

Materials

Materials for trays and packings are selected primarily for compatibility with process conditions, including corrosiveness of the fluids and operating temperatures; metals like stainless steel provide durability and corrosion resistance in aggressive environments, while ceramics excel in high-temperature, highly corrosive settings where plastics would degrade.^[16] Plastics offer lightweight, economical options for mild conditions but suffer from poor wettability and thermal limits, restricting their use to low-pressure, non-corrosive applications.^[16] The height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) serves as a metric for comparing internals, typically ranging from 0.1 to 1 meter for trays depending on spacing and efficiency, while advanced packings achieve lower values—often 0.2 to 0.5 meters—for enhanced separation per unit height in hydrocarbon systems.^[30]

Efficiency Metrics

The efficiency of a fractionating column is quantified through the concept of theoretical plates, which represent hypothetical equilibrium stages required to achieve a specified separation. The number of theoretical plates, denoted as N, indicates the minimum number of vapor-liquid equilibrium contacts needed to separate a binary mixture from a given feed composition to desired distillate and bottoms purities. This ideal metric assumes perfect equilibrium at each stage and total reflux conditions for the minimum calculation.^[31] Under total reflux, where no product is withdrawn and all condensate returns to the column, the Fenske equation provides the minimum number of theoretical plates N_{\min} for binary distillation:

N_{\min} = \frac{\log \left[ \frac{x_D / (1 - x_D)}{x_B / (1 - x_B)} \right]}{\log \alpha}

Here, x_D and x_B are the mole fractions of the more volatile component in the distillate and bottoms, respectively, and \alpha is the relative volatility, assumed constant. This equation derives from successive application of the relative volatility definition across stages and is particularly useful for preliminary design estimates in systems with constant \alpha.^[31] For practical design at finite reflux ratios, the McCabe-Thiele method employs graphical construction on a vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) diagram to determine the actual number of theoretical plates. The method plots the 45-degree equilibrium line from VLE data and constructs operating lines for the rectifying and stripping sections, intersecting at the q-line that represents the feed condition (where q is the thermal condition of the feed, ranging from 0 for saturated vapor to 1 for saturated liquid). Stepping off stages between the operating and equilibrium lines yields the required N, accounting for reflux ratio and feed location to minimize energy use while achieving separation targets. This approach is limited to binary systems but provides intuitive visualization of trade-offs between stages and reflux.^[32] In packed columns, where continuous contact occurs without discrete trays, efficiency is assessed using the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP), defined as HETP = H / N, with H as the packing height and N as the number of theoretical plates achieved. Lower HETP values indicate higher efficiency, as less height is needed per equilibrium stage; typical values range from 0.3 to 1 meter depending on packing type and system properties. Complementing HETP, the number of transfer units (NTU) and height of a transfer unit (HTU) framework models mass transfer rates directly, where column height H = HTU \times NTU, with NTU integrating the driving force over composition changes. This rate-based approach is more fundamental for non-equilibrium conditions in packed beds. Real column efficiency deviates from ideal due to hydraulic limitations in trayed designs, including entrainment (liquid droplets carried upward by vapor, reducing effective separation) and weeping (liquid leaking through tray perforations to the tray below, bypassing contact). Entrainment increases with high vapor velocities and can significantly lower tray efficiency in severe cases, while weeping occurs at low liquid loads, causing unstable operation and notable efficiency reductions. To account for these, the Murphree tray efficiency E_{MV} measures departure from equilibrium for a single tray:

E_{MV} = \frac{y_n - y_{n+1}}{y_n^* - y_{n+1}}

where y_n is the actual vapor composition leaving tray n, y_{n+1} is the vapor entering, and y_n^* is the equilibrium composition with the leaving liquid. Values below 1 reflect non-idealities like entrainment and weeping, guiding adjustments in tray design for overall column performance.^[33] Modern efficiency prediction relies on process simulation software such as Aspen Plus, which integrates rigorous models of VLE, hydraulics, and mass transfer to forecast HETP, NTU, and tray efficiencies under varying conditions, enabling optimization without physical prototyping.^[34]

Operation and Control

Startup and Reflux Management

The startup of a fractionating column begins with filling the column sump or reboiler with feed liquid to an appropriate level, typically 75-90% capacity, to prevent overflow or dry operation while establishing initial liquid holdup. The reboiler is then heated gradually, often starting with a nitrogen purge to remove inert gases, increasing the temperature in controlled steps (e.g., from ambient to operational levels like 140°C over 1-2 hours) to generate vapor flow upward through the column. Once vapor reaches the condenser, total reflux is initiated by returning all condensed liquid to the column via an external reflux line, allowing the establishment of a liquid-vapor equilibrium profile without product withdrawal; this phase typically lasts until temperature gradients stabilize, avoiding sudden flooding caused by excessive liquid accumulation. Gradual introduction of reflux prevents hydraulic instabilities, with product streams (distillate and bottoms) only opened once the column reaches near-steady state to maintain mass balance.^[35] Reflux management is central to startup, defined by the reflux ratio R = L/D, where L is the liquid reflux flow rate and D is the distillate product flow rate. Optimal ratios during operation and startup typically range from 1 to 5, balancing separation purity against energy consumption; values below the minimum reflux lead to a "pinch" condition where composition profiles touch the equilibrium curve, preventing further enrichment. External reflux, the standard mechanism, involves partial vapor condensation in an overhead condenser followed by pumping a portion of the liquid back to the column top, while internal reflux arises from partial condensation within the column due to heat losses or design features like pumparounds, enhancing liquid downflow without external equipment. Proper reflux control during startup minimizes off-spec products, with optimized strategies reducing waste by up to 34% compared to conventional methods.^[36]^[35] Challenges during startup include initial instability from uneven vapor-liquid distribution and transient temperature gradients that can cause flooding or dry trays, prolonging the time to reach steady state (typically several hours to days). Automated valves, integrated with composition sensors such as online analyzers or inferred from temperature profiles, dynamically adjust reflux flow during startup to maintain target compositions, enabling precise control via PLC/SCADA systems for faster stabilization. This reflux management directly impacts overall column efficiency by establishing effective theoretical stages early in operation.^[35]^[37]

Monitoring and Optimization

Effective monitoring of fractionating columns is essential for maintaining separation efficiency and detecting deviations from optimal performance. Temperature profiles along the column height are routinely measured using thermocouples or resistance temperature detectors placed at multiple trays or packing sections to track the composition gradient and identify anomalies such as hot spots or excessive reflux.^[38] Pressure drop measurements across trays or packing beds, obtained via differential pressure transmitters, provide insights into hydraulic conditions, including flooding or dry-out risks, as a steady increase may signal liquid buildup.^[39] Online analyzers, such as gas chromatography (GC) for precise compositional analysis of overhead and bottoms streams, and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy for real-time hydrocarbon identification, enable continuous feedback on product purity without disrupting operations.^[40]^[41] Optimization strategies focus on dynamic adjustments to enhance energy efficiency and product yields during steady-state operation. The feed tray location can be optimized by simulating or empirical tuning to minimize entropy generation, often shifting it based on feed composition changes to improve separation sharpness.^[42] In multi-product columns, side draws are adjusted in volume and position to extract intermediate streams with high purity, reducing the need for additional downstream processing.^[25] Energy recovery through heat integration, such as installing side heat exchangers between rectifying and stripping sections, recovers heat from hotter streams to preheat colder ones, potentially lowering overall utility consumption by up to 42%.^[43] Common operational issues in fractionating columns include foaming, which reduces tray efficiency by entraining liquid into the vapor phase, and channeling in packed columns, where uneven liquid distribution bypasses contact zones, leading to poor mass transfer.^[44] These problems are diagnosed using gamma scanning, a non-invasive technique that employs a gamma ray source and detector to map density variations, revealing tray damage, foaming heights, or channeling paths with high resolution during online operation.^[45] Gamma scanning quantifies tray efficiency by identifying active area coverage due to maldistribution in affected sections.^[46] Advanced control systems ensure stable operation by integrating sensors with automated responses. Distributed Control Systems (DCS) oversee the entire column, collecting data from temperature, pressure, and flow instruments to coordinate actions across units.^[39] Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) loops within the DCS regulate reflux ratios by modulating condenser cooling and reboiler heat input, maintaining setpoints for top and bottom compositions with response times under minutes.^[38] These systems reference basic reflux management to balance vapor-liquid traffic without overcorrecting disturbances.^[47] Since the 2020s, AI-based predictive maintenance has emerged as a key tool in refineries, using machine learning models trained on historical sensor data to forecast equipment failures in fractionating columns, thereby reducing unplanned downtime by 20-30%.^[48]

Applications

Petroleum and Chemical Industries

In the petroleum refining industry, fractionating columns are essential for the initial separation of crude oil into valuable products through atmospheric and vacuum distillation processes. Atmospheric distillation towers operate at near-ambient pressure, heating crude oil to around 350–400°C to vaporize components, which then condense on successive trays based on boiling points, yielding fractions such as light gases, naphtha (precursor to gasoline), kerosene, diesel, and heavier residues. These towers typically feature 30–50 fractionation trays to achieve effective separation of lighter fractions like naphtha and kerosene, with side strippers containing 4–10 additional trays to remove entrained light ends from heavier streams. Vacuum distillation follows for the atmospheric residue, reducing pressure to 25–40 mmHg to distill heavier components like vacuum gas oil without thermal cracking, producing lubricants and feedstocks for further processing.^[21] Fractionating columns also play a critical role in the chemical industry for purifying monomers and other intermediates. In ethylene production from steam crackers, a series of cryogenic distillation columns—such as demethanizers, deethanizers, and C2 splitters—separate cracked gases at pressures of 32–38 bar and low temperatures, isolating high-purity ethylene (over 99.9%) from ethane, methane, and heavier hydrocarbons in the overhead product. For challenging separations like acids, azeotropic distillation in fractionating columns addresses mixtures forming constant-boiling azeotropes, as seen in nitric acid-water systems; distilling dilute nitric acid (below 68 wt%) yields pure water overhead while leaving the azeotrope (68 wt% acid at 120.5°C) in the bottoms, enabling production of concentrated acid beyond the azeotrope limit.^[49]^[50] Multi-component separations in these industries often employ sidestream withdrawals to enhance efficiency in fractionating columns handling complex hydrocarbon mixtures. In petroleum refining, side draws from intermediate trays collect products like kerosene or diesel while minimizing remixing, with steam stripping in attached columns to purify streams; this configuration reduces the need for multiple units, as demonstrated in designs for ternary petroleum mixtures where a single column with side extraction separates intermediates effectively. Globally, thousands of such fractionating columns support the refining capacity of approximately 103 million barrels per day as of 2025, forming the backbone of petrochemical production.^[51]^[52] Recent environmental adaptations have integrated carbon capture technologies into refinery fractionating column operations to lower emissions, particularly post-2020 amid decarbonization efforts. Post-combustion capture systems, such as amine-based absorption, can be retrofitted to flue gases from column reboilers and heat exchangers, achieving over 90% CO2 removal while maintaining process efficiency; optimization models show cost-effective integration in crude distillation units, reducing overall refinery emissions by 20–50% depending on scale. In biofuel production, fractionating columns have facilitated bio-oil upgrading since the 2010s, distilling pyrolysis-derived bio-oils from biomass like açaí seeds into fuel-like fractions—such as gasoline-range (80–175°C, 16 wt% yield) and kerosene-range (175–215°C, 61 wt% combined)—with hydrocarbon contents up to 66 area%, improving stability and compatibility for blending into conventional fuels.^[53]^[54]

Other Industrial Uses

In the pharmaceutical industry, fractionating columns are essential for isolating active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and purifying solvents during synthesis processes, ensuring high purity levels required for drug production.^[55] These columns, often designed as batch or continuous systems, enable the separation of complex mixtures by leveraging differences in boiling points, such as in the recovery of solvents from reaction mixtures in API manufacturing.^[55] To comply with Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) standards, pharmaceutical fractionating columns incorporate materials and designs that prevent contamination and facilitate validation, including stainless steel construction and automated controls for precise temperature and pressure management.^[56] Fractionating columns also play a key role in food and beverage processing, particularly in distilling spirits like whiskey, where column stills perform rectification to separate ethanol from congeners and achieve desired flavor profiles.^[57] In essential oil production, vacuum fractional distillation separates volatile compounds from plant extracts, yielding purified fractions for use as natural flavorings in the food industry, such as rosemary or lemongrass oils rich in antimicrobial terpenes.^[58] For beer production, stripping columns remove ethanol and volatiles from spent wash, with historical applications including ethanol recovery from fusel oils—a byproduct containing higher alcohols—via fractional distillation in industrial brewing since the early 1900s to improve efficiency and reduce waste.^[59] Beyond these sectors, cryogenic fractionating columns are employed in air separation units to produce high-purity oxygen and nitrogen by distilling liquefied air at low temperatures, typically using multi-column setups for industrial gases.^[60] In wastewater treatment, steam-stripping columns facilitate the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from contaminated water, achieving up to 99% removal efficiency for compounds like benzene through countercurrent vapor-liquid contact. Specialized adaptations, such as reactive distillation columns, integrate chemical reactions with separation in a single unit, enhancing efficiency in processes like esterification for pharmaceutical intermediates by simultaneously driving equilibrium-limited reactions and removing products.^[61] This approach reduces energy use and equipment footprint compared to traditional sequential reaction-separation setups.^[62]

History and Development

Early Inventions

The origins of fractionating column technology trace back to the early 19th century, with rudimentary rectifiers emerging in industrial distillation processes. In Scotland, the first industrial applications appeared around the 1820s in whisky production, where Robert Stein developed a continuous column still patented in 1828 and implemented at the Kirkliston distillery near Edinburgh. This device, known as the Stein Patent Still, incorporated basic fractionation elements to enhance separation efficiency over traditional pot stills, marking an initial step toward multi-stage vapor-liquid contact in distillation. Aeneas Coffey later improved upon this design with his 1830 patent for a more efficient continuous column still, which became widely adopted in the spirits industry.^[63]^[64] By the mid-19th century, precursors to modern fractionating columns included dephlegmators, which partially condensed vapors to improve rectification. Specific attributions to individual inventors in this period remain sparsely documented, but these devices laid foundational principles for selective vapor enrichment. Theoretical advancements followed in the early 20th century, with Lord Rayleigh's 1902 paper providing the first mathematical framework for batch distillation of binary mixtures, deriving an equation that described compositional changes during differential vapor removal. This analysis, known as the Rayleigh equation, established key concepts for understanding fractionation dynamics in simple distillation setups.^[65] Key developments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries focused on column internals for better efficiency. In the 1890s, Sydney Young advanced packed columns for alcohol rectification, using materials like glass beads to increase surface area for vapor-liquid interactions, as detailed in his studies on petroleum fractions and absolute alcohol production. These designs enabled precise separations of close-boiling liquids. Henri Vigreux contributed in 1908 with his indented column, featuring helical grooves along the glass tube to promote reflux and fractionation without packing, patented as a laboratory-scale innovation for organic compound purification.^[66]^[67] Industrial applications expanded post-1890s in oil refining, where simple fractionating columns separated cracked products. William Merriam Burton's thermal cracking process, patented in 1913, utilized such columns to convert heavy petroleum fractions into gasoline at high temperatures (700–750°F) and pressures (90 psi), doubling yields and spurring widespread adoption in refineries like Standard Oil's Whiting facility. By the 1920s, bubble-cap trays were introduced as a major enhancement, featuring risers and caps to disperse vapor through liquid, dominating trayed column designs for their reliability in handling varying loads.^[68]^[69]

Modern Advancements

Since the 1960s, advancements in materials for fractionating columns have focused on enhancing corrosion resistance for handling aggressive chemical feeds, with the development of nickel-based alloys such as Hastelloy C-276, which offers superior protection against oxidizing and reducing environments in distillation processes.^[70] These alloys have enabled reliable operation in corrosive applications like acetic acid production, where high-alloy materials are used in column construction to prevent degradation.^[71] Design innovations in the post-1950 era include structured packings, exemplified by Sulzer's Mellapak introduced in the late 1970s, which provide uniform flow distribution and significantly lower height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) values compared to traditional random packings, often reducing required column heights by 20-30% for equivalent separations.^[72] Building on this, divided wall columns emerged in the 1980s with the first industrial implementation by BASF in 1985, integrating multiple distillation stages within a single shell to achieve energy savings of 30-50% over conventional sequences by minimizing remixing of components.^[73]^[74] The transition to computational tools marked a major leap, shifting from graphical methods like McCabe-Thiele to rigorous process simulations with software such as Aspen Plus, first released in 1982, which allows detailed modeling of vapor-liquid equilibria and column dynamics for optimized design and operation.^[75] In the sustainability domain post-2010, electrically heated fractionating columns have gained traction for decarbonization, enabling direct electrification of heat duties to replace fossil fuel-based reboilers and reduce CO2 emissions in line with renewable energy integration.^[76] Concurrently, AI-driven optimization, such as deep deterministic policy gradient methods applied to purification processes, has demonstrated energy reductions of around 13% by fine-tuning operating parameters in real time.^[77] Since the 2000s, fractionating columns have been increasingly integrated into biorefineries for sustainable fuel production, such as upgrading bio-oils and fermentative products into drop-in fuels like sustainable aviation kerosene through fractionation steps that enhance yield and purity.^[78]

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[PDF] Calculation of the minimum reflux ratio Underwood and Fenske ...
Firstly that the minimum number of plates is required for a given separation at conditions of total reflux, and secondly that there is a minimum reflux ratio ...
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[PDF] Purification of Laboratory Chemicals, Sixth Edition - Neilson Lab
To help in applying this information, two chapters describe the more common processes currently used for purification in chemical laboratories and give fuller ...
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VIGREUX COLUMNS - POBEL
Vigreux columns are commonly made from borosilicate glass, a material resistant to thermal shock and chemical corrosion. This is crucial, as they are exposed to ...
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Spinning band distillation of biomass pyrolysis oil phenolics to ...
To further improve separation, we utilized a spinning band column distillation system, designed to perform at 200 theoretical plates. Catalytic (HZSM-5) ...
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Batch Distillation Column Operation & Controls - ChemEnggHelp
Batch distillation column requires lower fixed cost and provide higher operational flexibilities. However, batch distillation columns consume more energy.
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Batch vs. Continuous Distillation - COSTELLO
Dec 8, 2016 · The biggest advantage of batch processing is that it provides a large amount of flexibility. A single system will handle a wide variety of ...Missing: laboratory fractionating
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Distillation Columns
Apr 5, 2022 · Suitable for low-pressure operations. Disadvantages. Packing can break during installation, or due to thermal expansion. Not cost-efficient ...Missing: laboratory fractionating
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Distillation Column: Key Components and Functions - NeoNickel
A distillation column is a critical piece of equipment used primarily in the chemical processing industry to separate mixtures into their parts or fractions.
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(PDF) Distillation Equipment and Processes - Academia.edu
This can also happen on smaller-diameter trays, like 3.0 m diameter ... up to 10 m are equipped with random packings [1]. Applications of this kind, using ...<|separator|>
[18]
Distillation Columns and Towers | Request PDF - ResearchGate
... up of a series of stacked round trays with a diameter of up to six meters and a total height of up to 60 meters. The interiors of these columns require ...
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Materials of construction - processdesign
Feb 22, 2016 · Stainless steels are well known for the resistance to corrosion, making them highly applicable in the world of chemical processing wherein ...
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Atmospheric Distillation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In atmospheric distillation, the desalted crude is heated in a heat exchanger and furnace to approximately 750°F then fed to a vertical distillation column ...
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Distillation in the oil & gas industry - Refining - KROHNE Group
Typically the distillation column will be run in a continuous steady state, controlled by crude oil distillation instrumentation: here flow measurement and the ...
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[PDF] ITP Chemicals: Distillation Column Modeling Tools - eere.energy.gov
Distillation is a low thermal efficiency unit operation that currently consumes 4.8 quadrillion BTUs of energy—40% of the processing energy used in refining ...
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[PDF] Optimize Energy Use in Distillation | Emerson
than 40,000 distillation columns in North America, and that they consume about 40% of the total energy used to operate plants in the refining and bulk chemical ...
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Energy-Efficient Distillation Processes by Additional Heat Transfer ...
Jul 2, 2020 · However, distillation columns account for the largest contribution to the total energy consumption of chemical processes due to their high heat ...
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Industrial application of an extended fully thermally coupled ...
Aromatic compounds are yielded from naphtha reforming in a petrochemical plant, and the products are separated with binary distillation columns for benzene.
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Consider Moving to Fixed Valves - AIChE
△ Figure 2. A bubble-cap tray has risers on each hole with caps covering the risers. · △ Figure 3. Sieve trays have round holes punched or drilled into the tray.
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[PDF] Optimize Distillation Columns
This article will address the following op- timization goals: (1) maximizing theoretical stages per height of section or column, (2) minimizing pressure drop ...
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[PDF] ENGINEERING-DESIGN-GUIDELINES-distillation-column-packing ...
The higher surface area, the more efficiency packing. Packing factors are indicators of capacity. The lower packing factors, the higher capacity. 1. Random ...
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Rules of Thumb: Distillation - Features - The Chemical Engineer
Feb 1, 2024 · HETP = 93 / ap metal random packings, 1 in or larger. HETP = 100 / ap + 0.1 Y-type or 3rd generation structured packings. HETP = 145 / ap + ...
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[PDF] Fractionation of Straight-Run Pennsylvania Gasoline
M. R. Fenske, School of Chemistry and Physics, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. During the past ...
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[PDF] Graphical Design of Fractionating Columns
A rapid and accurate graphical method is described for computing the theoretical number of plates re- quired in a column for performing a given separation of a ...
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Predict Distillation Tray Efficiency - AIChE
The topmost tray has the highest concentration of the more-volatile species and the lowest tray has the highest concentration of the less-volatile species.<|separator|>
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Distillation Modeling in Aspen Plus
Accurately model distillation columns using robust column design to maximize reliability over a wide range of operating conditions.
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[PDF] Optimal Start-up Strategies for a Conventional Distillation Column ...
The distillation start-up steps were divided into the following four parts for investigation: feed control, bottom product discharge time, total reflux switch ...
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Column - processdesign - Chemical Process Design Open Textbook
Feb 21, 2016 · According to Towler, a reflux ratio of 1.15 times the minimum reflux ratio should be used as a first approximation. Once this ratio is inputted ...
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An Automated Control of Distillation Column using PLC and SCADA ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The entire system is been controlled by PLC and SCADA. By continuous distillation column temperature, pressure, flow and level are been measured and controlled ...
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[PDF] Distillation Control, Optimization, and Tuning
This chapter presented a concept drawing of a distillation process that included flow rate sensors, liquid level sensors, temperature sensors, and process ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] DISTILLATION CONTROL & OPTIMIZATION - Engineering.com
Top: Distillate composition can be controlled by a cascade temperature master on the upper part of the column, which ma- nipulates the reflux flow L. Bottom: ...
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Use Quantitative Gamma Scans to Troubleshoot Maldistribution on ...
Quantitative, multichordal gamma-scan analysis is invaluable for diagnosing maldistribution and channeling in distillation columns.Missing: fractionating foaming
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[PDF] Optimization of Distillation Processes. Abstract Keywords Introduction
Fenske, M.R., Fractionation of Straight-Run Pennsylvania Gasoline. Industrial. & Engineering Chemistry, 1932. 24(5): p. 482-485. 35. Gilliland, E.R. ...<|separator|>
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Electrifying distillation − Optimization-based evaluation of internally ...
Jul 8, 2025 · We propose two novel superstructure models for optimal design, that allow for heat exchange between stages at the same height or arbitrary stages.Missing: draws credible
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Gamma scanning fractionators - DigitalRefining
Many problems can cause a loss of efficiency in a distillation column, but one of the most common is flooding. Determining the exact location and cause of the ...
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Which Problems Can Gamma Scans Detect? Scantech 1
Apr 28, 2016 · Gamma scans detect tray damage, flooding, weeping, and foaming issues in packed trays and towers.
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[PDF] Trouble Shooting Of Column Operation Using Gamma Scanning ...
Gamma scanning uses gamma rays to measure material density inside columns, detecting issues like tray dislodgement, and is a non-intrusive method for ...
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Distillation Column Control Basics – Part 1
Dec 11, 2014 · In this 3-part series on distillation column control basics, we'll look at traditional control and modern approaches to improve control robustness.Missing: fractionating DCS PID
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[PDF] ai driven predictive maintenance in petroleum and power systems ...
Aug 30, 2025 · This study systematically reviews the application of artificial intelligence (AI)- driven predictive maintenance in petroleum and power systems, ...
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[PDF] Ethylene Production - Emerson Global
D Primary fractionator: With liquid pyrolysis feedstocks (naphtha fed plants), the primary fractionation column is the first step in the cracked gas processing ...
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https://researchinnovationjournal.com/index.php/AJSRI/article/download/66/55
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Design of Side-Stream Azeotropic Distillation Columns - ScienceDirect
Distillation columns with sidestreams can be applied for separation of any zeotropic multicomponent mixture into three or more products.
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Oil refinery - Wikipedia
In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day. Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling ...
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Optimal Retrofit of Carbon Capture and Electrification Technologies ...
May 11, 2025 · In this study, we develop a mixed-integer linear programming formulation to determine the most cost-effective transition for the decarbonization of oil ...
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On the Integration of CO2 Capture Technologies for an Oil Refinery
This study determines and presents the capital and operating costs imposed by the use of CO2 capture technologies in the refining and petrochemical sectors.
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Production of Fuel-Like Fractions by Fractional Distillation of Bio-Oil ...
The bio-oil was obtained in pilot scale, fractionated by distillation to produce biofuel-like fractions. The distillation of bio-oil was carried out in a ...
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1 – Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API)
Apr 13, 2022 · Batch, flash, and fractional distillation columns are used in API processing. In batch distillation, the composition of the material inside the ...
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Packed and tray columns for distillation, absorption, and extraction
Ensures compliance in regulated industries through GMP and chemical-resistant material options. Customizable design supports diverse application needs ...Missing: fractionating | Show results with:fractionating
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How Booze is Made: The Basics of Column Distillation - Serious Eats
Column stills can distill proofs as high as the 190s, or 95% ABV. Bourbon, brandy, and other spirits, though, are not generally distilled to such high proofs. ...
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https://www.seriouseats.com/how-column-distillation-works-what-is-a-column-still
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The Principal Features of Stripping Stills | Distiller Magazine
Nov 20, 2020 · Stripping is the process used to separate the alcohol from the water in grain fermentation's “beer,” or in the case of molasses, “dead wash.”
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Air Separation - MATHESON
Air separation produces nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Cryogenic methods use a four-column system, while non-cryogenic methods use physical property differences.
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Recent Advances in Reactive Distillation - MDPI
Oct 26, 2023 · Reactive distillation (RD) combines chemical reactions and separation in a single unit essential to equilibrium-limited reactions.
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Reactive distillation: The front-runner of industrial process ...
Reactive distillation, also called catalytic distillation, can be considered as reaction and distillation combined into one new unit operation. Distillation ...
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Aeneas Coffey - Whisky heroes
Sep 11, 2018 · In January 1828, the Excise authorised trials of Stein's patent still at Kirkliston distillery, near Edinburgh, but these were not undertaken ...
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Haig Whisky & Jameson - History of the Whisky Cousins
In 1828, Robert Stein refined an early column still design first developed in 1822 by Cork man Sir Antony Perrier and called it the Stein Patent Still. He ...
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[PDF] LIX. On the distillation of binary mixtures - Zenodo
Apr 15, 2009 · Lord Rayleigh O.M.F.R.S.. Version of record first published: 15 Apr 2009. To cite this article: Lord Rayleigh O.M.F.R.S. (1902): LIX. On the ...
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Sidney Young - ScienceDirect.com
In the original patent it was described as a kind of “warmth exchanger made of two columns called respectively the analyzer and the rectifier”. The Coffey ...Missing: packed rectification
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[PDF] EPONYMS IN LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
The most commonly used of the other types of column is the. Vigreux column from 1908 (ref.129), designed by the. French glassmaker Henri Narcisse Vigreux (1869− ...
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Thermal cracking | chemical process - Britannica
Burton's thermal cracking process, patented in 1913, used high temperatures at high pressures to “crack,” or break down, heavier hydrocarbons into lighter ...
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[PDF] Title Goes Here
A summary of Jim Fair's work [2] indicates that the majority of distillation tray applications in the 1920's were bubble cap type with some perforated plates ( ...
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Introduction of Hastelloys of the "B", "G" and "C" Families and Their ...
Sep 18, 2018 · The latter half of 20th century witnesses great development of the corrosion-resistant Hastelloys, such as alloy C-276 in the 1960s, alloy C-4 ...Missing: distillation columns<|separator|>
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[PDF] corrosion resistance of nickel-containing alloys in organic acids and ...
distillation columns of the acetaldehyde-to-acetic acid process were constructed of these high alloy wrought materials and many of the required pumps were ...
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[PDF] HETP Evaluation of Structured and Randomic Packing Distillation ...
Nov 4, 2011 · Introduction. Packed columns are equipment commonly found in absorption, distillation, stripping, heat exchangers and other operations, ...
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[PDF] Divided Wall Columns: Usefulness and Challenges - Aidic
Distillation systems are responsible for the highest amount of energy consumption in the chemical industry. Therefore, in recent years, fully thermally ...
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[PDF] Divided Wall Columns: Usefulness and Challenges
In doing so, savings in capital expenditure, space, and energy of up 30 to 50% are possible. It must be mentioned, that at the same time flexibility is ...
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Aspen Technology History | Industrial AI + Sustainability Software ...
AspenTech. ®. MILESTONES. 1982. AspenTech releases its first product – Aspen Plus . Today, Aspen Plus is the #1 software. product for chemical process modeling.Missing: date | Show results with:date
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[PDF] Electrification of distillation for decarbonization: An overview and ...
May 13, 2024 · Direct electrification refers to the transfer of electricity into heat within the process directly. It can also be achieved by applying an.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Optimizing olefin purification: An artificial intelligence-based process ...
Nov 15, 2024 · Additionally, DDPG demonstrates superior energy efficiency, consuming 13% less energy than the next best method. It also reduces purification ...
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Production of Sustainable Aviation Fuels in Petroleum Refineries
Oct 19, 2021 · To evaluate biorefinery concepts, Excel based standalone process models that include mass and energy balances, technoeconomic analyses (TEA) and ...