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Glass casting

Glass casting is a sculptural technique in glassmaking where molten glass is poured or melted into a heat-resistant mold, allowing it to cool and solidify while adopting the mold's shape to form solid objects such as vessels, sculptures, or decorative pieces.^[1] This method enables the creation of complex, three-dimensional forms with intricate details and textures that are difficult to achieve through other glassworking processes like blowing.^[2] The practice of glass casting originated in ancient civilizations, with archaeological evidence indicating its use as early as the 15th century BCE in Egypt and Mesopotamia for producing early glass artifacts.^[3] By the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE), casting had become a dominant technique in regions like Etruria and Magna Graecia, influenced by Hellenistic traditions, and was widely employed for crafting open-form cups, bowls, and luxury tablewares in the first century BCE to the early first century CE.^[3] Although glassblowing largely supplanted casting after the mid-first century CE, the older method persisted for high-quality, fine wares into the 2nd century CE, incorporating innovations like marbled mosaic glass and lathe-cut profiles.^[3] Modern glass casting encompasses several key techniques, including kiln casting, where glass cullet or billets are placed in molds and heated to a molten state in a kiln before annealing; sand casting, which uses carved sand molds filled with poured molten glass; lost-wax casting, involving the creation and removal of a wax model to form detailed molds; and pâte de verre, which fuses powdered glass in molds to create translucent, detailed forms.^[1] These processes typically require specialized materials such as plaster-silica molds, high-temperature kilns, and compatible glass types like Bullseye frit, with cooling times ranging from 24 hours for thin pieces to weeks for thicker ones to ensure structural integrity.^[1] Safety measures, including respirators and protective gear, are essential due to the hazards of high heat and silica dust.^[1] In contemporary applications, glass casting remains prominent in artistic and industrial contexts for producing bespoke sculptures and functional objects, as exemplified by works like Peter Bremers' Seven Bodies (2017), which highlight the technique's versatility in exploring form, color, and transparency.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Principles

Glass casting is a manufacturing process in which molten glass is poured or introduced into a mold, where it cools and solidifies to form a desired shape, producing solid glass objects with precise contours determined by the mold's cavity. This method contrasts with glassblowing, which relies on inflating molten glass with air to create hollow forms, and glass pressing, which involves mechanically forcing viscous glass into a mold using a plunger or ram.^[1]^[4]^[5] The process hinges on the rheological behavior of glass, particularly its viscosity, which decreases exponentially with rising temperature, allowing it to flow like a liquid when heated sufficiently. For soda-lime glass, a common type used in casting, the softening point—defined as the temperature at which the viscosity reaches approximately 10^{7.6} poise and the glass begins to deform under its own weight—is around 720°C, while the working point, at about 10^4 poise where the glass is fluid enough for pouring, occurs near 900–1000°C.^[6]^[7] After filling the mold, the glass must undergo annealing, a controlled cooling process typically at the annealing point (around 550°C for soda-lime glass) to allow viscous flow that relieves internal stresses from uneven cooling, preventing spontaneous cracking.^[8]^[9] Key to successful casting are mechanisms to prevent thermal shock and ensure proper mold interaction. Thermal shock arises from rapid temperature gradients causing differential contraction, which can fracture the glass; prevention involves gradual heating and cooling rates, often limited to 5–10°C per minute during critical phases, to maintain uniform expansion throughout the piece.^[10] Mold release is facilitated by applying agents such as boron nitride or graphite coatings to the mold surface, reducing adhesion between the glass and mold material by creating a low-friction barrier that allows clean demolding without damaging the cast piece.^[11]^[12] Filling the mold often relies on gravity to draw the molten glass into intricate details, though centrifugal force may be applied in specialized setups to enhance uniformity and reduce voids by distributing the glass more evenly under acceleration.^[13] The thermal expansion coefficient of soda-lime glass, approximately \alpha \approx 9 \times 10^{-6} /^\circ\mathrm{C}, quantifies how the material expands with heat and influences mold compatibility; mismatched expansion between glass and mold can lead to tight fits or gaps upon cooling, potentially causing defects, so molds are often selected or treated to approximate this value for stress-free release.^[14]

Materials and Preparation

Glass casting primarily utilizes soda-lime glass due to its affordability, ease of melting, and widespread availability for high-volume production processes.^[15] This type, composed mainly of silica, soda ash, and lime, offers good workability at temperatures around 1,100–1,200°C and is commonly available in forms like billets, cullet, or sheets for breaking down into casting material.^[15] Borosilicate glass, known for its high heat resistance and low coefficient of thermal expansion (approximately 3.3 × 10⁻⁶/°C), is preferred for applications requiring thermal shock resistance, such as structural castings or items exposed to temperature fluctuations.^[16] Lead crystal glass, incorporating lead oxide for enhanced clarity and brilliance (refractive index up to 1.54), is selected for decorative castings where optical quality is paramount, though it demands careful handling due to lead's toxicity.^[17] Specialty glasses, including optical variants for precision optics or pre-colored types like those from Bullseye Glass (COE 90 or 96), allow for tailored effects such as translucency or pigmentation without additional additives.^[1] Mold materials are chosen for their refractory properties to withstand molten glass temperatures exceeding 1,000°C without degrading. Plaster-silica mixtures, typically formulated at a 50:50 ratio by weight of #1 casting plaster to fine silica flour, provide structural support from the plaster and heat resistance from the silica, mixed with water to a heavy cream consistency.^[1] For loose or open-face molds, silica sand offers reusability and is packed around patterns for simple shapes.^[18] Graphite or metal molds, such as those made from cast iron or stainless steel, are employed for high-heat direct pouring methods due to their durability and minimal reactivity with molten glass.^[18] Essential tools and equipment include electric kilns capable of reaching 1,500°C for melting and annealing, often with programmable controllers for precise firing schedules, and crucibles (clay-graphite or quartz) to contain and pour the glass.^[1] Release agents like kiln wash, a slurry of zirconium oxide (ZrO₂) in a kaolin or frit base, are applied in multiple thin coats to prevent glass adhesion to molds.^[19] Safety gear, comprising heat-resistant welding gloves, respirators for silica dust, and protective eyewear, is mandatory to mitigate risks from high temperatures and particulates.^[1] Preparation begins with fritting, where glass is crushed or ground into powder (frit) using a hammer or ball mill to facilitate even melting and reduce bubble formation in kiln-based methods.^[1] Molds are dried thoroughly after forming, typically by heating in an oven or kiln to 100–200°C for several hours to evaporate moisture and prevent steam explosions during firing.^[20] Compatibility checks involve verifying thermal expansion rates between glass and mold materials—soda-lime glass (COE ~90–96 × 10⁻⁷/°C) pairs well with low-expansion silica-based molds to avoid cracking from differential contraction during cooling.^[21]

History

Ancient Origins

The earliest evidence of glass casting dates to the 15th century BCE in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, where artisans melted glass and poured it into open molds made of sandstone or clay to create small objects such as beads and vessels.^[22] These rudimentary techniques marked the transition from earlier vitreous materials to true glass production, with artifacts demonstrating simple flat casts and basic shaping methods.^[23] Key archaeological sites, including Nippur in Mesopotamia, have yielded artifacts like ceremonial glass axe heads from the Late Bronze Age (14th–13th centuries BCE), which were formed using molten glass poured into molds, showcasing early experimentation with solid forms.^[24] In Egypt, production evolved from faience—a glazed quartz composite—to genuine glass, with initial cast items appearing during the reign of Thutmose III (circa 1479–1425 BCE), including beads and inlays that imitated precious stones.^[25] These objects were typically small-scale, reflecting the labor-intensive nature of early glassworking before more advanced vessel production. Innovations in this period included the use of plant ash-based fluxes, derived from natron or wood/soda plant sources, which lowered the melting point of silica to approximately 1000°C, enabling feasible furnace operations with available technology.^[23] This built on core-formed techniques, where a core was dipped into molten glass, gradually giving way to direct casting for more precise shapes. Glass casting held significant cultural value in these societies, primarily for ritual objects such as amulets and beads used in jewelry and religious contexts, symbolizing protection and status due to the material's rarity and luster.^[22] By around 1200 BCE, Phoenician traders facilitated the spread of these techniques and finished products across the eastern Mediterranean, exporting Mesopotamian and Egyptian glass to regions like the Levant and Cyprus, which accelerated its adoption in broader ancient networks.^[22]

Classical and Roman Developments

During the Hellenistic period (4th–1st century BCE), glass casting saw significant advancements influenced by Syrian workshops, particularly in regions like Jerusalem and Shechem in Israel, where mold-pressing techniques were employed to produce plates and reliefs. These workshops built on earlier Eastern Mediterranean traditions, utilizing casting methods to create more intricate and decorative forms, marking a shift toward greater variety in glass objects. This development facilitated the spread of glass production across the Hellenistic world, with Syrian centers serving as key innovation hubs.^[26] The Roman era (1st century BCE–4th century CE) represented the peak of glass casting, characterized by mass production enabled by organized factories in Italy—such as those at Pompeii and Herculaneum—and in Gaul. Producers utilized soapstone or steatite molds to fabricate a wide array of items, including vessels, window panes, and mosaic tesserae, which were essential for architectural and decorative purposes across the empire. Key innovations included the adoption of multi-part molds to achieve complex shapes and the layering of colors through the addition of metal oxides, such as copper to produce green tones, enhancing both aesthetic appeal and functionality. These advancements were supported by primary natron glass production in Egypt and Syro-Palestine, with secondary workshops proliferating empire-wide.^[26]^[27] Roman trade networks facilitated the widespread export of cast glass products throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, underscoring the material's role in daily life and commerce. However, the invention of glassblowing around 50 BCE in the Syro-Palestinian region shifted focus toward more efficient blown forms, gradually diminishing the dominance of casting for vessels by the mid-1st century CE. Casting techniques persisted nonetheless for flat goods, such as window panes and sheets, well into the 5th century CE, maintaining their utility in construction and mosaics.^[26]^[27]

Medieval to 19th Century

During the Middle Ages in Europe, from the 5th to the 15th century, glass casting saw a gradual revival influenced by Islamic techniques—such as advancements in mold-making and colored glass production in Abbasid Syria and Egypt—transmitted through trade routes to Venice and its island of Murano, where production was centralized by the 13th century to protect the craft from fires. Venetian glassmakers adapted enameling methods from the Middle Eastern Mediterranean, applying them to cast glass pieces for decorative enamels and small components in cathedral windows, such as colored medallions and borders that enhanced Gothic architecture.^[28]^[29]^[30] This revival built on fragmented Roman legacies of mold-based production but remained limited by strict guild secrecy enforced by the Venetian state, which restricted knowledge dissemination and innovation to maintain monopoly.^[29] In the Renaissance period (15th to 17th century), Italian and Bohemian glassmakers expanded experiments with colored cast glass for decorative arts, incorporating alchemical recipes to achieve vibrant hues and clarity suitable for vessels, beads, and architectural elements. Venetian innovator Angelo Barovier (ca. 1405–1460) played a pivotal role by developing cristallo, a nearly colorless soda-lime glass formula refined through purification techniques, which allowed for finer cast and blown forms resembling rock crystal and was granted a privilege by the Podestà of Murano in 1457.^[31]^[32] In Bohemia, artisans modified Gothic recipes by substituting potash for soda and adding chalk, creating stable colored glasses for engraved and cast decorative objects, influenced by Venetian imports but adapted for local forest resources.^[33] From the 18th to the 19th century, Enlightenment-era scientific advances spurred casting applications for functional items like optical lenses and bottles, while large-scale plate glass production emerged in France around 1688 through table-casting methods that poured molten glass onto iron beds for rolling into sheets, enabling larger mirrors and windows.^[34] In Britain, excise taxes imposed since 1745 on glass weight stifled industry growth by discouraging production of heavier cast items, leading to distorted designs and reliance on imports until repeal in 1845 under Sir Robert Peel, which catalyzed expansion.^[35] These developments laid precursors to later drawing processes but highlighted casting's role in bridging craft and early industrial scales amid guild and economic constraints.^[34]

20th Century to Modern Era

In the early 20th century, the technique of pâte de verre saw a notable revival among French glass artists influenced by the Art Nouveau and Art Deco movements, building on 19th-century foundations to emphasize intricate, nature-inspired forms. Manufacturers such as Daum achieved commercial success with this method, producing enamelled cameo vases adorned with landscape motifs that showcased the paste's translucency and depth.^[36] Key figures like Gabriel Argy-Rousseau, Amalric Walter, and François-Émile Décorchemont refined pâte de verre for sculptural and decorative pieces, elevating it as a medium for artistic innovation beyond industrial applications.^[37] Meanwhile, industrial advancements like the Libbey-Owens continuous sheet glass process, operational from 1917, expanded glass production efficiency and material availability, indirectly fostering experimentation in casting techniques. In the United States, Frederick Carder at Steuben Glass incorporated similar cast methods, adapting European styles for domestic markets.^[37] The mid-20th century marked the rise of the studio glass movement in the 1960s, led by Harvey K. Littleton, who championed the idea of artists independently melting, casting, and forming glass in small-scale studios to integrate abstract sculptural concepts.^[38] Littleton's workshops at institutions like the Toledo Museum of Art in 1962 demonstrated kiln casting's potential for personal expression, shifting glass from factory dominance to individualistic practice and inspiring global programs.^[39] This era also benefited from the widespread adoption of electric kilns, developed in the early 20th century and refined by mid-century with programmable controls, which enabled precise temperature regulation crucial for annealing cast pieces and minimizing defects.^[40] From the late 20th century onward, computer-aided design (CAD) tools revolutionized mold creation for glass casting, allowing artists to model complex geometries digitally before fabrication, a practice gaining traction by the 1990s in studio and industrial settings.^[41] Sustainability efforts advanced with the incorporation of recycled cullet—ground waste glass—into casting mixtures, such as blends of soda-lime and lead-crystal types melted at reduced temperatures around 1120°C, which lowered energy use and enhanced mechanical properties for structural applications.^[42] Artists like Stanislav Libenský and Jaroslava Brychtová pioneered large-scale cast glass sculptures post-World War II, influencing contemporary global practices with their monumental, abstract forms.^[37] Current trends emphasize 3D-printed molds for kiln casting, enabling rapid prototyping of intricate designs without traditional tooling, as demonstrated in processes using stereolithography resins burned out at 750°C to capture fine details.^[43] Eco-friendly fluxes, including boric oxide and lithia, further support lower melting points and reduced environmental impact by improving fluidity and thermal shock resistance in formulations.^[44] Production of cast glass is dominated by China, particularly in clusters like Qingdao and Shahe for high-volume architectural and decorative output, while the United States leads in studio-based artistic casting through institutions and independent artists.^[45]

Techniques

Lost-Wax Casting

Lost-wax casting, also known as cire perdue, is a precision technique adapted for glass from traditional metal casting methods, particularly prominent in 20th-century glass art by innovators like René Lalique and Frederick Carder.^[46]^[47] The process begins with the creation of a detailed wax model, often carved by hand to capture intricate sculptural forms, which serves as the positive for the final glass piece.^[48] This model is then encased in a refractory investment material, typically a mixture of plaster, silica flour, and quartz, forming a mold that captures fine surface details and undercuts impossible with simpler methods.^[49] Once the investment sets, the wax is burned out by heating the mold to approximately 700°C, melting and vaporizing the wax to leave a precise cavity while allowing venting channels to prevent pressure buildup from expansion mismatches between the wax and investment.^[50] Molten glass, heated to 1100–1200°C in a furnace, is then poured directly into the preheated mold cavity, filling the space left by the wax and conforming to its complex contours.^[46] This pouring step requires careful control to ensure complete flow, as glass viscosity at these temperatures allows it to replicate the wax model's fidelity without sagging or trapping air.^[48] After pouring, the piece is annealed at around 500°C to relieve internal stresses, followed by controlled cooling to prevent cracking.^[49] The investment mold is subsequently broken away to reveal the cast glass, which may undergo coldworking for finishing. The technique excels in high detail retention, making it ideal for sculptures with delicate textures and ornamental motifs, as demonstrated in Lalique's early 20th-century vases featuring floral and figural reliefs.^[46] It also enables the creation of hollow forms through strategic wax core designs in the cire perdue method, allowing for lightweight, translucent vessels like Carder's Diatreta series from the 1940s.^[47] Challenges include managing thermal expansion differences, addressed via venting, and the labor-intensive nature suited primarily to small-scale studio production rather than mass output.^[47] Compared to sand casting, lost-wax offers superior precision for intricate shapes, though it is less practical for larger pieces.^[48]

Sand Casting

Sand casting in glass production is a technique where molten glass is poured directly into a mold formed from compacted sand, allowing for the creation of larger forms with inherent organic textures due to the interaction between the glass and the granular mold material. This method, akin to traditional metal casting but adapted for glass's high viscosity and thermal properties, emphasizes simplicity and accessibility, particularly for sculptural or experimental pieces. The process relies on the sand's ability to withstand the intense heat of molten glass without deforming excessively, resulting in castings that capture broad, impressionistic details rather than fine precision.^[51]^[1] The process begins with preparing the mold by packing damp sand around a pattern or directly carving and pressing objects into the sand to form a cavity that defines the shape of the final piece. Once the pattern is removed, creating an open-faced or relief-style mold, molten glass—heated in a furnace to approximately 1200°C—is ladled or poured directly into the cavity. The glass fills the mold under gravity, and the assembly is then allowed to cool slowly to prevent thermal shock and cracking, a process governed by controlled annealing to manage internal stresses from uneven cooling rates. After solidification, the sand mold is broken away or shaken out, revealing the rough casting which may require cleaning and polishing.^[1]^[52]^[53] Sand molds for glass casting typically use green sand, which is damp and bound with clay to provide cohesion and reusability, or dry sand mixed with chemical binders for greater rigidity in larger molds. Additives such as graphite can be incorporated into the sand mixture to improve release and achieve slightly smoother surfaces by reducing adhesion between the glass and mold. These mold types allow for flexibility in design, accommodating patterns up to several inches deep while maintaining structural integrity during pouring. Serpentine sand, a treated variety rich in magnesium silicate, is often preferred for its heat resistance and fine grain, enabling detailed impressions without excessive erosion.^[1]^[54] One key advantage of sand casting is its low cost, as sand is inexpensive and molds can be quickly formed and reused for prototyping or small-batch production, making it ideal for larger objects with organic, textured finishes that highlight the material's natural granularity. The technique's simplicity also supports rapid experimentation, allowing artists and makers to achieve broad forms without specialized equipment beyond a furnace and ladle. Historically, elements of sand casting trace back to Roman glass production, where molten glass was poured over sand-laden wooden molds for flat panes, demonstrating early applications of granular molding for scale.^[3]^[54]^[51] However, sand casting produces inherently rough surfaces from the sand's texture, often necessitating post-casting polishing or grinding to refine the glass, which adds time and labor. The method is also limited by the sand's stability, restricting piece sizes to those that prevent mold collapse under the weight and heat of the molten glass, typically under a few feet in dimension for practical handling. Additionally, the direct pouring can lead to inclusions or bubbles if not managed carefully, though these may contribute to the desired aesthetic in artistic contexts.^[51]^[52]^[54]

Kiln Casting

Kiln casting is a glass forming technique that involves heating glass within a kiln to allow it to soften, slump, or fully melt into a mold, enabling the creation of controlled, layered, and sculptural forms.^[1] The process begins with placing pre-cut glass pieces, billets, or frit directly into a refractory mold, typically made from a plaster-silica mixture, which is then positioned inside the kiln.^[55] The kiln is gradually heated to temperatures between 800°C and 1100°C, depending on the desired fluidity and mold complexity, where the glass slumps or fills the mold cavity during a process phase that may last 2 to 6 hours.^[56] Following fusion, the glass is held at peak temperature to ensure complete filling, after which the kiln is slowly cooled through an annealing phase over 24 to 48 hours to relieve internal stresses and prevent cracking.^[1] The firing cycle is meticulously controlled to achieve precise results, starting with ramp-up rates of 50 to 100°C per hour from room temperature to avoid thermal shock, particularly for thicker pieces.^[57] A slump phase occurs at lower temperatures around 800°C, where glass softens but retains some shape for shallow forms, whereas a full melt requires higher temperatures up to 870°C for complete flow into intricate details.^[56] Pyrometric cones are often placed in the kiln to monitor heat work accurately, bending at specific temperatures to indicate when the target viscosity has been reached, compensating for variations in kiln performance.^[58] Annealing typically involves soaking at 480°C to 515°C for 1 to 2 hours based on piece thickness, followed by controlled cooling at 55 to 83°C per hour until the glass is stable.^[56] This method offers significant advantages for studio environments, requiring only a kiln, molds, and basic glass stock, which makes it accessible compared to more equipment-intensive techniques.^[1] It facilitates natural color blending as the glass flows and layers without mechanical stirring, producing subtle gradients ideal for artistic effects.^[55] Variations include open-face molds for creating flat plates and tiles, where glass is placed atop the mold for simple slumping, and closed molds for deeper, enclosed forms like shallow sculptures, which capture fine details through full encapsulation.^[1] Frit, a fine glass powder, may be briefly referenced as a glass type suitable for layered casting, while subtypes like pâte de verre extend this approach for translucent powdered effects.^[56]

Pâte de Verre

Pâte de verre, meaning "glass paste" in French, is a specialized glass casting technique that utilizes finely ground glass powder, known as frit, to create objects with exceptional translucency and intricate textures resembling gemstones.^[59] This method originated in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around the second millennium BCE, where it was used for small decorative items, but it was revived and refined in late 19th-century France during the Art Nouveau period.^[60] French artist Henri Cros is credited with pioneering the modern form of the technique in 1893, developing it through experiments with colored powdered glass fired in clay molds to achieve luminous, detailed effects.^[61] The process begins with grinding compatible glass into a fine powder or frit, which is then mixed with a binder and flux to form a workable paste that can be colored with pigments or enamels.^[59] A detailed model, often sculpted in clay, is created first, from which a refractory mold—typically made of plaster, silica, or clay—is formed to capture fine reliefs and contours.^[37] The paste is layered into the mold, starting with raised or foreground elements brushed or tamped in place, followed by background fills several millimeters thick; multiple layers of differently colored frit allow for subtle gradients and depth.^[60] To prevent slumping during firing, the center was historically filled with a supportive material like powdered asbestos, as practiced by artists such as Gabriel Argy-Rousseau; modern practitioners use safer alternatives such as additional frit layers or plaster powder to avoid health hazards associated with asbestos.^[37] The filled mold is dried thoroughly before being placed in a kiln for firing, where it undergoes gradual sintering at temperatures around 700–800°C to fuse the particles without fully melting the glass, preserving its crystalline structure for translucency.^[62] Multiple firings may be employed to build complexity, with each cycle allowing for additional layering and refinement of color transitions.^[37] After fusing, the kiln is slowly cooled through annealing to relieve stresses and prevent cracking, a critical step requiring precise control to avoid defects like bubbles or cloudiness.^[59] The piece is then removed from the mold—often by disassembling or destroying it—and finished through cold working techniques such as polishing, grinding, or engraving to enhance surface details and remove sharp edges.^[60] Unique to pâte de verre is its ability to produce optical effects like soft glows and textured surfaces through the partial sintering of frit, which scatters light internally for a gem-like quality not easily achieved with solid glass forms.^[37] Layering techniques enable artists to create fluid color blends and intricate patterns, such as floral motifs in relief, evoking the "stone that flows" description from ancient Egyptian practices.^[60] While inspired by ancient methods, the 19th-century innovations by Cros and contemporaries like Argy-Rousseau and François Décorchemont modernized it for artistic expression.^[59] The technique's primary advantages lie in its precision for small-scale works, allowing high levels of detail in jewelry, vessels, and sculptures that capture subtle nuances unattainable in coarser casting methods.^[61] For instance, Cros's pâte de verre portraits, such as "Fanny Prunaire," demonstrate the method's capacity for delicate, translucent modeling with varied thicknesses controlling light transmission.^[61] This focus on fine artistry makes it ideal for creating objects with internal luminescence and tactile surfaces, though it demands skilled control over firing schedules to achieve consistent results.^[37]

Applications and Variations

Artistic and Sculptural Uses

Glass casting has found profound expression in contemporary sculpture, where artists leverage the medium's translucency and structural versatility to create works that explore form, light, and materiality. Pioneers like Howard Ben Tré revolutionized sculptural glass by developing innovative hot casting techniques in the 1970s, enabling the production of monumental pieces that evoke ancient monoliths and industrial remnants through poured glass forms layered with patinas and bronze elements.^[63]^[64] His sculptures, such as those in the "Lightness of Being" series, demonstrate how cast glass can capture weighty presence while allowing light to penetrate and refract, transforming static forms into dynamic visual experiences exhibited in museums worldwide.^[64] In installations, pâte de verre—a fine powder-based casting method—excels in manipulating light play, enabling artists to craft intricate, textured surfaces that diffuse and scatter illumination for ethereal effects. For instance, Alicia Lomné's works utilize pâte de verre to form delicate, nature-inspired pieces where layered glass powders fuse to produce subtle color gradients and luminous halos, as seen in her instructional demonstrations emphasizing the technique's painterly qualities for immersive environments.^[65] Similarly, Demetra Theofanous employs pâte de verre in large-scale leaf installations, such as her ginkgo motifs, where the material's granularity creates butterfly-like shadows and sunlight interactions, enhancing the viewer's perception of movement and transience in gallery settings.^[66] Artists often integrate glass casting with cold-working techniques—such as grinding, polishing, and engraving—to refine surfaces and incorporate mixed-media elements, resulting in hybrid sculptures that blend opacity with transparency. Beth Lipman's bio-inspired still-life compositions, rendered in clear-cast glass, mimic organic abundance through detailed reproductions of flora and vessels, then cold-worked for precise facets that amplify light reflection and symbolic depth, drawing from Renaissance traditions in contemporary contexts.^[67] These post-casting processes allow for multifaceted pieces, like those combining cast glass with wood or metal, to explore themes of ephemerality and excess.^[68] Recent trends in artistic glass casting incorporate digital fabrication for custom molds, enabling precise, complex geometries unattainable through traditional means and fostering innovation in gallery exhibitions. Techniques like 3D-printed refractory molds facilitate kiln-casting of intricate forms, as explored by practitioners using additive manufacturing to prototype bio-mimetic structures before firing, thus bridging computational design with handmade artistry.^[69] This integration, evident in works by artists like Norwood Viviano, supports the creation of site-specific installations where digital precision enhances the organic fluidity of cast glass, revitalizing the medium in modern fine arts.^[70]

Industrial and Functional Applications

Glass casting plays a pivotal role in industrial manufacturing, enabling the production of durable, transparent components for architecture, transportation, and scientific applications. In architectural contexts, companies like Pilkington have utilized rolled casting techniques to create textured glass panels since the early 20th century.^[71] These panels, often produced via continuous rolling between heated rollers, are widely used in building facades and partitions for their aesthetic and functional properties.^[72] In the automotive sector, precision glass molding—a form of casting—produces aspherical lenses for headlights, taillights, and sensors, offering superior optical clarity and heat resistance compared to plastic alternatives. Manufacturers such as AGC and HOYA employ high-temperature molding presses to shape borosilicate or soda-lime glass into complex geometries, enabling compact designs in modern vehicles.^[73]^[74] Similarly, laboratory ware, including beakers, crucibles, and optical cells, benefits from molded casting processes that ensure chemical inertness and thermal stability; firms like JNS Glass produce custom borosilicate components via pressing into graphite or metal molds for precise dimensions.^[75] For high-volume consumer goods, automated molding machines facilitate the production of glass bottles through press-and-blow or blow-and-blow methods, where molten glass is formed in metal molds at rates exceeding 100 units per minute, supporting industries like packaging and beverages.^[76] Additionally, continuous forming processes such as the float process dominate flat glass production, accounting for over 90% of global output and enabling uniform sheets for windows and displays by floating molten glass on tin baths. This high-volume approach significantly reduces costs—float glass production expenses dropped to about 59% of traditional plate glass methods by the 1960s—and integrates recycling, with up to 50% cullet (recycled glass) in batches to lower energy use by 2-3% for every 10% cullet added.^[77]^[78] Contemporary applications leverage advanced casting for energy-efficient products, such as borosilicate glass substrates in solar panels, which provide thermal shock resistance for photovoltaic modules in concentrated solar power systems.^[79] In lighting, cast glass diffusers for LED fixtures scatter light evenly, enhancing efficiency in commercial and residential setups, often produced via kiln or precision molding for custom optics.^[80] As of 2025, emerging trends include precision-molded glass optics for electric vehicle sensors and AI-assisted design for optimized casting molds, improving sustainability and performance in automotive and renewable energy sectors.^[81] These processes underscore glass casting's scalability, with economic benefits from automation and recycling driving its adoption in sustainable manufacturing.

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Gravity casting - Wikipedia
It involves the pouring of molten metal from a crucible into a mold under only the force of gravity, without the use of pressurized gases, vacuums, or ...
[16]
Soda lime glass - Continental Trade
Softening point, 715 °C. Annealing point, 548 °C. Max. working temperature: - not toughened, 110 °C. - toughened, 150 °C. Thermal shock Δ : - not toughened, 50 ...Characteristics And... · Glass Manufacturing And... · The Characteristics Of Soda...
[17]
Assignment 2 – Manufacturing Processes: Glass & Ceramics
Feb 25, 2022 · Soda-lime glass is made of sand, lime (calcium hydroxide), and soda (sodium carbonate) and it is most commonly used for high-volume production.
[18]
Material compositions and production methods for solid cast glass ...
Nov 15, 2019 · ... borosilicate glass types are preferred for cast glass applications in structures. Glass can be cast in two ways: primary and secondary casting.
[19]
Casting glass - Preciosa Ornela
The lead glass complies with a wide range of demands – it is suitable for the realisation of small-scale items, as well as for very large glass objects.<|separator|>
[20]
https://warmglass.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?t=653
[21]
The Many Layers of Kiln Wash - Ceramic Arts Network
Once you understand the principle of kiln wash you can easily substitute other refractories like zirconium oxide (or Zirconia, ZrO2), zircon (ZrSiO4 a.k.a ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[22]
Drying Molds - WarmGlass.com
Apr 22, 2003 · Basically, heat slowly, 100 dph to 250 and hold for a time to allow the moisture in the mold to boil off.Frit Casting Project HelpQuestions about casting fritMore results from warmglass.com
[23]
Learn About COE (Coefficient of Expansion) in Glasswork
Every type of glass has a unique expansion rate. For example, soda lime glass expands at 0.0000104 inches per degree Celsius. This metric might seem small, but ...
[24]
Phoenician Glass
Phoenician merchants and sailors began disseminating glassmaking craft and finished glass objects along the coasts of the Mediterranean.
[25]
(PDF) Ancient glass: From kaleidoscope to crystal ball - ResearchGate
Oct 6, 2025 · Plant ash was used as flux in glassmaking in Late Bronze Age Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, while natron was used in glassmaking during the ...
[26]
(PDF) Analysis of late bronze age glass axes from nippur-a new ...
Aug 10, 2025 · However, the Nippur cobalt- and copper-coloured glasses exhibit significantly different trace elemental compositions compared to Egyptian glass ...Missing: casting molds<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
**Summary:**
[28]
[PDF] Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World - OAPEN Library
In particular, the western Mediterranean area including the regions of Italy, Gaul,. Spain (described by ancient authors as primary glass producers) and north- ...<|separator|>
[29]
https://renvenetian.cmog.org/
[30]
(DOC) The exotic object as a prototype to be imitated - Academia.edu
This study investigates the influence of enamelled glass from the Middle Eastern Mediterranean on Venetian glass production from the 13th to early 16th ...
[31]
Home | The Techniques of Renaissance Venetian Glassworking
### Summary of Glass Casting and Related Topics from https://renvenetian.cmog.org/
[32]
[PDF] European Glass in the J. Paul Getty Museum
glassmakers also revived the Hellenistic practice of making. "gold 'sandwich ... making in the fifteenth century, Syrian craftsmen settled in. Venice ...
[33]
Introduction | The Techniques of Renaissance Venetian-Style ...
Ironically, one of the first glassmakers affected by this practice was also one of the best-known Venetian glassmakers of the Renaissance: Angelo Barovier (d.
[34]
Modeling of Bohemian and Moravian glass recipes from Gothic to ...
Nov 17, 2020 · The Bohemian Renaissance glass is a modification of the Gothic recipe. Glass was still made from sand/quartz, beech ash, and potash but the ...Missing: alchemical | Show results with:alchemical
[35]
History of plate glass manufacture--Conservation DistList
Dec 14, 1996 · The casting of mirror plates was commenced in France by Abraham ... 18th century, when it was introduced into England. Plates of ...
[36]
Candles, Salt, Soap, Starch, Leather, Paper, Textiles, and Glass
... glass tax was repealed in 1845.54. Duty on glass was paid on the weight ... Dowel, A History of Taxation and Taxes in England, 4 vols. (3rd edn., London ...
[37]
French Art Glass - Sworders
In the early part of the 20th Century the technique of pâte-de-verre was revived which became a success for Daum and other French makers of the time. Cameo ...
[38]
Pate de Verre: from the Glass Encyclopedia
The name Pate de Verre is French for glass paste, and the technique involves creating a paste from powdered glass and colouring agents and filling a fire-proof ...
[39]
Libbey-Owens-Ford - Wikipedia
In June 1916, the Libbey-Owens Sheet Glass Company was organized, and in 1917 the first Libbey-Owens plant opened in Charleston, West Virginia. In 1922, a ...
[40]
Harvey K. Littleton and the Studio Glass Movement
Dec 14, 2011 · It was in that seminar that Littleton introduced the idea that glass could be mixed and melted, blown and worked in the studio by the artist.
[41]
Harvey Littleton | Voices in Studio Glass History - BGC Exhibitions
In the late 1950s, Littleton began exploring the possibility of glassblowing in a studio setting; two glassblowing workshops he organized at the Toledo Museum ...
[42]
A Complete History of Kilns | SDS Industries
Explore the complete history of kilns over the last 10000 years! From the first pit-fire kilns to the programmable digital kilns of today!
[43]
From cups to CAD: a history of glass with CRTs in mind - Brain - 1990
Mar 1, 1990 · The early Egyptians built up glass vessels by dipping or rolling a core of clay or sand in softened glass. The core was scraped out after the ...
[44]
Recycled glass mixtures as cast glass components for structural ...
Sep 4, 2020 · Each type of glass was powdered or grinded under the form of cullet and different mixtures were prepared to be melted at temperatures of 970°C, ...
[45]
Casting Glass from 3D Printed Molds | Amos Dudley
Jul 31, 2019 · When you kilncast glass, you make a refractory mold, place chunks of glass in the mold, and then heat it to about 1500°F, until the glass runs like honey and ...
[46]
Glass Fluxes and Modifiers - Elan Technology
Glass fluxes and modifiers for our advanced glass materials: Li2O (Lithia), CaO (Lime), B2O3, ZnO and more.
[47]
Cast Glass Manufacturers | Top Suppliers for Custom Decorative ...
Jul 24, 2025 · China dominates global cast glass production, with key industrial clusters offering distinct advantages. Shandong Province (Qingdao) ...
[48]
Rene Lalique Cire Perdue - RLalique.com
Molten glass would then be poured or blown into the space left by the missing wax. After it cooled, the plaster would be broken open to reveal the glass ...
[49]
Diatreta - The Ultimate Cire Perdue
Mar 19, 2025 · Gardner goes through each of the steps involved in making Cire Perdue, from modeling the original sculpture in clay to the casting in glass.
[50]
Lost Wax/Cire Perdue lost wax glass Glass from the lost wax Glass ...
Glass Casting (Jan 2020) by Amy Whittingham. A practical book explaining the glass casting process, with step-by-step instructions. The Art of Glass: Art ...
[51]
None
### Process Steps for Lost-Wax Glass Casting
[52]
https://sinacastudios.org/product/sandcasting-workshop/
[53]
Sand casting | Corning Museum of Glass
A forming technique in which molten glass is poured or ladled into a mold of compacted sand. A rough-textured granular surface results where the glass comes ...Missing: process | Show results with:process
[54]
Sandcasting Workshop | SiNaCa Studios
### Glass Sand Casting Process, Molds, Pros/Cons
[55]
Glass Casting - Vijay Kowshik
Sand casting – This involves the use of hot molten glass poured directly ... temperatures of about 1200 C to & poured directly into the mould. In the ...
[56]
All About Sand Casting | Xometry
Aug 26, 2023 · Advantages of Sand Casting · Versatility. · Low cost. · Simple tooling. · Adaptability. · Easy scale-up, but great for prototyping. · Fast turnaround.Settings · Sand Casting Vs. Other Types... · How Sand Casting Works
[57]
[PDF] The Fundamentals of Kiln-Casting & Mould-Making
The most common mould mix is 1:1:1. That is, 1 part Plaster, 1 part Silica and 1 part Water, by weight.<|separator|>
[58]
None
### Summary of Kiln Temperatures and Processes for Glass Working (Bullseye Glass TechNotes 4)
[59]
[PDF] Understanding Firing Schedules - Glass Campus
There can be many segments in a firing schedule but each segment consists of only three elements. Ramp – the speed at which temperatures rises or falls.
[60]
PYROMETRIC CONES RESOURCES - Orton Ceramic
Since cones are time-temperature (heat work) indicators, then the heating rate will affect the end point (when the tip reaches a 90° angle) of the cone. Since ...<|separator|>
[61]
Pâte de Verre: Overview - LibGuides - Corning Museum of Glass
Jan 14, 2022 · The paste is brushed or tamped into a mold, dried, and fused by firing. After annealing, the object is removed from the mold and finished by ...
[62]
A GUIDE TO PÂTE DE VERRE GLASS
### Guide to Pâte de Verre Glass
[63]
César-Isidore-Henry Cros - Fanny Prunaire - French
Pâte-de-verre was a material made from variously colored powdered glass placed in a clay mold and then fired in a kiln. Cros developed the technique in 1893.
[64]
Pâte de Verre – @kitwallace on Tumblr
This material has a much lower firing temperature than clay, typically around 700 C and can be fired in a glass kiln. An alternative is 'Egyptian clay' or ...
[65]
Howard BenTre: The Lightness of Being – Cast Glass Sculpture
This exhibition focuses on Howard BenTre's latest Cast Glass and Bronze sculptures. Having pioneered the use of cast glass for monumental indoor and outdoor ...
[66]
Master Class Video: Pâte de Verre, Grains of Light with Alicia Lomné
About the Artist Alicia Lomné has studied fine arts and glass kilncasting nationwide, dedicating over two decades to exploring techniques in pâte de verre.
[67]
Dean Bensen and Demetra Theofanous - Momentum Gallery
They utilize the ancient technique of Pate de Verre which offers a detailed and painterly approach to casting that is well suited to their hyper-realistic ...
[68]
Beth Lipman, The Levy-Franks Family, and a New Work Made of Glass
Feb 19, 2021 · Wisconsin-based artist Beth Lipman is well known for her detailed works made entirely of glass. Her sculptural practice explores aspects of material culture ...
[69]
Beth Lipman | Smithsonian American Art Museum
Glass artist Beth Lipman is renowned for her sculptural compositions which recreate the bounty and visual sumptuousness of Renaissance and Baroque still-life ...
[70]
The Mediated Machine: Embracing Digital Technology as a Glass ...
Mar 6, 2019 · In this essay the author discusses the benefits of introducing digital making tools into the glass artist's practice-based research, ...
[71]
Master Class Video: 3D Printing and Kilncasting with Norwood Viviano
Artist Norwood Viviano demonstrates how to supercharge the lost wax method for kilncasting using the affordable and user-friendly technology of 3D printing.Missing: fabrication | Show results with:fabrication
[72]
History Of Patterned Window Glass | Sash Window Specialist
In 1898, Pilkington Brothers patented rolled wired cast glass that was successfully adopted by builders and architects. Wired Cast glass incorporates a strong ...Introduction · The Development of Textured... · Pilkington Brothers: Patent...
[73]
Pilkington Texture Glass
The designs give scope for combining functional suitability with decorative effect, whilst emphasising the natural light-enhancing properties of glass. The ...Missing: casting 1970s
[74]
Aspherical Glass Molded Lenses ｜ Products - AGC
AGC offers aspherical glass molded lenses, including square, cylindrical, chalcogenide, and microlens arrays, for cameras, projectors, and other applications.
[75]
HOYA GROUP Optics Division | Glass Molded Lenses |
HOYA has established the unique technology that produces a large amount of highly accurate aspherical glass molded lenses.<|control11|><|separator|>
[76]
Molded Glass | Glass Tubing & Rod - JNS Glass & Coatings
JNS manufactures molded glass and pressed sodalime glass, fused quartz, fused silica and borosilicate glass for a wide range of applications.
[77]
Let's Make a Bottle: Understanding the Glass Bottle Formation Process
The Press and Blow process is the most commonly used method in glass bottle manufacturing. It uses an individual section (IS) machine, which is separated into ...
[78]
The Glass Industry and the Pilkington Float Process - Oxford Academic
Total float production costs in 1962, when the float process was introduced, were about 59 per cent of plate glass costs.12 Float glass costs fell as the ...
[79]
Flat Glass Recycling
Mar 22, 2022 · There are float plants in Europe running with 40 or 50 percent of cullet in a batch. Though that also means there are others that are much lower ...
[80]
Glass Substrates in Solar Technology: Materials, Properties ...
Jul 13, 2024 · Borosilicate glass is preferred for its exceptional thermal and chemical resistance, making it ideal for electronics and optics applications.
[81]
Designing with Cast and Heat-Formed Decorative Glass
Mar 29, 2024 · Typical applications for cast glass are glass block, glass tile, lighting and fixtures, sink bowls, architectural accents and public art ...