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Glass etching

Glass etching is a decorative glassworking technique that creates designs or patterns by selectively roughening the surface of glass using acidic (particularly hydrofluoric acid), or abrasive substances, resulting in a frosted or matte appearance that contrasts with the clear, unetched areas.^[1] The origins of chemical glass etching trace back to 1670, when German glass engraver Heinrich Schwanhardt in Nuremberg discovered that hydrofluoric acid could dissolve glass to produce a matte effect, as documented by contemporary artist Joachim Sandrart.^[2] This method involved coating the glass with a protective layer of wax, scratching away the resist to expose the design, and immersing the piece in acid to etch the uncovered surfaces.^[2] Although the technique remained artisanal and underutilized for nearly two centuries, its potential for mass production emerged in the mid-19th century following Carl Wilhelm Scheele's 1771 development of industrial hydrofluoric acid.^[2] Commercial acid etching was patented in 1857 by the Richardson company in Stourbridge, England, enabling the creation of superficially weathered or patterned finishes on tableware and decorative objects, often mimicking more labor-intensive cutting or engraving.^[3] By the late 19th century, innovations like machine-assisted etching lathes, pioneered by figures such as John Northwood, further expanded its application to cameo glass and intricate Victorian designs by artists like Emile Gallé.^[2] In addition to chemical methods, glass etching encompasses mechanical and abrasive techniques, including diamond-point scratching—popularized in 16th-century Venice and used in Britain by the late 1500s for political and personal motifs—and copper-wheel engraving, which became widespread in 18th-century England due to the clarity of lead crystal glass.^[4] Modern abrasive etching, such as sandblasting, builds on these traditions by propelling fine particles to carve designs, allowing for shading, carving, and three-dimensional effects in both artistic and functional applications like windows, awards, and architectural panels.^[1] Today, glass etching remains valued for its versatility in creating personalized items, museum-quality art, and ecclesiastical decorations, blending historical craftsmanship with contemporary tools.^[1]

History

Ancient Origins

The earliest known instances of glass surface decoration through abrasive methods trace back to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, where rudimentary scratching and grinding techniques were employed on glass artifacts dating from the second millennium BCE. In these civilizations, artisans used harder materials such as sand, pumice, or stone tools to create simple decorative motifs on beads, inlays, and small vessels, often as part of finishing processes that involved polishing or incising basic patterns.^[5]^[6] These techniques were labor-intensive, relying on manual abrasion that produced shallow engravings limited to surface-level designs, without the use of chemical agents.^[6] By the Roman Empire, particularly from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, abrasive etching evolved into more refined decorative practices on glass vessels, employing materials like sand, emery, or hard stone points to scratch patterns and motifs. Artisans scratched linear designs or used wheel-based tools with abrasives to grind and cut surfaces, creating intaglio effects or simulating relief on cups, bowls, and bottles.^[7] These methods remained constrained by hand-operated tools, resulting in shallow engravings that were time-consuming to execute and typically limited to geometric or figurative outlines rather than deep carvings.^[7]^[8] Key archaeological evidence includes etched Roman glassware from sites like Pompeii, where artifacts such as amulets and cameo vases feature incised designs made through abrasive scratching or cutting, often depicting deities or symbolic motifs.^[9]^[10] Over 360 vessels and fragments from the late Roman period, analyzed through microscopy, reveal consistent use of cold-worked abrasive techniques for figurative engravings, highlighting workshops in regions like the Rhineland and Italy.^[8] Such finds underscore the prevalence of these manual processes before the advent of chemical methods in later eras.

Chemical Etching Development

The chemical etching of glass, utilizing hydrofluoric acid to selectively dissolve the silica surface, was first discovered in the late 17th century by German glassmaker Heinrich Schwanhardt in Nuremberg. Working around 1670, Schwanhardt identified the corrosive properties of hydrofluoric acid vapors, enabling the creation of intricate frosted designs on glass objects by protecting certain areas with resists such as wax or pitch. This breakthrough marked a shift from mechanical abrasion methods, allowing for finer, more uniform patterns on spectacles, vessels, and decorative items, though the technique remained experimental and hazardous due to the acid's toxicity.^[11] In the 18th century, the process underwent significant refinement in Sweden, where chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated in 1771 that hydrofluoric acid could systematically etch glass surfaces, earning him recognition as a key figure in its development. Swedish glassworks, such as those in Småland, industrialized the method for producing decorative tableware and panels, applying acid baths to masked areas for scalable output. This period saw the technique's integration into broader European glass production, with Sweden exporting etched wares that combined chemical etching with traditional engraving for enhanced aesthetic depth.^[12] By the Victorian era in England (1830s–1900), chemical etching gained immense popularity, beginning with the 1857 patent for commercial acid etching by the Richardson company in Stourbridge, which facilitated mass production of etched glass for tableware, windows, and lampshades, often using paraffin wax or Brunswick black as resists to shield non-etched areas during acid exposure. Innovators like John Northwood in Stourbridge patented etching aids, including template machines around 1863, which improved precision and reduced application hazards by controlling acid contact. These advancements enabled intricate floral and geometric designs on everyday items, transforming etching from artisanal craft to industrial staple.^[3]^[13] The technique spread across Europe and to America by the late 19th century, profoundly influencing Art Nouveau styles through artists like Émile Gallé and René Lalique, who employed acid etching to achieve layered, organic motifs in vases and lighting. In the United States, firms inspired by European imports adapted it for decorative panels and lamps, blending etched surfaces with iridescent finishes to evoke natural forms. This diffusion solidified chemical etching's role in bridging Victorian utility with emerging modernist aesthetics.^[14]

Modern Advancements

In the early 20th century, glass etching saw significant automation through the adoption of sandblasting machines, which propelled abrasive particles at high velocity to create frosted patterns more efficiently than manual methods. Patented in 1870 by Benjamin Chew Tilghman, sandblasting gained traction for industrial use by the 1910s, with the introduction of enclosed cabinets in 1918 to contain dust and improve safety during etching processes on glass surfaces.^[15] By the 1920s, American glass factories integrated these machines into production lines, enabling faster decorative etching on tableware and panels, as seen in the roaring twenties era where sandblasting complemented cutting and painting techniques for mass output.^[16] This shift marked a transition from artisanal to mechanized fabrication, boosting factory productivity amid growing demand for etched glass in consumer goods.^[17] Following World War II, glass etching experienced a revival in mid-century modern design, where frosted and etched surfaces emphasized simplicity, functionality, and natural light diffusion in furniture and signage. Architects and designers like Charles and Ray Eames incorporated etched glass elements into tabletops, cabinet doors, and illuminated signs, aligning with the era's optimistic post-war aesthetic that favored clean lines and organic forms.^[18] This period's emphasis on modular furniture and public signage, such as in retail displays, leveraged etching for subtle texture and privacy without ornate decoration, reflecting broader shifts toward efficient, everyday modernism.^[19] Etched glass thus became integral to the mid-century movement, enhancing visual appeal in homes and commercial spaces through the 1950s and 1960s.^[20] From the 1980s to the 2000s, advancements in digital stenciling and computer numerical control (CNC) revolutionized precision in glass etching, allowing complex patterns to be replicated with minimal error. CNC systems, which evolved from 1950s numerical control prototypes, integrated with sandblasting and laser setups by the 1980s, enabling automated routing of abrasive jets or beams based on digital designs.^[21] This facilitated intricate motifs in architectural panels and consumer products, reducing labor and waste compared to manual stenciling.^[17] By the 2000s, software-driven CNC machines supported customizable etching for high-volume production, marking a key step toward digital fabrication in the industry.^[22] In the 2010s to 2025, eco-friendly etching pastes and hybrid techniques have addressed environmental concerns, particularly the toxicity of hydrofluoric (HF) acid. Researchers developed fluoride-free pastes using phosphoric acid or citric acid, which selectively dissolve glass surfaces to create textures without hazardous byproducts; for instance, a 2022 method employed 20 wt% citric acid at 95°C, yielding ~0.8 µm micro-pits and ~19.5% haze after 10 hours on aluminosilicate glass, with extension to 16 hours producing 1.5 µm micro-pits and up to 59% haze while minimizing waste.^[23]^[24] These alternatives, reviewed in 2024 for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) applications, reduce HF dependency and enhance sustainability in industrial etching.^[25] Concurrently, hybrid methods combine etching with LED integration for smart glass, where laser-etched patterns on clear surfaces channel light from embedded LEDs to produce dynamic, illuminated graphics with a 3D effect, popular in signage and displays since the early 2020s.^[26] Globally, Asia, particularly China, has driven the rise of etched glass exports, fueled by rapid urbanization and demand for decorative panels. As of 2025, China's flat glass market, including architectural applications, is projected to grow at approximately 6.4% CAGR through the mid-2020s, with exports of processed glass—including etched varieties—reaching billions in value, supported by advanced manufacturing hubs producing for international markets.^[27] This trend underscores China's dominance in supplying etched decorative elements for building facades and interiors worldwide.

Principles and Materials

Fundamental Principles

Glass etching fundamentally involves the selective removal of the silica-based microstructure in glass, creating frosted, opaque, or textured surfaces through chemical diffusion or mechanical abrasion that erodes microscopic layers of the material.^[28] The glass, primarily composed of an amorphous network of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) tetrahedra linked in three dimensions, undergoes surface alteration where these structural units are disrupted and removed, transitioning the surface from specular reflection to diffuse interaction with light.^[29] This process relies on the inherent non-crystalline nature of glass, which lacks a regular lattice and thus etches isotropically without preferential directions.^[28] The optical effects of etching stem from increased surface roughness, which scatters incident light in multiple directions rather than allowing transmission as in smooth, transparent glass.^[30] On unetched surfaces, light passes with minimal deviation due to the uniform refractive index, but etching introduces defects like ellipsoidal pits or cracks that redirect photons, producing a matte or frosted appearance.^[30] Depth control during etching modulates scattering intensity, enabling the creation of three-dimensional illusions by varying the degree of opacity and light diffusion across the surface.^[30] Chemically, the process centers on the dissolution of SiO₂ in acidic solutions, where surface silanol (SiOH) groups are protonated or deprotonated based on pH, facilitating the substitution with fluorinated species that form soluble compounds.^[31] In hydrofluoric acid-based etchants, this leads to network breakdown, with metal ions in multicomponent glasses accelerating dissolution by weakening Si-O bonds.^[31] The reaction proceeds via initial rate-limiting steps at the surface, followed by rapid removal of fragmented units, resulting in controlled material loss without bulk structural collapse.^[31] Physical factors significantly influence etching behavior, particularly glass composition, which dictates the rate of surface removal.^[32] Soda-lime glass, rich in network modifiers like Na₂O and CaO, etches more rapidly initially than borosilicate glass due to a less rigid SiO₂ network, though it forms protective crusts that slow the process over time.^[32] Borosilicate glass, with higher B₂O₃ content, sustains etching rates longer owing to slower crust deposition and greater chemical stability from its strengthened tetrahedral structure.^[33] Surface tension plays a role in etchant distribution, while masking adhesion principles ensure pattern fidelity by resisting lateral penetration.^[34] Prerequisites for effective etching include uniform surface preparation to expose the bulk composition and minimize defects that could cause uneven removal.^[35] Methods such as polishing followed by chemical cleaning with bases like NaOH or acids like HF achieve root-mean-square roughness below 3 nm, preventing contamination or preferential leaching that alters etch uniformity.^[35] Resist materials, such as thick photoresists combined with adhesion-promoting layers like chromium, are essential to maintain mask integrity and avoid undercutting, where etchant seeps beneath the mask edges.^[34]

Glass Types and Etching Agents

Soda-lime glass, the most prevalent type comprising approximately 90% of commercial glass production, is highly suitable for etching due to its composition of 60-75% silica, 12-18% soda, and 5-12% lime, which allows for relatively rapid surface dissolution in etching solutions.^[36]^[37] It is commonly used in windows and containers, where its etchability enables straightforward pattern creation without excessive resistance. Borosilicate glass, featuring 12-13% boron trioxide and over 80% silica, offers superior heat resistance and lower thermal expansion (3.3 × 10⁻⁶/K), but exhibits slower etching rates compared to soda-lime, often requiring adjusted conditions to achieve comparable depths due to its enhanced chemical durability.^[38]^[39] Lead crystal glass, incorporating lead oxide for brilliance and refractive index, is favored for luxury items like decorative ware; its etching proceeds via similar mechanisms but demands careful control to preserve optical clarity, as lead content influences surface reaction kinetics.^[40] These glass varieties rely on surface reactions with etching agents that target silica networks, though compatibility varies with composition.^[41] Preparation of glass surfaces is essential to ensure uniform etching and minimize defects. Cleaning typically involves solvents such as acetone or isopropyl alcohol to remove oils, fingerprints, and residues, followed by rinsing with deionized water and drying with lint-free wipes or nitrogen blow-off to achieve a contamination-free substrate.^[42] Annealing the glass prior to etching, by heating to around 500-600°C and controlled cooling, reduces internal stresses that could lead to cracking during the process, while also stabilizing etch rates—for instance, annealed borosilicate wafers show consistent dissolution compared to unannealed ones. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) serves as the primary chemical etching agent, typically applied in 5-20% aqueous solutions to dissolve silica through formation of soluble fluorosilicic complexes, with rates varying by concentration (e.g., up to 1 μm/min for soda-lime in buffered solutions).^[43]^[41] For mechanical etching, abrasive media such as aluminum oxide or silicon carbide are propelled against the surface; these hard materials (silicon carbide reaching Mohs hardness 9.5) effectively abrade glass without chemical alteration, suitable for deeper or textured effects.^[44] Resist materials protect unetched areas during processing, selected for strong adhesion to glass and resistance to agents. Vinyl stencils, often 4-mil thick adhesive films, provide moderate detail resolution and are removed post-etching via peeling and solvent washing, leveraging their flexibility for curved surfaces.^[45] Wax resists, applied by brushing or dipping, offer simple masking with good edge definition but require heating for application and solvent stripping for removal, though they may soften under prolonged exposure.^[46] Photoresists, such as HF-resistant photosensitive films or liquids, enable high-precision patterns via UV exposure and development; they exhibit excellent adhesion (via silane coupling) and are stripped using alkaline solutions or plasma ashing without residue.^[47]^[48] In the 2000s, safer alternatives to pure HF emerged, including non-toxic pastes based on ammonium bifluoride (NH₄HF₂), which decomposes in situ to generate mild HF equivalents for home and artistic use; these formulations, often mixed with thickeners for paste consistency, achieved comparable frosting effects while reducing direct handling of concentrated acids.^[49]^[50]

Techniques

Chemical Etching

Hydrofluoric acid is extremely hazardous and requires strict safety measures, including use in a fume hood, personal protective equipment (PPE) such as chemical-resistant gloves, goggles, and apron, availability of calcium gluconate as an antidote, and professional supervision where possible.^[51] Chemical etching of glass involves the selective removal of material from the surface using acidic solutions, typically hydrofluoric acid (HF), to create frosted, matte, or patterned designs. This process relies on a resist material to protect areas not intended for etching, allowing the acid to corrode only exposed portions and produce a smooth, translucent finish that diffuses light. Unlike mechanical methods, chemical etching achieves uniform depth without physical abrasion, making it suitable for both artistic and industrial applications on soda-lime or borosilicate glass types.^[3]^[52] The process begins with design transfer to a resist layer applied to the clean glass surface. For custom artistic work, a hand-drawn wax resist is commonly used: the glass is coated with melted beeswax or a similar acid-resistant substance, and the design is scratched through using a stylus, needles, or a pantograph machine to expose the desired areas. In modern decorative applications, vinyl stencils cut with machines like Cricut provide precise masking; the adhesive vinyl is applied directly to the glass, weeded to reveal the pattern, and secured with tape to prevent leakage. For industrial precision, photolithography employs photosensitive resists patterned via UV light exposure and development, enabling high-resolution features in microfluidic or optical components.^[53]^[54]^[34] Acid application follows, either by immersion in a diluted HF solution or topical use of etching cream. In traditional immersion, the masked glass is submerged in a bath of 60% HF mixed with water (e.g., 1:2.5 ratio) for 15-60 minutes, depending on desired depth, with agitation to ensure even contact. Modern cream-based methods, using commercial products like Armour Etch (a buffered HF paste), involve brushing a thick layer over the stencil and allowing it to dwell for 5-15 minutes at room temperature above 65°F (18°C), periodically redistributing the cream for uniform etching. After the dwell period, the acid is neutralized by thorough rinsing with lukewarm water, often followed by brushing to remove residue, and the resist is peeled or dissolved away. The glass is then cleaned in hot water or a mild solvent to eliminate any remaining wax or vinyl, yielding a clean etched surface.^[53]^[54]^[55] Variations include deep etching for three-dimensional effects, achieved through multiple layering: after an initial etch and resist removal, a new partial resist is applied to protect etched areas, followed by repeated acid exposures to carve deeper reliefs, as seen in "sculptured" patterns on single-color glass resembling carved marble. Post-etching, color can be added to the frosted surface using methods such as metallic waxes, paints, inks, or colored pencils for decorative enhancement.^[56]^[57] Chemical etching offers a smooth frosted finish that provides privacy while transmitting light, scalable for large architectural panels up to several square meters, and was historically prominent in Victorian-era glassware for tableware and lampshades, where it enabled intricate, mass-produced designs after commercialization in the 1850s.^[3]^[58]^[59] Common pitfalls include undercutting, where acid seeps beneath the resist if adhesion fails (e.g., due to poor surface cleaning or incompatible materials), leading to blurred edges; this is mitigated by using high-quality, tightly adhering resists like vinyl or wax. Etch depth must be controlled via acid concentration (typically 5-60% HF) and dwell time, as overexposure can weaken the glass or cause uneven frosting, while underexposure results in faint patterns.^[60]^[52]

Mechanical Etching

Mechanical etching of glass involves the physical removal of material from the surface using abrasive forces, creating frosted or engraved designs without relying on chemical reactions. This technique contrasts with other methods by employing mechanical abrasion to achieve precise patterns, making it suitable for both industrial and artistic applications where durability and depth are prioritized. The primary method in mechanical etching is sandblasting, which propels abrasive particles through compressed air onto the glass surface to erode it selectively. Typically, abrasives with a grit size of 100 to 220 are used, such as aluminum oxide or silicon carbide, to balance etching speed and surface finish. The process operates at air pressures ranging from 40 to 100 PSI, allowing for controlled depth by adjusting the nozzle distance and exposure time, often resulting in etch depths up to 1 mm for deeper carvings.^[61]^[62] For finer details, hand tools provide manual control in mechanical etching. Diamond-tipped engravers scratch precise lines into the glass, while rotary tools like Dremel devices equipped with diamond wheel points enable engraving and grinding for intricate or curved designs. These tools are particularly effective for small-scale work, where the operator can vary speed and pressure to create varying line widths and depths. Wheel cutting, using rotating abrasive wheels, is favored for producing smooth curves and contours on larger pieces.^[63]^[64] Stenciling is essential for defining etched areas in mechanical processes, using protective masks to shield non-target regions from abrasion. Adhesive vinyl masks or rubber cement applications form barriers that withstand the blast, ensuring clean edges and repeatable patterns. Rubber-based stencils, with thicknesses of 0.025 to 0.035 inches, are commonly molded for durability during sandblasting on glass.^[65]^[66] Depth control in mechanical etching is achieved through variables like mask thickness, abrasive grit size, air pressure, and blast duration, which can range from seconds for shallow frosts to minutes for pronounced reliefs. Thicker masks allow deeper etching in exposed areas by slowing penetration, while multi-pass techniques—removing and reapplying masks between blasts—create gradients or layered effects for complex dimensionality.^[67] Key advantages of mechanical etching include the absence of hazardous chemicals, reducing environmental and health risks compared to dissolution-based methods. It excels with thick glass substrates, enabling robust engravings on panels up to several inches deep without structural compromise. This technique has been widely applied in signage production since the 1920s, where sandblasting allowed for durable, illuminated displays in commercial settings.^[68]^[69]

Laser Etching

Laser etching represents a contemporary, non-contact technique for modifying glass surfaces, primarily using CO2 or fiber lasers to induce controlled thermal effects. CO2 lasers, with power outputs typically ranging from 10 to 50 W and a wavelength of 10.6 micrometers, excel at vaporizing or cracking the glass surface through rapid heating and cooling, which generates micro-fractures and a characteristic frosted appearance without material removal beyond the superficial layer. Fiber lasers, operating at around 1064 nm, can also be employed but often require preparatory surface treatments, such as applying absorptive coatings, to overcome glass's low absorption at this wavelength and achieve similar thermal shock effects. This method contrasts with earlier etching approaches by enabling digital precision directly on the material.^[70]^[71]^[72] The etching process relies on computer-controlled scanning of the laser beam, utilizing either vector paths for outlining designs or raster patterns for filling areas, all derived from CAD files. No physical masks or templates are necessary, allowing direct importation from vector graphics software like Adobe Illustrator or specialized tools such as LightBurn, which facilitates rapid prototyping and customization from digital artwork. Operators adjust parameters including beam speed (commonly 100-500 mm/s) and power density to control etch depth—shallow profiles around 0.01 mm for delicate motifs versus deeper incisions for enhanced visibility—while incorporating air assist or wet media to manage heat dissipation.^[73]^[74]^[75]^[76]^[77] This technique offers significant advantages, including sub-millimeter precision for highly intricate patterns that would be challenging with manual methods, seamless scalability for transitioning from individual pieces to high-volume production via automated systems, and an environmentally benign operation that eliminates chemical etchants or abrasive waste. In the 2020s, advancements have democratized access, with compact portable diode lasers (often 5-20 W blue or UV models) enabling DIY etching on glass through simple masking techniques, while hybrid workflows integrate [3D printing](/page/3D printing) to produce custom alignment stencils or fixtures for complex geometries.^[78]^[79]^[80]^[81]^[82]

Applications

Decorative and Artistic

Glass etching has long been employed in decorative and artistic contexts to create personalized and aesthetically pleasing items, transforming ordinary glass into unique pieces that emphasize light diffusion and intricate designs. In fine arts and crafts, etching allows for the application of motifs such as monograms, florals, and custom patterns on small-scale objects, enhancing their visual appeal through frosted textures that catch and refract light.^[83] Common art forms include custom mirrors etched with personalized motifs, where designs like elegant script initials or delicate floral borders are applied to create functional yet artistic decor elements. Jewelry and ornaments, such as pendants or holiday baubles, often feature fine etched details like intertwined vines or symbolic icons, providing a subtle, tactile elegance suitable for personal adornment. For instance, etched portraiture on glass panels achieves photorealistic effects through precise control of etching depth, replicating facial features and shading to produce lifelike images that appear three-dimensional when backlit.^[83]^[84]^[84] Craft techniques in this domain frequently involve accessible DIY kits that enable hobbyists to etch home items like wine glasses or vases using etching cream pastes applied via stencils. These kits typically include adhesive vinyl for masking designs, allowing users to achieve clean, permanent frosted patterns with minimal equipment, such as brushes for even cream application followed by rinsing. Chemical etching creams, often hydrofluoric acid-based, provide the precision needed for artistic motifs on curved surfaces, making it a popular method for creating bespoke gifts.^[85]^[85] Artistic movements have prominently featured glass etching, notably in the Art Deco style of the 1920s, where geometric patterns like zigzags, chevrons, and sunbursts were etched onto glass to evoke modernity and symmetry. Designers such as René Lalique integrated acid etching with sandblasting to produce bold, frosted effects on decorative objects, influencing the era's emphasis on luxurious, angular aesthetics. In contemporary studio glass art, artists like Tracey Sheppard combine etching techniques such as drill engraving, sandblasting, and acid etching to craft intricate, layered designs that push the boundaries of texture and form in gallery pieces.^[86]^[86]^[87] The market for handmade etched glass thrives in galleries and custom services, where pieces are commissioned for weddings or as personalized gifts, often featuring motifs tailored to individual stories like family crests or romantic symbols. These items, ranging from etched champagne flutes to ornamental vases, command premium prices due to their artisanal quality and emotional resonance, with platforms facilitating global sales to niche buyers such as event planners and collectors. Techniques like laser and chemical etching enable the artistic precision required for such detailed, one-of-a-kind works.^[88]^[88]

Architectural and Industrial

In architectural applications, glass etching plays a key role in creating privacy solutions such as frosted partitions for offices and hotels, where acid-etched glass provides an opaque finish that obscures visibility while permitting natural light transmission.^[89] This technique is particularly valued in commercial spaces like conference rooms and lobbies, enhancing functionality without sacrificing aesthetics.^[90] For decorative facades in public buildings, including museums and cultural centers, acid-etched glass diffuses light to reduce glare and add visual interest, as seen in exterior panels and atriums that integrate with modern designs.^[91] In industrial contexts, etching is employed for permanent marking on glass components, such as serial numbers and identification codes on laboratory glassware, ensuring traceability and compliance in scientific and manufacturing environments.^[92] Similarly, automotive glass benefits from etching for labeling parts like windshields, which may include codes compatible with heads-up display (HUD) systems to maintain optical clarity during projections. As of 2025, etched glass is also integrated into holographic windshield displays for augmented reality HUDs, enabling transparent projections of navigation and safety information directly onto the glass surface.^[93]^[94] Anti-glare treatments via etching are also applied to display glass in industrial settings, minimizing reflections for better visibility in electronic panels and screens.^[95] Large-scale etching for skyscraper panels often utilizes automated sandblasting systems to process expansive flat sheets, achieving uniform frosted finishes across dimensions up to several meters for curtainwalls and spandrels.^[96] These methods enable efficient production for high-rise constructions, where etched glass contributes to both structural integration and aesthetic modulation.^[97] Etched glass offers benefits including high UV resistance, with some variants blocking up to 98% of ultraviolet rays to protect interiors from fading and damage.^[98] Its durability in harsh environments stems from the matte surface treatment, which resists scratching and weathering while remaining easy to maintain over time.^[95] Furthermore, integration with smart glass technologies allows for switchable opacity, combining etched patterns with electronic controls to dynamically adjust privacy levels in architectural and industrial installations.^[98] A notable case study in modern architecture is the Kimbell Art Museum expansion in Fort Worth, Texas, designed by Renzo Piano, where acid-etched glass panels with white interlayers reduce reflections and enhance natural illumination in gallery spaces.^[99] Another example includes the use of custom acid-etched glass in the Reach at The Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., for balcony partitions and railings that provide privacy and light diffusion in a high-traffic public venue.^[100]

Notable Examples

Historical Pieces

One of the earliest examples of glass etching in Roman artifacts is found in engraved vessels from the late Roman period, where scenes and inscriptions were created by scratching the surface with a hard stone point or wheel, producing fine linear decorations on colorless glass.^[101] A prominent instance is the Portland Vase, a late 1st-century B.C. cameo glass amphora made from layered dark blue and white glass, with mythological scenes depicting the marriage of Peleus and Thetis carved through abrasive cutting to reveal white figures against the blue background, showcasing early precision in subtractive techniques.^[102] In 18th-century Sweden, the emerging glass industry produced engraved decanters featuring intricate floral designs, such as those from early glassworks like Kosta, which served as precursors to larger-scale industrial etching processes by combining chemical treatment with wheel engraving for decorative motifs on clear or colored vessels.^[103] These pieces often incorporated delicate vine and flower patterns etched to enhance light refraction, reflecting the period's shift toward ornamental tableware influenced by European rococo styles. Victorian-era examples include cut-glass tableware from Waterford Crystal, where brilliant cutting—deep, faceted incisions made with rotating wheels—created sparkling patterns on decanters, bowls, and stemware, exemplifying the era's emphasis on opulent, multifaceted surfaces for dining sets.^[104] Notable collections preserving these historical pieces include the British Museum's holdings of 19th-century etched and engraved glass panels from English and European makers, featuring pastoral and floral motifs executed via wheel engraving, as well as American Tiffany Studios' late-19th-century lampshades in Favrile glass with acid-etched decorations, such as insect and floral designs on iridescent surfaces. These artifacts demonstrate the evolution of etching precision from Roman abrasive scratches to 19th-century chemical and mechanical hybrids, while incorporating cultural motifs like mythology, nature, and domestic symbolism that reflected societal values of their times.^[102]

Contemporary Works

In contemporary architecture, etched glass plays a key role in functional and aesthetic designs, such as privacy screens in airport lounges, providing both seclusion and visual interest while allowing natural light diffusion. Similarly, etched glass contributes to sun shading in modern high-rises, where patterned surfaces reduce glare and heat gain without obstructing views, as seen in innovative facade systems that integrate acid-etched finishes for energy efficiency.^[105] Artistic applications of etched glass have evolved with laser technology, enabling intricate subsurface engravings for memorials and studio pieces. Artists at Lucid Glass Studio create laser-etched glass monuments, such as the tribute to the lost vessel "Pelican" and memorials for the Beirut Nine, where detailed etchings capture historical and emotional narratives within durable glass panels.^[106] In studio work, contemporary creators like those at Glass Menagerie produce custom carved and sandblasted etched glass art, blending traditional techniques with modern motifs for wall installations and sculptures that highlight light refraction.^[107] Commercial uses of etched glass extend to personalized awards and everyday products. Companies like EDCO offer engraved glass trophies and awards, where deep etching allows for precise logos and text on clear or colored glass bases, making them popular for corporate recognition events.^[108] For consumer electronics, micro-etched glass screen protectors provide anti-glare functionality on smartphones; manufacturers such as SXET produce these with fine surface etching to minimize reflections and fingerprints while preserving display clarity.^[109] Innovations in the 2020s have introduced interactive etched glass displays enhanced by LED backlighting, particularly in cultural venues. Etched diffusion glass panels, when paired with LED arrays, create immersive, even light distribution for dynamic exhibits, allowing touch-responsive visuals that overlay digital content on physical artifacts in museums and galleries.^[110] Globally, etched glass reflects cultural adaptations in contemporary design. In Japan-inspired interiors, modern shoji-style partitions use frosted or etched glass panels on sliding frames to evoke traditional translucency while offering enhanced privacy and durability, as in custom room dividers that combine wood with acid-etched surfaces.^[111] In Europe, eco-friendly etched glass appears in sustainable buildings, such as the low-carbon ORAÉ® glass facades of Habitat 7 in Gothenburg, Sweden, where etched finishes aid light control and align with BREEAM standards for reduced environmental impact.^[112]

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Acid-Etching. A Forgotten Story | Heidelberg University Publishing
... Heinrich Schwanhardt discovered the previously unknown substance and its use for altering glass surfaces in a novel manner. Keywords Heinrich Schwanhardt ...
[12]
Cold decoration, acid etching - Bergdala glastekniska museum
The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele is often called "the father of glass etching" - in 1771 he showed that hydrofluoric acid (HF) would mark glass.
[13]
Template machine for glass etching invented by Mr. John Northwood
Template machine for glass etching invented by Mr. John Northwood, c. 1863, with stencils, stiletto and waxed glass, finished glass broken ...
[14]
Evolution's influence on art nouveau - Nature
Jul 1, 2009 · He exploited the sensual properties of glass, using acid etching to form opaque vessels with layered colours and shaped surfaces. His ...
[15]
History of sandblasting in the UK - Airblast Limited
Sep 17, 2025 · It was first patented in 1870 by Benjamin Chew Tilghman, a Pennsylvanian inventor. Tilghman had first seen the effect of wind abrasion on glass ...
[16]
GREAT AMERICAN GLASS: THE ROARING TWENTIES AND ...
In the 1930s, manufacturers came to rely on automatic machines to produce great quantities of utilitarian glassware. Victorian and Colonial styles persisted, ...Missing: automation | Show results with:automation
[17]
Micromachining Glass: A Brief History
Jun 1, 2020 · Sandblasting was introduced to accelerate workflows. This uses a jet of highly-pressurized abrasive media to remove surface molecules via ...
[18]
https://sanssoucie.com/blog/2024/11/midcentury-modern-decor-frosted-glass-doors/
[19]
Preserving Signage on Historic Buildings
Metal and/or glass signs were sometimes added in the early- to mid-20th century. The development of neon led to a new method of advertising that was popular for ...
[20]
Timeless Elegance: 19th and 20th Century Vintage Glassware ...
Aug 28, 2023 · Modern Lifestyle: The post-World War II era brought about lifestyle changes, focusing on simplicity and functionality. Mid-century glassware ...
[21]
A Brief History of CNC Machining - Brogan & Patrick Mfg.Corp.
Oct 27, 2022 · CNC machining started with artillery shells, became commercial in the 1950s, and revolutionized manufacturing in the 1980s-90s, becoming common ...
[22]
The History of CNC Machining: From Punch Tapes to Precision ...
Feb 10, 2023 · The 1980s was a period of rapid growth for CNC machining, as computer technology continued to advance. During this time, CNC machines became ...
[23]
Sustainable technology for mass production of Ag nanoparticles and ...
In order to avoid the toxic HF acid, researchers developed an eco-friendly etching process using cream (paste) containing phosphoric acid to remove SiNx layer ...
[24]
A template-free, more environmentally friendly approach for glass ...
Jan 18, 2022 · With this novel strategy, the etchant uses fluoride-free chemicals such as citric acid to texture silicate glass. Etchant concentration, etch ...
[25]
Eco‐friendly glass wet etching for MEMS application: A review
Jul 2, 2024 · This review paper will cover the conventional HF-based wet etching method and alternative HF etching processes (eco-friendly materials).
[26]
Illuminated Innovations: Laser-Etched Graphics on Clear Surfaces - Specialty Lighting
### Summary of Hybrid Etching with LED Lighting for Glass and Recent Trends
[27]
Architectural Glass Export Trends to Watch in 2025-HUIZE GLASS
### Summary of China Glass Export Trends (2025)
[28]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4203964_Wet_etching_of_glass
[29]
(PDF) Wet etching of glass - ResearchGate
PDF | The purpose of this paper is to find ways to Improve the wet etching techniques used for glass etching. Essential elements of glass wet etching.Missing: summary fundamental principles
[30]
None
### Summary of Fundamental Principles of Glass from the Document
[31]
Determination of light-scattering properties of glass surfaces
A new method is described for characterizing surfaces with optical light scattering. ... Wet etch step parameters of AIT process have been varied and effect of ...
[32]
Etching Mechanism of Vitreous Silicon Dioxide in HF-Based Solutions
### Summary of SiO2 Dissolution in Acids for Glass Etching
[33]
Influence of glass composition on the kinetics of glass etching and ...
Nov 1, 2018 · We have studied the dissolution of four types of commercial glass substrates in etching solutions containing various concentrations of HF.
[34]
(PDF) A new masking technology for deep glass etching and its ...
In addition, the lateral undercutting of glass caused by the underetching of the Cr mask was minimized to 27% of the etching depth.Missing: principles | Show results with:principles<|separator|>
[35]
Evaluation of surface preparation methods for glass
In this study, methods of surface preparation by polishing, fiber-drawing, melt-casting and chemical etching were evaluated with x-ray photoelectron ...
[36]
3 Common Glass Types: Properties and Applications
Jul 14, 2015 · 3 Most Common Commercial Glass Types and Their Applications · Soda-lime Silica Glasses · Borosilicate Glasses · Phosphate Glasses.Missing: etching: | Show results with:etching:
[37]
Types of Glass - Crystal Art USA
Soda-lime glass is the most common (90% of glass made), and least expensive form of glass. It usually contains 60-75% silica, 12-18% soda, 5-12% lime.
[38]
[PDF] SCHOTT - Technical Glasses
The B2O3 content for borosilicate glass is typically 12 – 13 % and the SiO2 content over 80 %. High chemical durability and low thermal expansion (3.3 x 10–6/K) ...
[39]
Effect of Phase Separation on HF Etch Rate of Borosilicate Glasses
Etch rates of borosilicate glasses in HF were studied as a function of heat-treatment time and temperature for liquid-in-liquid phase separation.
[40]
Acid polishing of lead glass | Journal of Mathematics in Industry
Jun 3, 2011 · The process consists of sequential immersion of the glass in a mixture of hydrofluoric (HF) and sulphuric (H2SO4) acid, followed by rinsing to ...
[41]
Wet etching of glass - IEEE Xplore
For an improved surface an optimal solution HF/HCl (10:1) was established for Pyrex and soda lime glasses. The developed techniques are currently used for ...
[42]
[PDF] Cleaning procedures for glass substrates
Prepare a bath of soapy water. Use a lint-free wipe and cotton swab to gently rub the surface clean of dirt and residues. Rinse thoroughly in DI water and blow ...
[43]
Acid Used for Etching Glass: Best Options Explained - Accio
Rating 5.0 (150) · Free 14-day returnsHydrofluoric acid (HF) remains the industry standard for its effectiveness on silica-based glass, but concentrations typically range from 5% to 20% for safety ...
[44]
Silicon Carbide | Metal Finishing | Surface Prep
Silicon Carbide is the hardest blast media available. Its toughness and sharp edges make it a preferred abrasive for use on engraving stone, etching glass or ...
[45]
What Stenciles Are - Glass Etching Supplies Superstore
These Stencils are die-cut 4mil vinyl stencils with moderate detail, that can be used with Armour Etch or Sand Blasted. You can either use a positive or ...
[46]
Chemical Etching of Glass : 12 Steps (with Pictures) - Instructables
Chemical etching involves creating a mask, applying etchant, and rinsing. The process creates a frosted image that does not wash off.
[47]
[PDF] Ultradeep fused silica glass etching with an HF - Daniel Wagenaar
The method uses an HF-resistant photosensitive resist (HFPR) to etch fused silica over 600m deep, maintaining a polished surface and avoiding pitting.
[48]
Photoresist Films - IKONICS Imaging
PBVinyl photo resist film is an advanced 10 mil film that provides the deep etching ability of vinyl while offering the quick and... Choose Options.
[49]
Method for preparing decorative glass using glass etching composition
The most representative glass etching composition which has hitherto been used for frosting the surface of a glass contains fluoric acid, sulfuric acid or the ...
[50]
Glass etching composition and method for frosting using the same
The present invention relates to a glass etching liquid or gel composition comprising ammonium bifluoride, a water-miscible organic solvent and water, in which ...
[51]
American Cut Glass - Engraving Types: Definitions and Some References
### Definition and Process of Acid Etching for Cut Glass
[52]
Heisey Etchings and Carvings Display 2015-2016
In ordinary plate etching the design consisted of a series of relatively thin lines along which the acid had operated to etch the glass. The acid being more or ...
[53]
Armour Etch Glass Etching Cream Instructions - Etchworld.com
Jan 3, 2020 · Place the glass under slow flowing ,lukewarm water and gently brush or wipe off the cream, careful not to have any rinse water contact the ...
[54]
Patterns - Etchings and the Etching Process
The article is then ready for the hydrofluoric acid bath, which eats away or etches, only the exposed glass wherever it is not covered with protective wax, ...
[55]
Etched PatternsOld - Carder Steuben Glass Association
Acid etched patterns could be made on cased glass which made a contrasting pattern on the glass or the pattern could be made on a single color.
[56]
Adding Color To Your Glass Etching - Etchworld.com
Free delivery over $49.95 30-day returnsMay 11, 2018 · They come in a wide range of colors, including metallic, are generally non-toxic, less messy, easy to use, and fairly easy to find. For a chalky ...Missing: salts | Show results with:salts
[57]
History of Glass Etching - Glass Acid Etching Specialists
Jul 15, 2019 · Glass etching is a process developed in Sweden in the 18th Century and became hugely popular in Victorian England. It's widely used in public ...
[58]
ENGLISH TABLE GLASS & ITS DECORATION
Etched decoration on glass was introduced around 1840 when hydrofluoric acid was used to develop designs. The glass would first be covered with an acid-proof ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Poor Etching Results - Armour Products.com
Nov 2, 2022 · Here are some common pitfalls and roadblocks to achieving successful etching results and our suggestions for handling them.Missing: undercutting | Show results with:undercutting
[60]
https://www.armourproducts.com/Article/poor_etching_results
[61]
Sandblasting Glass with Fine vs. Course Abrasive
Jan 10, 2018 · Traditionally a finer abrasive is always recommended. Usually around 150-180 grit or even up to the finer 220 grit.Missing: mechanical depth control
[62]
Glass Etching Set Accessory Kits - Dremel
Free delivery over $25 30-day returnsThe Dremel glass etching set includes 8 pieces, such as silicon carbide grinding stones and diamond wheel points for etching and engraving.
[63]
https://www.dremel.com/gn/en/p/glass-etching-set-2615c682ja
[64]
Rubber Sand Blast Stencils
Ideal for identification marking of tempered or laminated glass, National Stencil rubber sandblasting stencils are molded from natural or synthetic rubber. The ...
[65]
https://nationalstencil.com/rubber_sand_blast_stencil.html
[66]
Etching Glass With a Sandblaster : 11 Steps - Instructables
This method of etching it much deeper in the glass, as much as 1mm in some areas. You can see and feel the difference in glass depth with sandblasting.Missing: PSI control
[67]
Etching on Any Surface Cheaply and Without the Use of Chemicals
One of the biggest advantages to using the air eraser, over chemicals is the variety of materials you can etch on. With chemical etch, you are pretty much ...
[68]
Etched Glass Panels | Custom Etched Glass - Palace of Glass
In the late 1920's, a mold-etch process got introduced in where the designs were etched in the mold so the art was directly transferred to the medium. Glass ...
[69]
https://palaceofglass.com/etched-glass/
[70]
Fiber vs. CO 2 vs. UV: Which Laser Marker Should I Choose?
CO2 lasers work well on certain plastics and excel at glass marking applications. The longer wavelength creates frosted effects on glass surfaces through ...What Are Co Lasers? · 3-Axis Co2 Laser Marker Ml-Z... · What Are Uv Lasers?
[71]
Can a Fiber Laser Engrave Glass? - HeatSign
No, fiber lasers cannot directly engrave clear glass because glass does not absorb their 1064nm wavelength. However, workarounds exist.2. Are There Any Workarounds... · 3. What Are the Advantages...<|control11|><|separator|>
[72]
9 Best Laser-Cutting Software Products | Xometry
Jan 20, 2023 · The best software options for laser engraving are Adobe Illustrator, Affinity Designer, and LightBurn. Each one of these has powerful tools and ...
[73]
https://www.xometry.com/resources/sheet/best-laser-cutting-software/
[74]
Expert Guide For You To Laser Engrave Glass
Jul 16, 2024 · However, fiber lasers, designed for metals and plastics, operate at a wavelength that glass poorly absorbs, making them inefficient for glass ...
[75]
https://craftetch.com/laser-engrave-glass/
[76]
Laser Glass Etching: How to Master the Process - Sino Galvo
Sep 25, 2025 · Laser pulses create micro-fractures or frosted textures on the surface of glass. The process is non-contact, meaning no scratches or chips ...
[77]
How Laser Engraving Transforms Glass: Techniques And Benefits
Precision ‍and Accuracy: Laser engraving offers unmatched precision, allowing for detailed ⁤designs that are difficult, if not⁣ impossible, ‌to achieve with ...
[78]
5 Reasons Why Glass Laser Engraving is the Future
Dec 2, 2024 · Cost-Effective: Laser engraving is faster, more efficient, and requires no consumables, which helps reduce production costs. Precision and ...
[79]
https://hintan-tech.com/glass-laser-engraving/
[80]
How to Laser Engrave Glass with a Blue Diode Laser ... - YouTube
Jun 19, 2025 · Are you curious whether you can engrave glass using a blue diode laser? In this video, I experiment with the process of laser engraving four ...
[81]
Laser cutting stencils - Jake McKee
Jun 6, 2025 · It's a small, entry level 5w diode laser. It does a great job for a great many things. It makes cutting things like MDF, basswood, paper, ...
[82]
The Art of Glass Etching: Techniques and Design Ideas for ...
Dec 21, 2024 · Glass etching is a centuries-old technique that involves creating decorative patterns or designs on the surface of glass by removing layers ...
[83]
Photos on Glass - Etched Glass Portraits - Glass Menagerie
Feb 3, 2022 · Our Glass Etching Service includes a Full-color artwork and / or photographs replicated into artistic glass windows, panels, doors or mirrors.
[84]
How to Etch Glass the Easy Way! - Jennifer Maker
Jan 19, 2019 · Etch glass using vinyl decals as stencils, apply acid etching cream, brush for 3 minutes, then rinse and remove vinyl.
[85]
A Guide to Art Deco Glass - - Purlfrost
Sep 19, 2024 · Art Deco glass is a striking window design with bold geometric patterns, vibrant colors, luxurious finishes, and symmetrical, repeating ...
[86]
A cut above the rest - The Contemporary Glass Society
Nov 20, 2023 · Tracey Sheppard has perfected her glass engraving techniques for over forty years. This experience has kept her skilled work in demand ...
[87]
Custom glass engraving | Sell personalized glassware online - Printify
4.5 11 Glass engraving. Sell custom-engraved glasses for weddings, brands, and unforgettable gifts – or order your own. Turn glassware into profit with Printify.
[88]
Product Acid-Etched - Canadian Architectural Glass
Acid-etched glass is created by applying a high-strength acid solution, resulting in a frosted, opaque finish. It offers privacy and allows natural light to ...
[89]
What are the Applications of Privacy Glass? - AIS Glass
Dec 30, 2021 · Privacy glass is used in walls, partitions, public restrooms, windows, hospitality, conference rooms, and home/office decor.
[90]
Decorative Glass | Vitro Architectural Glass
Decorative glass includes dichroic, ceramic frit, digital ceramic printing, and acid-etched glass, which can be bird-friendly.
[91]
Glass Laser Marking: What Actually Works in the Real World
Jun 3, 2025 · Industrial Components: Laboratory glassware benefits tremendously from laser-marked scales, serial numbers, and identification codes. The ...Missing: etching labware
[92]
Windscreen Codes Explained | GlassFixit
Windscreen codes are a combination of numbers, letters, and symbols etched or printed on the bottom corner of your windshield.
[93]
Aesthetics and Functionality with Double-Sided Acid-Etched Glass
Jul 2, 2025 · Double-sided acid-etched glass reduces glare, adds privacy, and takes a building's look from standard to spectacular. How will you use it?
[94]
Case Study: Automated System for Air Blast Etching of Large Flat ...
Empire developed a fully automated air blast etching system with oscillating pressure nozzles and PLC-controlled automatic system controls.
[95]
July/August 2023: Glass Focus Section - The Architect's Newspaper
Aug 24, 2023 · “The tower's acid-etched, color-integral glass, and shadow box panels densify in opacity towards the center of the building's folds to ...
[96]
Etched Smart Film - Smart Glass Film
The film effectively blocks UV rays and reduces heat transfer, helping to lower air conditioning and heating costs while maintaining a comfortable indoor ...
[97]
Kimbell Art Museum by Renzo Piano: Mecca of modern architecture
In Case Studies. Kimbell Art ... Below the solar panels lies a layer of Canted fritted glass, with a white interlayer and acid etch that reduce reflections.
[98]
https://smartglass-film.com/products/other-smart-films/etched-smart-film/
[99]
Late Roman Engraved Glass Vessels - The Glassmakers
Vessels such as the bowls and beakers were decorated with scenes and inscriptions scratched into the surface of the glass. This technique, deceptively crude and ...Missing: abrasive | Show results with:abrasive
[100]
[PDF] ENGLISH CAMEO GLASS
BY THE END of the 19th century, most cameo glass was made by machines that used the acid etching process to mass-produce decorative ob- jects. Fewer and ...
[101]
Aspects of the Development of Swedish Glass Manufacturing - jstor
A Swedish domes- tic glass industry slowly started to emerge during the 18th century, a product of socioeconomic development. An implementation of artistic ...
[102]
https://info.cmog.org/sites/info.cmog.org/files/pdf/DAD1DEEE-4B86-491B-B804-69C7B1F46B40.pdf
[103]
United Airlines Lounges - Airports Nationwide | Mcgrory Glass
See how McGrory transformed United Airlines Lounges in AIrports Nationwide. Request a quote today to see what McGrory can do for you!Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[104]
News Analysis: Acid-Etched Glass - USGlass Magazine
Jun 14, 2021 · For the H&M Flagship Store in Toronto, acid-etched glass was used on the exterior of the building to create a true white. According to Dancause ...Missing: case | Show results with:case
[105]
Artistic Glass Monuments, Memorials & Sculptures
Aug 29, 2022 · Etched Glass Monument to the Lost Vessel “Pelican” · Laser Etched Glass Monuments – Beirut Nine · Etched Thick Cast Glass Monuments Cantigny Park.
[106]
Glass Menagerie - Unique Etched & Carved Glass Creations
Discover the beauty of custom art glass. Glass Menagerie creates one-of-a-kind etched & carved glass pieces tailored to your vision. Contact us today!
[107]
https://glassmenageriesf.com/
[108]
Custom Anti-Glare Etched Glass Manufacturer - SXET
We produce high-quality anti-glare glass units that have excellent levels of durability, high resolution, effective glare reduction, as well as chemical and ...
[109]
Top 10 Most Creative LED Displays - DetaiLED Solutions
Jun 29, 2024 · Enhanced by etched diffusion glass, the installation spreads light evenly across its surface, creating a smooth and immersive visual effect.
[110]
Home Glass Room Dividers - Custom & Stylish | KNR Sliding Doors
A frosted glass divider offers privacy with style. These custom glass dividers use etched or textured surfaces to obscure visibility while maintaining ...
[111]
Habitat 7 - unique project in Gothenburg with low-carbon glass
Nov 19, 2024 · Habitat 7 uses ORAÉ® glass with 64% recycled cullet, has a 42% lower carbon footprint, and is climate neutral with BREEAM and NollCO₂ ...Missing: eco- etched