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Great Unity

The Great Unity (Chinese: 大同; pinyin: dàtóng), known as datong, constitutes an ancient Chinese philosophical ideal of a utopian society, as delineated in the "Liyun" chapter of the Confucian classic Liji (Book of Rites), where the world functions as a shared commonwealth under virtuous governance, free from private ownership, social strife, and hierarchies, with universal provision for human needs ensuring harmony among all under heaven (tianxia).^[1] This vision posits leaders selected for moral excellence and competence, rather than heredity or force, fostering a state in which the elderly are sustained until their natural end, able adults engage in appropriate labor, children receive nurturing education, and the vulnerable—including orphans, widows, the disabled, and the diseased—receive comprehensive care without exception.^[1] Resources circulate freely without hoarding, motivated by communal welfare over self-interest, resulting in an absence of theft, deception, or conflict, such that doors need not be locked at night.^[2] Contrasting with the more modest "Small Tranquility" (xiaokang), which accepts regulated inequalities, the Great Unity represents an apex of moral and social evolution, though unrealized in historical practice and subject to diverse interpretations ranging from nostalgic retrospection to progressive futurism.^[1] Throughout Chinese intellectual history, it has profoundly shaped utopian thought, notably elaborated by late Qing reformer Kang Youwei in his Datongshu (Book of the Great Unity), which envisions global federation, abolition of nations and families, and technological advancement toward perpetual peace and equality.^[3] While inspiring nationalist and socialist movements—including influences on Sun Yat-sen and Mao Zedong—the concept's radical communalism has sparked debates over feasibility, with critics highlighting potential erosions of individual incentives and empirical failures in approximating such ideals.^[1]

Origins and Textual Foundations

The Liji Passage and Early Context

The primary textual foundation for the concept of Great Unity (datong) appears in the "Liyun" (Evolution of Rites) chapter of the Liji (Book of Rites), a Confucian compilation assembled during the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE–9 CE) from materials originating in the late Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE).^[4] The passage depicts an idealized state where the Great Way (da dao) prevails, rendering the world a shared commonwealth: "Men were righteous... Goods were abandoned without anyone's guarding them... This was called the Great Unity." In this vision, private accumulation ceased, doors remained unlocked, and social relations emphasized universal care—providing for the elderly until death, employment for the able-bodied, nurture for the young, and compassion for the vulnerable—without distinction based on kinship ties. Selection for roles occurred by ability rather than birth, contrasting sharply with the era's feudal hierarchies and interstate conflicts.^[5] This portrayal emerged amid the Warring States turmoil, marked by incessant warfare among seven major states and the breakdown of Zhou dynasty authority, which displaced millions and eroded traditional social bonds. The Liji passage posits Great Unity as an aspirational counterpoint to "small prosperity" (xiaokang), a lesser condition of kinship-centered stability where families guarded private interests, rituals reinforced lineage loyalties, and rulers prioritized statecraft over universal equity. Unlike the modest harmony of family and clan units that sustained partial order, Great Unity envisioned a transcendence of such divisions, with public goods serving all under Heaven (tianxia) through moral cultivation rather than coercive rule.^[6] The Liji's authorship remains uncertain, attributed to disciples of Confucius and later Ruist scholars like Dai De and Dai Sheng, whose versions were edited under imperial patronage in the Han era, but its core texts reflect pre-Qin oral and written traditions without a single authorial voice.^[7] As such, the Great Unity description functions primarily as a normative moral archetype—evoking a primordial harmony lost to historical decline—rather than a prescriptive governmental plan, emphasizing ethical transformation over institutional mechanisms.^[8]

Philosophical Core

Defining Features of the Ideal Society

In the Liji's Li Yun chapter, the Great Unity (Datong) emerges under the prevalence of the Grand Course, where a public and common spirit governs all under heaven, transcending private interests. Governance emphasizes the selection of individuals based on talents, virtue, and ability, with sincere words and cultivated harmony as foundational norms.^[9] This meritocratic approach ensures roles align with capability, fostering a society without favoritism tied to lineage or self-advancement.^[9] Social provisions form a comprehensive safety net, securing competent care for the aged until death, employment for the able-bodied, and support for the young to reach maturity. Compassion extends universally to widows, orphans, childless individuals, and those disabled by disease, guaranteeing their maintenance without regard to kinship. Labor divisions respect sex-based roles, with males assigned to fieldwork and females to domestic duties, while resources are preserved collectively—valuables not discarded wastefully nor hoarded selfishly, and physical efforts directed toward communal benefit rather than personal gain.^[9] Such structures imply constrained private property, as goods circulate based on need and ability in a system of global sharing.^[9] The resulting harmony eliminates scheming, robbery, filching, and rebellion, rendering locks obsolete and outer doors perpetually open as symbols of trust. Absent these threats, aggressive warfare and internal strife vanish, marking the Grand Union as a pinnacle of structural peace.^[9] This utopian design contrasts sharply with the "Small Tranquility" (Xiaokang), a lesser state of familial inheritance, partial affections, and self-interested accumulation that breeds conflict and necessitates fortifications.^[9] Datong thus elevates society beyond kin-centric priorities to a higher, impartial ethical order.^[9]

Relation to Confucian Ethics and Tianxia

The concept of Great Unity, or datong, forms an integral part of Confucian cosmology, particularly through its alignment with tianxia ("All Under Heaven"), which envisions a hierarchical yet inclusive civilizational order transcending discrete political states or boundaries. In this framework, tianxia represents a moral universe governed by Heaven's mandate (tianming), where unity emerges from the cultivation of virtue rather than enforced uniformity, positioning datong as the apex of harmonious integration among peoples, nature, and the cosmos.^[10] ^[11] Confucian thinkers viewed tianxia not as a static empire but as a dynamic ethical domain where rulers and subjects alike participate in a shared moral fabric, with datong embodying the realization of this order through widespread benevolence (ren).^[12] Central to this relation is the Confucian ethical emphasis on ren (benevolence or humaneness) and li (ritual propriety), which underpin the transition to datong as a society of spontaneous accord. Ren fosters universal empathy and moral extension from self to family, community, and ultimately tianxia, while li structures social interactions to align with cosmic patterns, ensuring hierarchy serves harmony rather than domination.^[13] ^[14] In datong, these virtues achieve full expression, obviating the need for coercive institutions like private property or familial exclusivity, as individuals internalize moral norms leading to voluntary cooperation; this contrasts with mere political consolidation by positing ethical transformation as the causal mechanism for unity.^[1] The ideal of sage-kings' rule exemplifies this ethical foundation, with figures like Yao and Shun serving as historical archetypes whose virtuous governance prefigured datong's conditions. Yao, reigning circa 2350–2250 BCE in traditional chronology, and Shun, his successor around 2250–2200 BCE, are depicted in Confucian lore as rulers who prioritized moral suasion over force, yielding eras of flood control, agricultural prosperity, and social equity through personal exemplarity.^[15] ^[16] Their abdication to merit rather than kinship—Shun selected for his filial piety and administrative acumen—illustrates a meritocratic hierarchy aligned with tianxia's moral imperatives, where sagehood cultivates collective virtue, fostering proto-datong stability without the artifices of later dynastic coercion.^[17] These anecdotes ground datong empirically in accounts of virtuous precedents, underscoring Confucianism's causal realism: moral leadership generates organic unity, as evidenced by the sages' attributed achievements in harmonizing diverse clans under ethical rites.^[18]

Historical Interpretations

Ancient and Imperial Era Views

In the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the concept of Great Unity (datong) from the Liji was occasionally invoked in cosmological and political discourse to legitimize imperial centralization, particularly under Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE). Dong Zhongshu (c. 179–104 BCE), a key Confucian advisor, reinterpreted feudal structures as administrative extensions of the central authority, aligning them with the "Great Unity" paradigm to emphasize cosmic harmony under a unified rule rather than decentralized enfeoffment.^[19] This framing subordinated the ideal to practical unification efforts, portraying it as a heavenly mandate for the emperor's expansive policies, including territorial conquests and economic monopolies like salt and iron.^[20] References to Great Unity remained sparse through the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), often serving as rhetorical flourishes in historiographical texts to idealize reunification after periods of division, such as the post-Sui chaos or the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763 CE). Emperors like Taizong (r. 626–649 CE) emphasized administrative consolidation and merit-based bureaucracy over utopian visions, treating datong as an aspirational echo of Han unification rather than a blueprint for social overhaul.^[21] The concept's abstract nature limited its role amid pragmatic governance focused on fiscal stability and border defense, with no evidence of systematic policy implementation tied to its egalitarian elements. During the Song (960–1279 CE) and Ming (1368–1644 CE) dynasties, Neo-Confucian scholars recast Great Unity as an extension of personal moral cultivation (xiushen) to societal harmony, prioritizing inner sagehood over literal institutional reform. Thinkers like Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) integrated it into a metaphysical framework where li (principle) governed human relations, viewing datong as achievable through ethical self-perfection rather than coercive state action.^[22] This inward focus reflected a subordination to Mencian realism, which acknowledged human goodness but insisted on institutional checks like kingship and ritual to curb self-interest, rendering the ideal secondary to maintaining dynastic order amid threats like Mongol invasions or eunuch influence.^[21] Practical applications were thus confined to moral exhortations in imperial edicts, not transformative programs, as evidenced by the enduring emphasis on civil service examinations rooted in Mencius's hierarchical ethics over datong's communalism.^[23]

Late Qing and Republican Developments

In the wake of the Opium Wars (1839–1842 and 1856–1860) and the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), which exposed the Qing dynasty's vulnerabilities to internal unrest and foreign incursions, Confucian scholars began reviving the Datong ideal as a vision of moral and social renewal to counter perceived dynastic decay and Western aggression.^[5] Wang Tao (1828–1897), a mid-19th-century reformer, advocated integrating Western learning (yong) with Confucian essence (ti) to achieve universal peace (taiping), positioning Datong as the ultimate outcome of such synthesis amid efforts like the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895), which emphasized practical reforms but often overlooked deeper ethical critiques of corruption.^[5] Similarly, Taiping leader Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864) fused Datong with egalitarian principles, including communal property and gender equality, framing it as a corrective to Qing elitism and imperial disunity, though his movement's violent utopianism highlighted tensions between harmony and coercive implementation.^[5] During the Republican period (1912–1949), interpretations shifted toward activist agendas linking Datong to national consolidation and institutional reform, critiquing factionalism as a deviation from Confucian unity while incorporating global influences like constitutionalism.^[5] Liang Qichao (1873–1929), a key intellectual, invoked Datong in advocating a constitutional monarchy to foster moral regeneration and curb warlord divisions, arguing in 1901 that such ideals aligned with socialist undertones for societal harmony against persistent foreign threats and internal strife.^[5] ^[24] He emphasized tensions between Datong's emphasis on collective welfare and the factional incentives that undermined unity, as seen in his support for parliamentary structures to balance imperial legacy with modern governance.^[5] Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), founder of the Republic, integrated Datong into his Three Principles of the People (nationalism, democracy, livelihood), portraying it in 1924 lectures as Confucius's aspirational world of unity to mobilize against imperialism and achieve egalitarian progress, though implementation faltered amid civil wars and ideological splits up to 1949.^[5] These developments marked a transition from passive imperial exegesis to pragmatic reformism, rooting Datong in critiques of corruption as barriers to harmony while adapting it to republican experiments, yet revealing persistent challenges in reconciling abstract ideals with political realities.^[5]

Modern Political Applications

Kang Youwei's Utopian Expansion

Kang Youwei (1858–1927), a leading intellectual and reformer during the late Qing dynasty, transformed the ancient Confucian ideal of Great Unity (datong) into an explicitly utopian vision in his Datong Shu (Book of the Great Unity), which he drafted primarily between 1901 and 1902 while in exile in Japan following the failure of the Hundred Days' Reform.^[3]^[25] This manuscript, circulated privately among disciples before its partial serialization in 1918 and full posthumous publication in 1935, marked a departure from interpretive restraint toward a progressive, globalist blueprint for human evolution.^[25] Kang posited datong as the culmination of historical stages, progressing from primordial chaos through family- and state-centered societies to a borderless world order achieved via moral cultivation, technological innovation, and institutional dissolution.^[3] Central to Kang's framework was the synthesis of Confucian ethics—emphasizing universal benevolence (ren) and harmony—with socialist principles, including the abolition of private property, hereditary families, and sovereign nations.^[26] He advocated communal child-rearing in public nurseries, eugenic measures to enhance human stock through selective breeding and medicine, and a global administration under elected "world presidents" sustained by automated production, eliminating scarcity and conflict. This vision drew direct inspiration from Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1888), whose Chinese translation in 1891–1892 shaped Kang's teleological model of societal advancement toward stateless equity, adapting Bellamy's industrial utopia to Confucian teleology while extending it to racial amalgamation and perpetual peace.^[27]^[28] Kang first integrated datong advocacy into practical politics during the Hundred Days' Reform (June 11–September 21, 1898), memorializing Emperor Guangxu to enact sweeping modernizations—such as abolishing classical exam systems, promoting Western science, and fostering national unity—as steps toward Confucian utopia.^[29] However, contemporaries, including reform skeptics within the Qing court, dismissed these proposals as detached from imperial power realities, with the coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi on September 21, 1898, exposing Kang's underestimation of entrenched bureaucratic and military incentives against rapid change.^[29] Later analyses have echoed this, critiquing Kang's utopianism for presupposing elite benevolence and technological determinism over empirical barriers like factional rivalries and resource constraints that historically thwarted similar idealistic reforms.^[30]

Usage in PRC Ideology Under Xi Jinping

Under Xi Jinping, the concept of Great Unity (Datong) has been selectively incorporated into People's Republic of China (PRC) ideology as a civilizational framework for domestic consolidation and international influence, drawing on Confucian roots to complement Marxist-Leninist principles while prioritizing national rejuvenation. This revival contrasts with the Mao Zedong era, where class struggle dominated ideological discourse, rendering harmonious ideals like Datong secondary to revolutionary antagonism, as Mao emphasized continuous class conflict even under socialism to prevent capitalist restoration.^[31] Deng Xiaoping shifted focus toward pragmatic national unity to underpin economic reforms, promoting ideological discipline and productive forces development to achieve modernization, though without explicit invocation of Datong as a utopian endpoint.^[32] Xi's usage gained prominence in the 19th National Congress report on October 18, 2017, where he advocated building a "community with a shared future for mankind," a phrase echoing Datong's vision of universal harmony under a benevolent order, positioned as China's contribution to global governance amid multipolarity.^[33]^[34] Official interpretations frame this as rooted in ancient ideals of "great unity under Heaven" (tianxia), fusing Confucian ethics with Xi Jinping Thought to project China as the vanguard of a post-hegemonic world order.^[35] Domestically, Datong informs "Chinese nation-building" efforts, with Xi stressing in September 2024 speeches that ethnic unity across 56 groups forms a "big family" sharing spiritual home and patriotic consciousness, as evidenced by national commendations for model ethnic harmony initiatives.^[36]^[37] In foreign policy, Great Unity underpins the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched in 2013, as a mechanism for mutual prosperity leading to shared destiny, with over 150 participating countries by 2023 linked through infrastructure investments exceeding $1 trillion, portrayed as realizing Datong's borderless harmony.^[38] Policies in regions like Xinjiang and Hong Kong are officially depicted as advancing this unity through integration—such as deradicalization programs in Xinjiang affecting over 1 million Uyghurs since 2017 to foster ethnic cohesion, and the 2020 National Security Law in Hong Kong to restore stability post-protests—yielding reported reductions in separatism and crime.^[39] However, international reports from organizations like Human Rights Watch document these as involving mass detention, surveillance, and suppression of dissent, raising questions about coercive underpinnings despite PRC claims of voluntary harmony-building. This tension highlights Datong's deployment as ideological justification for centralized control, with empirical outcomes measured in state metrics of stability rather than independent assessments of consent.

Realist Critiques and Empirical Challenges

Inherent Tensions with Human Incentives

The vision of Great Unity presupposes a society where private property is abolished and resources are held in common, with individuals motivated by universal virtue rather than personal gain.^[40] This arrangement conflicts with observable human incentives rooted in self-interest, as individuals tend to undercontribute to collective efforts when personal rewards are absent, leading to the free-rider problem where benefits are enjoyed without proportional input.^[40] Economic analysis further reveals that eliminating private property rights removes the incentives for investment, maintenance, and innovation, as owners bear the full costs and risks of their efforts while gains are diffused across the group.^[41] In such systems, the tragedy of the commons emerges, where shared resources face overuse and depletion because no single actor internalizes the full consequences of exploitation.^[42] Empirical patterns from communal setups demonstrate reduced productivity compared to market-based economies, where property aligns self-interest with societal output, fostering sustained production through personal stakes.^[43] Communal experiments provide evidence of these disincentives in practice, as free-riding erodes collective discipline over time, with participants exerting minimal effort while relying on others' contributions.^[40] For instance, Israeli kibbutzim, voluntary collectives emphasizing shared labor and property, experienced declining membership and economic viability, prompting widespread privatization by the 1980s and 1990s as younger generations rejected equalized outcomes lacking individual rewards.^[44] By 2006, only about 2% of Israel's population lived in fully collective kibbutzim, with most adopting differential wages and private holdings to restore motivation and efficiency, underscoring how enforced equality undermines the drive for excellence and risk-taking inherent in human behavior.^[45] These outcomes align with broader economic observations that collectivist structures without personal incentives yield stagnation, contrasting with prosperity in systems where self-interest, channeled through ownership, drives resource stewardship and growth.^[43] Philosophically, Great Unity's dependence on innate benevolence clashes with realist traditions skeptical of unchecked virtue, as power concentrated in moral rulers invites abuse absent institutional constraints.^[46] Legalist thinkers in ancient China critiqued Confucian reliance on moral suasion alone, arguing that human nature inclines toward self-preservation and opportunism, necessitating rigorous laws, administrative techniques, and coercive power to prevent decay into tyranny or disorder.^[46] Without such mechanisms to counter rulers' potential self-aggrandizement or subjects' shirking, the absence of divided authority creates a vulnerability where benevolent intentions erode under the causal pressures of ambition and frailty, as historical power dynamics illustrate that virtue unmoored from incentives devolves into arbitrary rule.^[46] This tension highlights a core mismatch: utopian collectivism presumes aligned incentives through harmony, yet causal realities of human agency demand safeguards against the very flaws it seeks to transcend.^[40]

Lessons from Historical Attempts at Implementation

Efforts to realize Datong-inspired visions of societal harmony in China have historically encountered severe practical obstacles, often devolving into coercion and disorder despite initial egalitarian aspirations. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), led by Hong Xiuquan, sought an egalitarian "Heavenly Kingdom" with communal land distribution and gender equality measures, drawing on millenarian ideals akin to unified harmony rhetoric, yet it resulted in an estimated 20–30 million deaths amid protracted civil war and internal purges.^[47] Similarly, echoes of Kang Youwei's Datong Shu (published posthumously in 1935 but circulated earlier) influenced early 20th-century Chinese anarchists, such as those in the 1910s–1920s Guangzhou communes, who experimented with stateless mutual aid societies aiming for classless unity; these initiatives fragmented amid factional violence and suppression by warlords and nationalists, yielding no sustainable model.^[48]^[49] In the People's Republic of China, the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) exemplified centralized mandates for collective unity overriding decentralized agricultural knowledge, as communes enforced uniform production quotas and resource pooling under Mao Zedong's vision of rapid egalitarian transformation, paralleling Datong's abolition of private property. This policy triggered widespread famine, with demographic analyses estimating 23–45 million excess deaths from starvation and related causes, corroborated by archival data on inflated grain reports and exaggerated yields.^[50]^[51] The campaign's failure stemmed from falsified local reporting to align with national unity directives, disrupting causal chains of food production and distribution. Under Xi Jinping since 2012, invocations of "common prosperity" and national rejuvenation have drawn on Datong-like themes of harmonious unity, achieving GDP growth averaging 6–7% annually through 2019 via state-directed infrastructure and tech sectors, yet fostering rising urban-rural inequality with Gini coefficients hovering at 0.46 in recent years.^[52]^[53] Suppression of dissent, including mass surveillance and internment of over 1 million Uyghurs in Xinjiang since 2017, has maintained short-term political stability but exacerbated social fractures, as evidenced by declining birth rates (1.09 per woman in 2022) and capital outflows amid zero-COVID enforcement rigidities.^[54] These outcomes highlight enforced unity's capacity for aggregate economic advances but vulnerability to brittleness when ignoring granular incentives and feedback mechanisms.^[55]

Comparative Perspectives

Contrasts with Western Liberal Ideals

The vision of Datong, articulated in the Liji as a stage of universal harmony under sage governance, subordinates individual agency to the collective welfare, envisioning the abolition of private property, nuclear families, and stratified classes to foster selfless cooperation.^[1] This holistic approach contrasts sharply with Lockean liberalism, which posits natural rights to life, liberty, and property as pre-political endowments that precede and constrain any collective arrangement, with government legitimacy resting on explicit consent to protect these entitlements rather than to engineer societal unity.^[56] In Datong, authority flows from moral benevolence without mechanisms for revocation or dissent, enabling paternalistic interventions that prioritize order over personal freedoms, whereas Locke's social contract theory embeds limits on power through individual veto and rebellion rights if rulers infringe core liberties.^[57] Datong shares superficial echoes with Marxist collectivism in rejecting bourgeois individualism for communal ends, yet diverges from the empirical realism of capitalist systems, where decentralized market incentives—such as profit motives and property enforcement—have demonstrably accelerated innovation and growth.^[58] Post-World War II recoveries illustrate this: Western economies like West Germany's, leveraging competitive markets and private enterprise, achieved average annual GDP growth of 8% from 1950 to 1960 via the "economic miracle" driven by currency reform and export incentives, outstripping the Soviet bloc's centralized planning, which averaged 5-6% growth but suffered from misallocation and shortages due to top-down directives overriding local knowledge.^[59] Such outcomes underscore how Datong-like mandates for enforced harmony falter against incentive structures that reward individual initiative, as moral exhortations alone prove insufficient to align dispersed economic actors without coercive enforcement. While Datong's emphasis on relational harmony offers potential insights for mitigating liberalism's atomistic excesses—such as through community-oriented policies—its outright dismissal of competitive individualism harbors risks of stagnation, evident in imperial China's cyclical dynastic patterns of innovation followed by technological inertia, unlike Europe's divergence during the Industrial Revolution, where secure property rights and fragmented polities spurred mechanization and sustained per capita income gains from 1500 onward.^[60]^[61] Pre-modern China, despite early leads in inventions like gunpowder and printing, stagnated under centralized bureaucracies that prioritized stability over disruptive entrepreneurship, contrasting with Europe's competitive states, where rivalry and legal protections for inventors fostered cumulative advancements by 1800.^[59] This historical divergence highlights the trade-off: Datong's order may curb conflict but at the cost of the dynamism that decentralized freedoms unlock, rendering hybrid adaptations challenging without diluting its anti-competitive core.

Influence on Global Visions of Harmony

Chinese diplomatic efforts under Xi Jinping have promoted concepts rooted in the traditional ideal of datong (Great Unity)—envisioning a harmonious world order—through the framework of a "community with a shared future for mankind," first articulated in foreign policy contexts around 2013 and emphasized in United Nations addresses starting in 2015.^[62]^[63] This rhetoric integrates Confucian notions of universal harmony with contemporary multilateralism, positioning China as a proponent of global cooperation beyond zero-sum competition.^[64] However, critics argue it masks Sinocentric ambitions, prioritizing Chinese leadership in a hierarchical order rather than equal partnership, as evidenced by the emphasis on "Chinese wisdom" guiding international relations.^[65]^[34] In academic discourse, datong's extension into tianxia (all-under-heaven) theory has sparked debates contrasting it with Westphalian sovereignty, which emphasizes discrete, equal nation-states. Proponents, including Chinese international relations scholars, portray tianxia as a universal, inclusive alternative fostering relational harmony over rigid borders, potentially applicable beyond East Asia.^[66] Opponents counter that its revival imposes cultural hierarchies, undermining sovereign autonomy by subordinating peripheral states to a central (implicitly Chinese) authority, as seen in hybrid applications where Beijing selectively invokes tianxia rhetoric while adhering to Westphalian norms for territorial claims.^[67]^[68] Empirically, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched in 2013, serves as a practical conduit for these harmony visions, with over 150 countries signing cooperation agreements by October 2023 to enhance connectivity and mutual development as steps toward shared prosperity.^[69] Yet, implementation has faced resistance, exemplified by Sri Lanka's 2017 99-year lease of Hambantota Port to a Chinese firm amid $1.1 billion in debt relief, which fueled sovereignty concerns and accusations of economic coercion despite ongoing operations under local oversight.^[70]^[71] Such episodes highlight limits to datong-inspired unity, as recipient nations grapple with debt sustainability—China holding about 10-20% of external debt in cases like Sri Lanka—and resultant pushback, including project renegotiations in Malaysia and Pakistan.^[72] This suggests that while soft power narratives gain traction in developing regions, structural incentives for self-preservation constrain broader adoption of hierarchical harmony models.

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Jan 30, 2017 · In the Datong Shu the Confucianist philosopher Kang Youwei (1858–1927) attempted to describe in an utopian fashion the end of history, as ...
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Mao Zedong and the Class Struggle in Socialist Society - jstor
In 1962 Mao Zedong advanced the slogan 'never forget class struggle', thereby initiating an extended period in which 'class struggle' did, in fact, ...
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Deng Xiaoping: Unity Depends On Ideals and Discipline
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Full text of Xi Jinping's report at 19th CPC National Congress - China
Nov 4, 2017 · China champions the development of a community with a shared future for mankind, and has encouraged the evolution of the global governance ...Missing: Datong | Show results with:Datong
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Deciphering Xi Jinping's Community of Shared Future for Mankind
Sep 9, 2024 · Xi Jinping's vision of the world as a community has its roots in Chinese traditional thought of 大同 (datong, the great harmony/the great union) ...
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Xi Jinping is trying to fuse the ideologies of Marx and Confucius
Nov 2, 2023 · Xi Jinping is trying to fuse the ideologies of Marx and Confucius. A new television show places them at the centre of Chinese culture.
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Xi urges continuously promoting ethnic unity across generations
Sep 25, 2024 · Xi stressed that the Chinese nation is a big family where 56 ethnic groups love and care for each other.
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Xi's article on community for Chinese nation to be published
Sep 30, 2025 · The article is an excerpt from Xi's speech at a grand meeting in September 2024, held to honor role models for ethnic unity and progress. The ...
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China's Massive Belt and Road Initiative
For Xi, the BRI serves as pushback against the much-touted U.S. “pivot to Asia,” as well as a way for China to develop new trade linkages, cultivate export ...
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Xi stresses forging strong sense of community for Chinese nation
Oct 29, 2023 · Xi urged a focus on building modern Chinese civilization ... ethnic groups, in a bid to continuously foster ethnic unity and progress.
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The Free Rider Problem - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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May 22, 2012 · As he explained, the tragedy of the commons "is averted by private property or something formally like it." Indeed, Hardin suggested this was ...Missing: abolition | Show results with:abolition
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Jan 16, 2008 · A trend that began more than 40 years ago accelerated in the 1980s as the kibbutzim lost many young members and failed to attract new ones. Many ...
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Sep 7, 2007 · By contrast, the kibbutz experience shows that experiments in full-blown socialism are likely to fail even under very favorable conditions. A ...
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Law In Imperial China – Confucianism And Legalism
May 7, 2016 · Jia Yi's criticism exemplifies Confucian scholars' dislike for Qin Legalist tyranny and their desire to renew the empire by stressing morality.Missing: vacuums | Show results with:vacuums
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The Taiping Rebellion - Exploring Chinese History :: Politics - Ibiblio
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Anarchism and Chinese Political Culture | The Anarchist Library
Perhaps Kang Youwei's Datong Shu was simply the preeminent Chinese contributions to a worldwide trend. By the turn of the century a new skepticism was ...
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A Tale of Two Utopias: Kang Youwei's Communism, Mao Zedong's ...
With his book, Kang somehow anticipated Mao's use of the traditional ideal of datong as a revolutionary concept. In my paper, I will discuss a debate on the ...Missing: influence anarchists
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China's great famine: 40 years later - PMC - NIH
More detailed later studies came up with 23 to 30 million excess deaths, and unpublished Chinese materials hint at totals closer to 40 million.– We will never ...
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China's Great Leap Forward - Association for Asian Studies
The ironically titled Great Leap Forward was supposed to be the spectacular culmination of Mao Zedong's program for transforming China into a Communist ...Missing: parallels Datong
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Xi Jinping's Mixed Economic Record | China Leadership Monitor
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Jun 26, 2024 · Our study confirmed clear changes in the content and structure of the policy agenda from the first Xi Jinping administration to the second one.
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Oct 12, 2023 · Xi Jinping economic thought is expanding the roles of the party and state to guide economic actors towards Beijing's strategic goals. Economic ...
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[PDF] The Reality of “Common Prosperity” Advocated by the Xi Jinping ...
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Locke's Political Philosophy
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The Concept of 'Datong' in Chinese Philosophy as an Expression of ...
Nov 11, 2011 · It has been translated as 'Great Unity', 'Great Community', 'Great Universality', 'Great Similarity', 'Grand Harmony', etc. In the 'Liyun' ...
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Before the Great Divergence: The modernity of China at the onset of ...
Jan 26, 2011 · This column argues that the industrial revolution occurred in Europe rather than China because European entrepreneurs were eager to adopt machines to cut down ...Missing: stagnation | Show results with:stagnation
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Why Didn't China Have an Industrial Revolution Before Europe Did?
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Market disintegration as a pre-cursor to the Great Divergence - CEPR
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Holding High the Banner of Building a Community with a Shared ...
Jan 27, 2025 · General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out that building a community with a shared future for mankind is a noble goal, one that requires the sustained ...
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Xi Jinping — a champion of the UN ethos | english.scio.gov.cn
Sep 21, 2020 · Upholding that ideal, Xi expounded his concept of and approach to building a community with a shared future for mankind, his flagship vision on ...
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Building a community with a shared future for mankind
Mar 4, 2021 · Promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind has now become the core and essence of Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy.
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[PDF] PART THREE ENVISIONING A SINOCENTRIC WORLD
The Sinocentric order of Xi Jinping's “community of shared destiny,” a “new type of international relations” guided by ancient “Chinese wisdom and strength ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
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Tianxia (All-Under-Heaven): An Alternative System or a Rose by ...
Feb 15, 2021 · It is argued that while the Westphalian system is exclusionary in nature, Tianxia is based on the principle of “inclusion of all”.
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Traditional empire–modern state hybridity: Chinese tianxia and ...
Jul 18, 2017 · The coexistence of tianxia thinking and Westphalian sovereignty concerns opens the door to the largely unexplored question of how Beijing ...
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US-China Relations: Adrift Between Conflict and Tianxia
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How Is the Belt and Road Initiative Advancing China's Interests?
Oct 2, 2023 · As of October 2023, the plan touches 151 countries with a combined ... Increasing the amount of trade, investment, and connectivity between China ...
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Questioning the Debt-Trap Diplomacy Rhetoric surrounding ...
Jun 5, 2021 · The case of the ninety-nine-year lease of Hambantota Port to China has become the example par excellence of Chinese debt-trap diplomacy.
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The Rise and Fall of the BRI | Council on Foreign Relations
Apr 6, 2023 · The real reason why the BRI has struggled to sustain itself is not due to debt traps or predatory lending, but something far more mundane: poor risk management.
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Debt or Diplomacy? Inside China's Controversial Loans to Sri Lanka ...
Oct 5, 2024 · Several cases are frequently cited when discussing China's so-called debt trap diplomacy: Sri Lanka, Laos, and Malaysia.